Chapter 9Chapter 9

Managing Power, SocialManaging Power, SocialInfluence, and PoliticsInfluence, and Politics

The Nature of PowerThe Nature of Power LatentLatent. . Power is something that people have and may or may not Power is something that people have and may or may not

choose to use. It is a weapon or tool; it may never be used, and just choose to use. It is a weapon or tool; it may never be used, and just having it may makes its use unnecessary.having it may makes its use unnecessary.

RelativeRelative. . The power one person has over another depends largely The power one person has over another depends largely on things such as the expertise of one person relative to another and on things such as the expertise of one person relative to another and the hierarchical level of one relative to the other; a manager may the hierarchical level of one relative to the other; a manager may have considerable power relative to one person and little or none have considerable power relative to one person and little or none relative to another.relative to another.

PerceivedPerceived. . Power is based on one person’s belief that another has Power is based on one person’s belief that another has certain characteristics. If I believe you have power over me, you’ve certain characteristics. If I believe you have power over me, you’ve got it!got it!

DynamicDynamic. . Power relationships evolve over time as individuals gain Power relationships evolve over time as individuals gain or lose certain types of power relative to others.or lose certain types of power relative to others.

Uses of PowerUses of Power Power Power overover: This is power used to make : This is power used to make

another person act in a certain way; it may another person act in a certain way; it may be called be called dominancedominance..

Power Power toto: This is power that gives others : This is power that gives others the means to act more freely themselves; the means to act more freely themselves; it is sometimes called it is sometimes called empowermentempowerment..

Power Power fromfrom: This is power that protects us : This is power that protects us from the power of others; it may be called from the power of others; it may be called resistanceresistance..

Forms of Compliance to PowerForms of Compliance to Power Coercive powerCoercive power involves forcing involves forcing

someone to comply with our wishes.someone to comply with our wishes. With With utilitarian powerutilitarian power, compliance , compliance

results from desires for rewards.results from desires for rewards. Normative powerNormative power rests on the rests on the

employees’ belief that the employees’ belief that the organization has the right to govern organization has the right to govern their behavior.their behavior.

Bases of PowerBases of Power If we’re going to use power, we first have to get it.If we’re going to use power, we first have to get it. Traditionally, a distinction has been made between Traditionally, a distinction has been made between

how how peoplepeople get power (termed get power (termed interpersonal interpersonal power basespower bases) and how ) and how organizational subunitsorganizational subunits get power (termed get power (termed subunit power basessubunit power bases).).

We’ll retain this distinction for now. However, the We’ll retain this distinction for now. However, the distinction is murky: people may use the so-called distinction is murky: people may use the so-called subunit power bases, and groups or subunits may subunit power bases, and groups or subunits may use the so-called interpersonal power bases.use the so-called interpersonal power bases.

Interpersonal Power BasesInterpersonal Power Bases LegitimateLegitimate: Based on one person’s belief that it is : Based on one person’s belief that it is

legitimate, or right, for another to give orders or otherwise legitimate, or right, for another to give orders or otherwise exert force.exert force.

RewardReward: Based on one person’s perception that another : Based on one person’s perception that another can influence the rewards s/he receives. can influence the rewards s/he receives.

CoerciveCoercive: Based on one person’s perception that another : Based on one person’s perception that another can influence the punishments s/he receives.can influence the punishments s/he receives.

ReferentReferent: Based on a feeling of identity, or oneness, that : Based on a feeling of identity, or oneness, that one person has for another, or the desire for such identity.one person has for another, or the desire for such identity.

ExpertExpert: Based on one person’s perception that another : Based on one person’s perception that another has needed expertise in a given area. has needed expertise in a given area.

Interaction of Bases of PowerInteraction of Bases of Power

COERCIVEPOWER

EXPERTPOWER

REFERENTPOWER

REWARDPOWER

LEGIT.POWER

Guidelines for Ethically Attaining and Guidelines for Ethically Attaining and Using Interpersonal Power (From Using Interpersonal Power (From

Figure 9-1)Figure 9-1)Base ofPower

Sample Guidelines

Legitimate Make clear requests and check for comprehension.Follow proper channels.

