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Chapter 9: Nuclear Chemistry. Radioactivity Nuclear Equations Radiation Detection Half-Life Medical Applications Fission & Fusion. -. -. -. +. +. +. Isotopes of Hydrogen. Isotopes = Atoms of the same element but having different masses. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. H. H. H. Protium - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Chapter 9: Nuclear ChemistryChapter 9: Nuclear Chemistry
RadioactivityRadioactivityNuclear EquationsNuclear Equations
Radiation DetectionRadiation DetectionHalf-LifeHalf-Life
Medical ApplicationsMedical ApplicationsFission & FusionFission & Fusion
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Isotopes of HydrogenIsotopes of HydrogenIsotopes =Isotopes = Atoms of the same element but
having different masses.11
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31H H H
++--
++--
++--
Protium99.99%99.99%
Deuterium0.01%0.01%
TritiumTrace %Trace %
Average Atomic weightAverage Atomic weight of Hydrogen = 1.007941.00794 amuamu
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Isotopes of CarbonIsotopes of Carbon
Average Atomic weightAverage Atomic weight of C= 12.01112.011 amuamu
98.89%98.89%
CC661212 CC66
1313 CC661414
1.11%1.11% Trace %Trace %
++++
++++++ ++
--
--
----
----
--
++++
++++++ ++
--
---- --
--++
++++++
++ ++
--
--
--
----
--
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Radioactive IsotopesRadioactive Isotopes
CC661414
++++
++++++ ++
--
--
--
----
--++
31 H --
Nucleus is unstableSo falls apart (decays)
Giving radioactive particles
Hydrogen-3Carbon-14
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Radioactive Isotopes in MedicineRadioactive Isotopes in Medicine
TcTc434399m99m
123123 5353 II
131131 5353 II
60602727 CoCo
Diagnose thyroid functionDiagnose thyroid function
Treat hyperthyroid Treat hyperthyroid (destroys cells)(destroys cells)
Destroy tumors Destroy tumors (( radiation) radiation)
Diagnose bone, tissue Diagnose bone, tissue (most common)(most common)
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Alpha DecayAlpha Decay
PbPb8282206206 ++
++++++
++ ++
2102108484 Po
4422 HeHe ++ ++
ParticleParticle
2102108484 Po PbPb8282
206206 + 4422 HeHe
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Beta DecayBeta Decay
NN771414
141466 CC
00-1-1ee --
ParticleParticle++
++
++++++ ++ ++
++++++
++ ++++
+ -+ -
1100 nn 11
11 HH +00-1-1ee
neutron proton electron
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Beta DecayBeta Decay
NN771414
141466 CC
00-1-1ee --
ParticleParticle++
++
++++++ ++ ++
++++++
++ ++++
+ -+ -
+ 00-1-1ee1414
66 CC NN771414
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Gamma DecayGamma Decay
99m99m4343 TcTc decaydecay
++++
++++++ ++ ++
++++++
++ ++
99994343 TcTc
+99m99m4343 TcTc TcTc4343
9999
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Ionizing RadiationIonizing Radiation
O HH O HH
--Radiation knocks off an electron
An ion
C HH
H
HC HH
H
H
A radicalIons & radicals cause damaging chain reactions
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Geiger CounterGeiger Counter
--Radiation knocks off
an electron
An ion
Ions detected by Counter
ArArGas in
instrument tube
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Radiation: Penetration through AirRadiation: Penetration through Air
++ ++
--
4 cm4 cm
6-300 cm6-300 cm
400 m400 m
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++ ++
--
Tissue Penetration DepthTissue Penetration Depth
0.05 mm0.05 mm
0.06-5 mm0.06-5 mm
>50 cm>50 cm
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Radiation: ShieldingRadiation: Shielding
++ ++
--
Paper Paper ClothCloth
Heavy Heavy ClothCloth
Pb, thick Pb, thick concreteconcrete
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Nuclear EquationsNuclear Equations
2262268888 Ra RnRn8686
222222 + 4422 HeHe