Reward Provide an attractive incentive.Make it clear that you can deliver on promises.

Coercive Inform subordinates about rules and penalties forviolations.Administer discipline consistently and promptly.

Referent Treat each subordinate fairly.Show you would be personally pleased if thesubordinate carried out the request for you.

Expert Keep informed.Avoid threatening subordinates' self-esteem.

Resource Dependence ApproachResource Dependence Approach One source of subunit power is the ability One source of subunit power is the ability

to control the supply of important to control the supply of important resources required by other subunits.resources required by other subunits.

According to the According to the resource dependence resource dependence approachapproach, those subunits that obtain the , those subunits that obtain the most critical and hard-to-get resources most critical and hard-to-get resources acquire the most power because of the acquire the most power because of the dependencies that are developed.dependencies that are developed.

Strategic Contingencies ApproachStrategic Contingencies ApproachAccording to the According to the strategic contingencies strategic contingencies approachapproach, a unit’s power is based on three things:, a unit’s power is based on three things:

The ability to cope with uncertainty.The ability to cope with uncertainty. Centrality in the flow of information and work Centrality in the flow of information and work

between units. Units are more central if they have between units. Units are more central if they have an immediate effect on the organization or an an immediate effect on the organization or an impact on most other units.impact on most other units.

Nonsubstitutability. The harder it is for another unit Nonsubstitutability. The harder it is for another unit to perform the activities of this unit, the more to perform the activities of this unit, the more power this unit has. power this unit has.

The Strategic Contingencies ModelThe Strategic Contingencies Model(Figure 9-2)(Figure 9-2)

SubunitPower

Ability toReduce

Uncertainty

OrganizationalCentrality

Degree to WhichActivities are

Nonsubstitutable

Signs of PowerSigns of PowerSome signs of power include the abilities to:Some signs of power include the abilities to: intercede favorably on behalf of someone in troubleintercede favorably on behalf of someone in trouble get a good placement for a subordinateget a good placement for a subordinate get approval for expenditures beyond the budgetget approval for expenditures beyond the budget get above-average salary increases for subordinatesget above-average salary increases for subordinates get items on the agenda at policy meetingsget items on the agenda at policy meetings get fast access to top decision makersget fast access to top decision makers get regular, frequent access to top decision makersget regular, frequent access to top decision makers get early information about decisions and policy shiftsget early information about decisions and policy shifts

Global Perspectives:Global Perspectives:Signs of Power in JapanSigns of Power in Japan

Signs of power may vary from one nation to another.Signs of power may vary from one nation to another. For example, in Japanese organizations the For example, in Japanese organizations the

appearance of equality is an important cultural value.appearance of equality is an important cultural value. Because of this, salary, rank, and office space may Because of this, salary, rank, and office space may

have little to do with power.have little to do with power. Instead, power can be gauged by studying patterns of Instead, power can be gauged by studying patterns of

interaction.interaction. Power flows from expertise, and those with power can Power flows from expertise, and those with power can

be identified because others consult with them. be identified because others consult with them.

Social Influence ApproachesSocial Influence Approaches Social influenceSocial influence is the use of power in social relationships. is the use of power in social relationships. People use a remarkable variety of tactics when attempting People use a remarkable variety of tactics when attempting

to influence others.to influence others. Managers like to use participation, rational persuasion, and Managers like to use participation, rational persuasion, and

inspirational appeals to influence others.inspirational appeals to influence others. Tactics such as use of pressure and formation of coalitions Tactics such as use of pressure and formation of coalitions

are less popular.are less popular. Promising something in return for compliance is an influence Promising something in return for compliance is an influence

tactic of last resort; it’s costly and may create expectations tactic of last resort; it’s costly and may create expectations that there will that there will alwaysalways be rewards for compliance. be rewards for compliance.

Social Influence TacticsSocial Influence Tactics(Figure 9-3)(Figure 9-3)

Rank Tactic Description

1 Consultation Seeking participation in making or planningimplementation of a decision.

2 RationalPersuasion

Using logical arguments and facts to persuade another.

3 InspirationalAppeals

Making an emotional request or proposal that arousesenthusiasm by appealing to values and ideals orincreasing confidence.

4 IngratiatingTactics

Seeking to get someone in a good mood or to like youbefore asking for something.

5 CoalitionTactics

Seeking the aid of others to persuade someone, orusing he support of others as an argument foragreement.

6 PressureTactics

Using demands, threats, or intimidation to getcompliance.

7 UpwardAppeals

Seeking to persuade someone that the request isapproved by higher levels, or appealing to higher levelsfor help in getting compliance.

8 ExchangeTactics

Promising some rewards or benefits in exchange forcompliance.

Rational PersuasionRational Persuasion One way to get what you want is to make a compelling, One way to get what you want is to make a compelling,

persuasive argument.persuasive argument. Persuasive communicators are well liked and eloquent Persuasive communicators are well liked and eloquent

and have high credibility.and have high credibility. They gain credibility by their apparent expertise and by They gain credibility by their apparent expertise and by

giving the impression that their motives are honorable.giving the impression that their motives are honorable. Persuasive messages are clear and are moderately Persuasive messages are clear and are moderately

inconsistent with the message receiver’s attitudes; a inconsistent with the message receiver’s attitudes; a message that is entirely consistent with the receiver’s message that is entirely consistent with the receiver’s attitudes makes no difference, while a message that is attitudes makes no difference, while a message that is totally inconsistent is likely to be rejected out of hand.totally inconsistent is likely to be rejected out of hand.

Liking and IngratiationLiking and Ingratiation We’re more willing to do something for people we We’re more willing to do something for people we

like.like. Liking may be based on such things as:Liking may be based on such things as:

physical attractivenessphysical attractiveness compliments and flatterycompliments and flattery contact and cooperationcontact and cooperation association with other positive thingsassociation with other positive things social similaritysocial similarity

Because people like others who are similar to them, Because people like others who are similar to them, there may be resulting, unconscious bias against there may be resulting, unconscious bias against people who are different.people who are different.

Emotional AppealsEmotional Appeals Friendly emotions are a useful influence Friendly emotions are a useful influence

approach.approach. Negative or unpleasant emotions can also Negative or unpleasant emotions can also

be tools of social influence, especially be tools of social influence, especially when the person displaying the emotions when the person displaying the emotions has more power than the target of the has more power than the target of the influence.influence.

Emotional contrast can be helpful; the Emotional contrast can be helpful; the presence of a nasty person makes a warm presence of a nasty person makes a warm and friendly person seem even warmer and friendly person seem even warmer and friendlier, and makes compliance with and friendlier, and makes compliance with this person’s requests more likely.this person’s requests more likely.

Social ProofSocial Proof Another way to get people to take some action is Another way to get people to take some action is

by convincing them that others are taking the by convincing them that others are taking the same action; this is called same action; this is called social proofsocial proof..

The fact that others are doing something suggests The fact that others are doing something suggests that it is appropriate and socially acceptable.that it is appropriate and socially acceptable.

Bartenders who salt tip jars with a few dollar bills Bartenders who salt tip jars with a few dollar bills at the beginning of the evening and producers of at the beginning of the evening and producers of charity telethons who spend much of their time charity telethons who spend much of their time listing viewers who have already contributed are listing viewers who have already contributed are exploiting social proof.exploiting social proof.

Choosing from Among Social Influence Choosing from Among Social Influence ApproachesApproaches

People prefer some influence approaches, such as participation, People prefer some influence approaches, such as participation, to others, such as promising something in return for compliance.to others, such as promising something in return for compliance.

People also select influence approaches to fit the situation.People also select influence approaches to fit the situation. Individuals responding to authoritarian managers tend to use Individuals responding to authoritarian managers tend to use

approaches such as blocking and ingratiation, while those approaches such as blocking and ingratiation, while those responding to participative managers are more likely to rely on responding to participative managers are more likely to rely on rational persuasion.rational persuasion.