Radon gas in BuildingsRadon gas in Buildings
PoPo8484218218 + 44
22 HeHe
Gas
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1311315353 I XeXe5454
131131 + 00-1-1ee
Thyroid check & treatmentThyroid check & treatment
Cancer TreatmentCancer TreatmentNuclear EquationsNuclear Equations
60602727 Co NiNi2828
6060 + 00-1-1ee
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Radiation DetectionRadiation Detection
1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010disintegrations sec
1 Bq = 1 disintegration sec
# of disintegrations by of 1g Ra
ActivityActivity
Becquerel (Bq)Becquerel (Bq)
Curie (Ci)Curie (Ci):
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Radiation DetectionRadiation Detection
Absorbed DoseAbsorbed Dose
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++ ++
--
Tissue Penetration DepthTissue Penetration Depth0.05 mm0.05 mm
0.06-5 mm0.06-5 mm
>50 cm>50 cm
Radiation Absorbed Dose (Rad) (D)Radiation Absorbed Dose (Rad) (D): 1 rad = 1 rad = 1 x 101 x 10-2-2 JJ
kg tissuekg tissue1 rad = 1 rad = 2.4 x 102.4 x 10-3 -3 calcal
kg tissuekg tissue
Radiation Detection: Biological EffectRadiation Detection: Biological Effect
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++ ++
--
Tissue Penetration DepthTissue Penetration Depth
0.05 mm0.05 mm
0.06-5 mm0.06-5 mm
>50 cm>50 cm
Radiation Absorbed Dose (Rad) (D)Radiation Absorbed Dose (Rad) (D): 1 Gray = 1 Gray = 1 J1 J
kg tissuekg tissue100 rad = 1 Gray100 rad = 1 Gray
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Radiation DetectionRadiation Detection
Biological Damage Biological Damage
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Radiation Equivalent for Man (rem)Radiation Equivalent for Man (rem)
1 Rem1 Rem = 1 Rad x RBERBE relative biological effectivenessrelative biological effectiveness
RBERBE2020
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11
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Annual Radiation Exposure in USAAnnual Radiation Exposure in USA
Ground = 15 mrem
Air, HAir, H22O, Food = 30 mremO, Food = 30 mremCosmic = 40 mremCosmic = 40 mrem
Wood,concrete,bricks = 50 mremWood,concrete,bricks = 50 mrem
X-rays: X-rays: Chest = 50 mremChest = 50 mremDental = 20Dental = 20
SmokingSmoking = 35 mrem
TV = 2 mrem
Radon = 200 mremRadon = 200 mrem
Total = 170 mrem / yrTotal = 170 mrem / yr
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Biological Effects of RadiationBiological Effects of RadiationDose in rem (at one time)Dose in rem (at one time)0-250-25 genetic damage possible but genetic damage possible but usually undetectedusually undetected
25-10025-100 decrease # of white blood decrease # of white blood cells (temporary)cells (temporary)
100-200100-200 mild radiation sickness mild radiation sickness (vomit, diarrhea, strong decrease # (vomit, diarrhea, strong decrease # white blood cells)white blood cells)
>300>300 (diarrhea, hair loss, infection) (diarrhea, hair loss, infection)
500500 LDLD50 50 for humansfor humans
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300 300 LDLD50 50 for dogsfor dogs
800 800 LDLD50 50 for ratsfor rats
50,000 LD50,000 LD50 50 for Bacteriumfor Bacterium
100,000 LD100,000 LD50 50 for Insectsfor Insects
Biological Effects of RadiationBiological Effects of RadiationDose in remDose in rem
500500 LDLD50 50 for humansfor humans
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4,500 4,500 LymphomaLymphoma
5,000 – 6,0005,000 – 6,000 Skin cancer Skin cancer6,000 6,000 Lung cancerLung cancer6,000 – 7000 6,000 – 7000 Brain TumorBrain Tumor
Therapeutic Doses of RadiationTherapeutic Doses of RadiationDose in remDose in rem
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FDA approved killing of bacteria with:
0.3 – 1 kGy ionizing radiation from
Co-60 or Cs-137(gamma producers) Strawberries left on counter for 2 weeks.
The irradiated berries on right show no spoilage.