Employees also use different influence approaches with their Employees also use different influence approaches with their superiors depending on the goals they are seeking. When they superiors depending on the goals they are seeking. When they are trying to secure personal benefits they tend to use are trying to secure personal benefits they tend to use ingratiation, and when they are trying to secure organizational ingratiation, and when they are trying to secure organizational goals they use a broader array of influence tactics.goals they use a broader array of influence tactics.

Social Influence and Type of Social Influence and Type of InvolvementInvolvement

ComplianceCompliance occurs when people do occurs when people do something because they don’t want something because they don’t want to bear the costs of not doing it. to bear the costs of not doing it.

IdentificationIdentification results when influence results when influence flows from a person’s attractiveness.flows from a person’s attractiveness.

InternalizationInternalization takes place when we takes place when we do something because we believe it is do something because we believe it is “the right thing to do.”“the right thing to do.”

Empowering OthersEmpowering Others To foster a creative and productive environment To foster a creative and productive environment

where employees are motivated to achieve where employees are motivated to achieve exceptional performance, the organization’s culture exceptional performance, the organization’s culture needs to empower its employees.needs to empower its employees.

EmpowermentEmpowerment seeks to break the cycle of seeks to break the cycle of powerlessness in organizations by giving employees a powerlessness in organizations by giving employees a real sense of control.real sense of control.

Empowerment gives people in organizations the Empowerment gives people in organizations the ability to get things done, often at levels of the ability to get things done, often at levels of the hierarchy where the power can be most directly and hierarchy where the power can be most directly and effectively applied.effectively applied.

““I am the people -- the mob -- the I am the people -- the mob -- the crowd -- the mass.crowd -- the mass.

Do you know that all the great work of Do you know that all the great work of the world is done through me?”the world is done through me?”

Carl SandburgCarl Sandburg

PowerlessnessPowerlessness Learned helplessnessLearned helplessness is a condition is a condition

that results from the belief that one’s that results from the belief that one’s behaviors simply don’t make a behaviors simply don’t make a difference. Learned helplessness difference. Learned helplessness results in feelings of results in feelings of powerlessnesspowerlessness..

Causes of powerlessness in Causes of powerlessness in organizations include:organizations include: rules won’t changerules won’t change bosses are set in their waysbosses are set in their ways things have always been done a certain things have always been done a certain

wayway the assembly line is relentlessthe assembly line is relentless

Some Consequences of Some Consequences of PowerlessnessPowerlessness

Powerlessness

Depression

BurnoutSusceptibilityto Illness

AcademicFailure

LoweredSelf-Efficacy

Stages of the Empowerment Stages of the Empowerment ProcessProcess

(From Figure 9-4)(From Figure 9-4)

ConditionsLeading

toPowerless-

ness

STAGE 1

EmpoweringLeadershipPractices

STAGE 2

ProvidingSelf-

EfficacyInformation

STAGE 3

EmpoweringExperience

STAGE 4

BehavioralOutcomes

STAGE 5

Some Conditions Leading to Some Conditions Leading to PowerlessnessPowerlessness

Organizational factors such as Organizational factors such as bureaucratic climatebureaucratic climate

Autocratic supervisionAutocratic supervision Rewards that aren’t tied to Rewards that aren’t tied to

performanceperformance Routine, simplified jobsRoutine, simplified jobs

Some Empowering Managerial Some Empowering Managerial PracticesPractices

Let the people who work for you participate in Let the people who work for you participate in decision making. They will gain a sense of control decision making. They will gain a sense of control over their work lives and will be more enthusiastic over their work lives and will be more enthusiastic about implementing decisions.about implementing decisions.

Offer control over work processes, such as the Offer control over work processes, such as the ability to stop the assembly line.ability to stop the assembly line.

Tie rewards to performance. Employees naturally Tie rewards to performance. Employees naturally feel powerless when they see that their actions feel powerless when they see that their actions don’t directly influence things they care about.don’t directly influence things they care about.

Express confidence, encouragement, and support. Express confidence, encouragement, and support. Celebrate “small wins” and provide assurance that Celebrate “small wins” and provide assurance that obstacles can be overcome.obstacles can be overcome.

Sources of Self-Efficacy Sources of Self-Efficacy InformationInformation

Enactive attainmentEnactive attainment. People may gain self-efficacy . People may gain self-efficacy through actual mastery of a task.through actual mastery of a task.

Vicarious experienceVicarious experience. People may gain self-efficacy . People may gain self-efficacy by seeing that others who are similar can master a task.by seeing that others who are similar can master a task.

Verbal persuasionVerbal persuasion. Employees may simply be . Employees may simply be convinced through words of encouragement and convinced through words of encouragement and feedback that they can master tasks.feedback that they can master tasks.

Emotional arousalEmotional arousal. Techniques that create emotional . Techniques that create emotional support or foster a supportive environment may reduce support or foster a supportive environment may reduce the emotional arousal that lowers self-efficacy.the emotional arousal that lowers self-efficacy.

Focus on Management: An Focus on Management: An Empowering Culture at Saturn Corp.Empowering Culture at Saturn Corp.

Saturn employees at plants in Spring Hill, Tennessee and Wilmington, Delaware don’t punch time clocks.

Labor and management (all called team members) share the same cafeteria.

The union gave up rigid work rules, and GM (Saturn’s parent corporation) abandoned most of its rigid hierarchy.

Saturn employees were grouped into small teams and given responsibility for everything from covering absent members to major production decisions.

A special team, called Saturn Consulting Services, is available to provide consulting and training expertise to organizations wanting to learn from the Saturn experience.

Focus on Management:Focus on Management:Empowerment at Federal Empowerment at Federal

ExpressExpress The goal of Fred Smith, chairman and president of

Federal Express, was to create a “power environment.” He calls empowerment “the most important element in managing an organization.”

To create a power environment, Fed Ex has a philosophy that fosters respect for human dignity, ingenuity, and potential.

Fed Ex has a job-secure environment in which people aren’t afraid to take risks, jobs have been redesigned to increase employee power, and there are many opportunities for promotion from within.

The company also has many programs and processes designed to empower employees. These include an annual employee attitude survey followed by an action phase to deal with concerns, as well as a process for resolving grievances, an awards program, and others.

The Bottom Line: Empowering The Bottom Line: Empowering EmployeesEmployees

Assess theCurrent Job

Responsibilitiesof Employees

Meet withEmployees and

Educate Them Aboutthe Meaning and

Objectives ofEmpowerment

Involve Employeesin Identifying Waysto Enhance Their

Levels of Authorityand Responsibility

Formalize theBoundaries

of Employees’Authority

Provide GeneralGuidelines to

Help EmployeesUse TheirAuthority

Effectively

ProvideManagerial

Guidance andSupport to

HelpEmployees toBe Successful

Create anOrganizationalCulture That

SupportsEmployee

Empowermentas a Core Value

Organizational PoliticsOrganizational Politics Organizational politicsOrganizational politics refer to activities that refer to activities that

people perform to acquire, enhance, and use people perform to acquire, enhance, and use power and other resources to obtain their power and other resources to obtain their preferred outcomes in a situation where there is preferred outcomes in a situation where there is uncertainty or disagreement.uncertainty or disagreement.

Since the focus is on people’s preferred Since the focus is on people’s preferred outcomes rather than those of the organization, outcomes rather than those of the organization, organizational politics may or may not involve organizational politics may or may not involve activities that are contrary to the best interests activities that are contrary to the best interests of the organization.of the organization.