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Half-LifeHalf-Lifett1/21/2 = Time for 1/2 sample to decay = Time for 1/2 sample to decay
1311315353 I
20 g
tt1/21/2 = =
8 days8 days10 g
8 days8 days
5 g
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rays image Shows blood flow
BB551111
111166 CC
00+1+1ee ++
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
PositronPositron++
++++
++ ++++00
++++
++++ ++
00
111155 BB
111166 CC +
00+1+1
eepositron
00-1-1 eeelectronelectron
raysraysDetectableDetectable
--
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PET ScansPET Scans
Normal Alzheimer's
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Known in Britain by the trade name ‘Pedoscope’. The machine produced an X-ray of the customer’s foot inside a shoe to ensure shoes fitted accurately, which both increased the wear-time of the shoe and with that, the reputation of the shoe shop.The customer placed their foot over an X-ray tube contained within the wooden base of the Pedoscope. From this, a beam of X-rays passed through the foot and cast an image onto a fluorescent screen above. The screen could be observed via three viewing points – one for the shoe-fitter, one for the customer, and one for a third party (usually the guardian of a child being fitted). The accommodation for three viewing points may seem a little extravagant, but it may be an indication of the popularity of the Pedoscope and the interest the public had in the machine.
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Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscope (ca. 1930-1940)Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscope (ca. 1930-1940)
Basic Description The shoe fitting fluoroscope was a common fixture in shoe stores during the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s. A typical unit, like the Adrian machine shown here, consisted of a vertical wooden cabinet with an opening near the bottom into which the feet were placed. When you looked through one of the three viewing ports on the top of the cabinet (e.g., one for the child being fitted, one for the child's parent, and the third for the shoe salesman or saleswoman), you would see a fluorescent image of the bones of the feet and the outline of the shoes.
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FissionFission
23592 U
10n 236
92 U
+
9136Kr
14256Ba
unstable
Splitting atoms for Energy
Uses:Uses:•Atomic BombAtomic Bomb•Nuclear PowerNuclear Power
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FissionFission
Need critical masscritical mass of U-235 to sustain chain reaction to produce enough Energy for an explosion
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U-235U-235
FissionFission
Nuclear Power plants: •Controlled fission •avoids critical mass
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Uranium is the fuel of the nuclear power plant in the US. However, we can not just dump uranium into the core like we shovel coal into a furnace. The uranium must be processed and formed into fuel pellets, which are about the size of a pencil eraser. The fuel pellets are then stacked inside hollow metal tubes to form fuel rods. Fuel rods are 11 to 25 feet in length. Each UO2 pellet has the energy equivalent to burning 136 gal of oil, 2.5 tons of wood, or 1 ton of coal.
Uranium oxide pellet used in nuclear fuel rods.
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Trojan Nuclear Power Plant – Rainier, Oregon
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May 21, 2006
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Trojan Nuclear Reactor– Rainier, Oregon
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Yucca Mountain in Nevada – site for nuclear depository?
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1. Canisters of waste, sealed in special casks, are shipped to the site by truck or train.
2. Shipping casks are removed, and the inner tube with the waste is placed in a steel, multilayered storage container.
3. An automated system sends storage containers underground to the tunnels.
4. Containers are stored along the tunnels, on their side.
Conceptual Design of Yucca Mountain Disposal Plan
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Pros Department of Energy (DOE) In a desert location Isolated away from population centers (Las Vegas, the
nearest metropolitan area, is 90 miles away) Secured 1,000 feet under the surface In a closed hydrologic basin Surrounded by federal land Protected by natural geologic barriers Protected by robust engineered barriers and a flexible
design
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Cons: Nevada's Agency for Nuclear Projects
Yucca's location in an active seismic (earthquake) region
the presence of numerous earthquake faults (at least 33 in and around the site) and volcanic cinder cones near the site
the presence of pathways (numerous interconnecting faults and fractures) that could move groundwater (and any escaping radioactive materials) rapidly through the site to the aquifer beneath and from there to the accessible environment.
evidence of hydrothermal activity within the proposed repository block
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Putting end to Yucca Mountain project Putting end to Yucca Mountain project ‘within reach,’ state commission says‘within reach,’ state commission says
Jan. 21, 2013
http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2013/jan/21/putting-end-yucca-mountain-project-within-reach-st/