Politics and LabelingPolitics and Labeling Political Label “Effective Management”

Label

Blaming others Fixing responsibility

Passing the buck Delegating responsibility

Forming coalitions Facilitating teamwork

Apple polishing Demonstrating loyalty

Manager’s Feelings About Workplace Manager’s Feelings About Workplace PoliticsPolitics

(Figure 9-5)(Figure 9-5)StatementStatement The experience of workplace politics is common in The experience of workplace politics is common in

most organizations.most organizations. Successful executives must be good politicians.Successful executives must be good politicians. The higher you go in organizations, the more political The higher you go in organizations, the more political

the climate becomes.the climate becomes. Powerful executives don’t act politically.Powerful executives don’t act politically. You have to be political to get ahead in organizations.You have to be political to get ahead in organizations. Top management should try to get rid of politics in Top management should try to get rid of politics in

organizations.organizations. Politics helps organizations function effectively.Politics helps organizations function effectively. Organizations free of politics are happier than those Organizations free of politics are happier than those

where there is a lot of politics.where there is a lot of politics. Politics in organizations is detrimental to efficiency.Politics in organizations is detrimental to efficiency.

% Agreeing% Agreeing 93.293.2

89.089.0

76.276.2 15.715.7 69.869.8

48.648.6 42.142.1

59.159.1 55.155.1

Some Determinants of Some Determinants of Organizational Politics (Figure 9-Organizational Politics (Figure 9-

6)6)

OrganizationalPolitics• Machiavellianism

• Self-Monitoring• Need for Power• Individual Values

IndividualDeterminants

• Organizational Values• Ambiguity• Counternorms• Competition• Level in Organization

OrganizationalDeterminants

Individual Determinants: Individual Determinants: MachiavellianismMachiavellianism

Since Machiavellians believe that ends justify Since Machiavellians believe that ends justify means and they should always “look out for means and they should always “look out for number one,” it’s not surprising that they are number one,” it’s not surprising that they are highly political.highly political.

Al Neuharth, founder of Al Neuharth, founder of USA TodayUSA Today and author of and author of Confessions of an SOBConfessions of an SOB, has argued that that CEOs , has argued that that CEOs commonly employ Machiavellian behavior and commonly employ Machiavellian behavior and that “Being Machiavellian, as a general offense, is that “Being Machiavellian, as a general offense, is not all bad.”not all bad.”

Machiavellians see political behavior as pragmatic Machiavellians see political behavior as pragmatic and appropriate.and appropriate.

Machiavellianism has been related to the decision Machiavellianism has been related to the decision to offer kickbacks and lower scores on ethical to offer kickbacks and lower scores on ethical orientation.orientation.

Al Neuharth

Individual Determinants:Individual Determinants:Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring

Recall that high self-monitors are Recall that high self-monitors are chameleon-like, adjusting their chameleon-like, adjusting their behaviors in ways to induce behaviors in ways to induce positive reactions from others.positive reactions from others.

High self-monitors have been High self-monitors have been shown to be more apt than low shown to be more apt than low self-monitors to engage in self-monitors to engage in manipulation and filtering of manipulation and filtering of information that they transmit information that they transmit upward to create a favorable upward to create a favorable impression.impression.

Individual Determinants:Individual Determinants:Need for PowerNeed for Power

Need for powerNeed for power is the desire to control other persons, to is the desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, and to be responsible for them.influence their behavior, and to be responsible for them.

Personalized power seekersPersonalized power seekers try to dominate others for try to dominate others for the sake of dominating, and derive satisfaction from the sake of dominating, and derive satisfaction from conquering others.conquering others.

Socialized power seekersSocialized power seekers satisfy their power needs in satisfy their power needs in ways that help the organization. They may show concern ways that help the organization. They may show concern for group goals, find goals to motivate others, and work for group goals, find goals to motivate others, and work with a group to develop and achieve goals.with a group to develop and achieve goals.

We would expect more political behavior from personalized We would expect more political behavior from personalized power seekers than from socialized power seekers.power seekers than from socialized power seekers.

Organizational Determinants:Organizational Determinants:Organizational ValuesOrganizational Values

Bottom-line mentalityBottom-line mentality.. Sees financial success Sees financial success as the only value to be considered; rules of as the only value to be considered; rules of morality are simply obstacles on the way to the morality are simply obstacles on the way to the bottom line. bottom line.

Exploitative mentalityExploitative mentality. . A selfish perspective A selfish perspective that encourages using people to benefit one’s that encourages using people to benefit one’s own immediate interests.own immediate interests.

Madison Avenue mentalityMadison Avenue mentality. . Says, “It’s right if Says, “It’s right if I can convince you that it’s right.” Focuses on I can convince you that it’s right.” Focuses on making others believe our actions are moral.making others believe our actions are moral.

Organizational Determinants: Norms Organizational Determinants: Norms andand

Counternorms (Figure 9-7)Counternorms (Figure 9-7)NormsNorms Openness, honesty, candorOpenness, honesty, candor

Follow the rulesFollow the rules Be cost-effectiveBe cost-effective Take responsibilityTake responsibility ““All for one and one for all”All for one and one for all”

Maintain an appearance of Maintain an appearance of consensus; support the consensus; support the teamteam

Take timely actionTake timely action

CounternormsCounternorms Secrecy and lying; “play your cards Secrecy and lying; “play your cards

close to your chest”close to your chest” Break the rules to get the job done.Break the rules to get the job done. ““Spend it or burn it”Spend it or burn it” Avoid responsibility; “pass the Avoid responsibility; “pass the

buck”buck” Achieve your goals at the expense Achieve your goals at the expense

of othersof others Maintain high visibility; Maintain high visibility;

“grandstanding”“grandstanding” ““Never do today what you can put Never do today what you can put

off until tomorrow”off until tomorrow”

Pfeffer’s Political StrategiesPfeffer’s Political Strategies

EFFECTIVEPOLITICS

MAKE POWERUNOBTRUSIVE

BUILD A BASEOF SUPPORT

BUILDLEGITIMACY

Pfeffer’s Political TacticsPfeffer’s Political Tactics Selectively use objective criteriaSelectively use objective criteria Use outside expertsUse outside experts

they have expertisethey have expertise they appear to be objectivethey appear to be objective they are expensivethey are expensive

Control the agendaControl the agenda keep items off the agenda that you don’t want discussedkeep items off the agenda that you don’t want discussed place items on the agenda in ways to get desired place items on the agenda in ways to get desired

amount of discussionamount of discussion place a weak “dummy” proposal on the agenda before a place a weak “dummy” proposal on the agenda before a

key proposal you want to be approvedkey proposal you want to be approved

Pfeffer’s Political TacticsPfeffer’s Political Tactics(Continued)(Continued)

Form coalitionsForm coalitions external coalitionsexternal coalitions

these bring in new resourcesthese bring in new resources they may cause resentmentthey may cause resentment

internal coalitionsinternal coalitions these may seem less overtly political than these may seem less overtly political than

external coalitionsexternal coalitions one form of internal coalition is coalition through one form of internal coalition is coalition through

promotionspromotions Coopt dissentersCoopt dissenters Use committeesUse committees

Questioning the TacticsQuestioning the TacticsSample questions to challenge the tactics might Sample questions to challenge the tactics might

include:include: Why were these criteria specified in the posting of Why were these criteria specified in the posting of

job requirements?job requirements? Who selected the outside consultant who was Who selected the outside consultant who was

brought in to make recommendations regarding brought in to make recommendations regarding changes in the reward system?changes in the reward system?

Why wasn’t a discussion of the proposed job Why wasn’t a discussion of the proposed job redesign program on the agenda?redesign program on the agenda?

Is this committee to which I’ve been appointed for Is this committee to which I’ve been appointed for real or is the decision it’s making a “done deal”?real or is the decision it’s making a “done deal”?

Defensive BehaviorsDefensive Behaviors(From Figure 9-8)(From Figure 9-8)

Defensive Behaviors to Avoid ActionDefensive Behaviors to Avoid Action overconformingoverconforming passing the buckpassing the buck playing dumbplaying dumb depersonalizationdepersonalization stretching and smoothingstretching and smoothing stallingstalling

Defensive Behaviors (Continued)Defensive Behaviors (Continued)(From Figure 9-8)(From Figure 9-8)

Defensive Behaviors to Avoid BlameDefensive Behaviors to Avoid Blame buffingbuffing playing safeplaying safe justifyingjustifying scapegoatingscapegoating misrepresentingmisrepresenting escalation of commitmentescalation of commitment Defensive Behaviors to Avoid ChangeDefensive Behaviors to Avoid Change resisting changeresisting change protecting turfprotecting turf

Impression ManagementImpression Management Impression managementImpression management is behavior that people is behavior that people

direct toward others to create and maintain desired direct toward others to create and maintain desired perceptions of themselves.perceptions of themselves.

The most prominent type of impression management The most prominent type of impression management behavior is self-presentation, which involves the behavior is self-presentation, which involves the manipulation of information about oneself.manipulation of information about oneself.

Self-presentation can be verbal or nonverbal or Self-presentation can be verbal or nonverbal or involve display of artifacts.involve display of artifacts.

There are at least eight types of verbal self-There are at least eight types of verbal self-presentations. presentations.

Verbal Self-Presentational Verbal Self-Presentational Behaviors (Figure 9-9Behaviors (Figure 9-9))

Verbal Self-Presentation

Self-Descriptions

OrganizationDescriptions

OpinionConformity

AccountsApologies

Acclaiming

OtherEnhancement

RenderingFavors

Political GamesPolitical Games(From Figure 9-10)(From Figure 9-10)

Henry Mintzberg has suggested Henry Mintzberg has suggested that organizational politics is a that organizational politics is a “collection of goings on, a set “collection of goings on, a set of ‘games’ taking place … a of ‘games’ taking place … a kind of three ring circus.”kind of three ring circus.”

He identified four types of He identified four types of games:games: Authority GamesAuthority Games Power Base GamesPower Base Games Rivalry GamesRivalry Games Change GamesChange Games

Asking Whether a Political Act is Asking Whether a Political Act is Ethical (Figure 9-11)Ethical (Figure 9-11)

Utility: Does the Act Optimizethe Satisfaction of All

Constituencies?

Right: Does the Act Respectthe Rights of the Individuals

Involved?

YES

Political Act is Unethical

NO

YES

Justice: Is the ActConsistent with the Canons

of Justice?

NO

YES

Political Act is Ethical

NO

Potential Benefits of Political Potential Benefits of Political ActivityActivity

Political activity may:Political activity may: act in a Darwinian way to ensure that the act in a Darwinian way to ensure that the

strongest members of an organization are strongest members of an organization are brought into positions of leadership.brought into positions of leadership.

ensure that all sides of an issue are fully ensure that all sides of an issue are fully debated.debated.

stimulate necessary change that is blocked stimulate necessary change that is blocked by those currently in power.by those currently in power.

ease the path for the execution of decisions.ease the path for the execution of decisions.

Guidelines for Minimizing Political Guidelines for Minimizing Political ActivityActivity

Don’t close your eyes to politics.Don’t close your eyes to politics. Challenge political behaviors.Challenge political behaviors. Reduce ambiguity.Reduce ambiguity. Make things visible.Make things visible. Walk the talk.Walk the talk. Recognize that others may interpret your behaviors Recognize that others may interpret your behaviors

as political, even if you really weren’t being political.as political, even if you really weren’t being political. Reduce your own and others’ vulnerability to Reduce your own and others’ vulnerability to

political behaviors.political behaviors.

The Bottom Line: Managing The Bottom Line: Managing Organizational Politics EffectivelyOrganizational Politics Effectively

Learn theCulture and the“Rules of the

Game” forSuccess in theOrganization

Establish Cred-ibility and an

Overall PositiveImpression in

the Eyes ofOthers in theOrganization

Build a Base ofSupport byNetworking,

FormingAlliances, etc.,

with KeyPlayers

Create andImplementFormal and

Clear Policies,Procedures,

etc., to ReduceAmbiguity

Be Open andVisible withEmployees

When Dealingwith Key

Issues thatAffect Them

Act in WaysConsistent with

What isVerbally

Communicatedto Employees

(Walk the Talk)

Use DefensiveBehaviors as

ProtectionAgainst Dirty

PoliticalPlayers in theOrganization