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Chapter 9Electrons in Atoms and
the Periodic Table
2006, Prentice Hall
Helium gas
He has 2 protons andif neutral how manyelectrons?
2
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Waves Electromagnetic Radiation Dual Nature of Light Bohr Model of Atom Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom Electron Configuration Electron Configuration & Periodic Table Abbreviated Electron Configuration Periodic Properties
Blimps• blimps float because they are
filled with a gas that is less dense than the surrounding air
• early blimps used the gas hydrogen, however hydrogen’s flammability lead to the Hindenburg disaster
• blimps now use helium gas, which is not flammable
Why is hydrogen gas diatomic but helium gas not?Because hydrogen is reactive and helium is inert.
What makes hydrogen reactive?
Recall that when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (# of protons), certain setsof properties periodically recur
-All group I elements have similar reactivity -All noble gases are inert-Alkali metals- +1; metals-Alkaline earth metals- +2; metals-Halogens- -1; nonmetals-Noble gases- 0; nonmetals
We need a theory/model that would explain why these occur:
Classical View of the Universe• since the time of the ancient Greeks, the stuff of the
physical universe has been classified as either matter or energy
• we define matter as the stuff of the universe that has mass and volume – therefore energy is the stuff of the universe that does not have
mass and volume
• we know that matter is ultimately composed of particles, and the properties of particles determine the properties we observe
• energy therefore should not be composed of particles, in fact the thing that all energy has in common is that it travels in waves
Light: Electromagnetic Radiation
• light is a form of energy
• light is one type of energy called electromagnetic radiation with electric and magnetic field components and travels in waves
Electromagnetic Waves1. velocity = c = speed of light
– its constant! = 2.997925 x 108 m/s (m•sec-1) in vacuum– all types of light energy travel at the same speed
2. amplitude = A = measure of the intensity of the wave, “brightness”– height of the wave
3. wavelength = = distance between crests– generally measured in nanometers (1 nm = 10-9 m)– same distance for troughs or nodes– determines color
4. frequency = = how many peaks pass a point in a second1. generally measured in Hertz (Hz), 2. 1 Hz = 1 wave/sec = 1 sec-1
Electromagnetic Waves
Nodes
Amplitude
Wavelength (λ) is the distance between any 2 successive crests or troughs.
9
10.1
WAVES
Frequency (nu,) is the number of waves produced per unit time.
Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional.
Speed tells how fast waves travel through space.
As wavelength of a wave increases
its frequency decreases
inversely proportional
10
ELECTROMAGNETICRADIATION
Energy travels through space as electromagnetic radiation. This radiation takes many forms, such as sunlight, microwaves, radio waves, etc.
In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light (3.00 x 108 m/s), and differ from each other in their frequency and wavelength.
11
ELECTROMAGNETICRADIATION
The classification of electromagnetic waves according to their frequency is called electromagnetic spectrum.
These waves range from -rays (short λ, high f) to radio waves (long λ, low f).Short
wavelength High
frequency
Long wavelength
Low frequency
12
10.2
Visible light is a small part of the EM
spectrum
X-rays have longer λ but lower than
-rays
Infrared waves have longer λ but lower
than visible light
ELECTROMAGNETICRADIATION
Particles of Light• Albert Einstein and other scientists in the early
20th century showed that wave properties do not completely explain electromagnetic radiation (EM) and showed that EM was composed of particle-like properties called photons– photons are particles of light energy
• each wavelength of light has photons that have a different amount of energy– the longer the wavelength, the lower the energy of the
photons
14
DUAL NATUREOF LIGHT
Scientists also have much evidence that light beams act as a stream of tiny particles, called photons.
A photon of red light
A photon of blue light
Red light has longer wavelength and less energy than blue light
15
DUAL NATUREOF LIGHT
Scientists, therefore, use both the wave and particle models for explaining light. This is referred to as the wave-particle nature of light.
Scientists also discovered that when atoms are energized at high temperatures or by high voltage, they can radiate light. Neon lights are an example of this property of atoms.
Light’s Relationship to Matter
• Atoms can acquire extra energy, but they must eventually release it
• When atoms emit energy, it always is released in the form of light
• However, atoms don’t emit all colors, only very specific wavelengths– in fact, the spectrum of wavelengths
can be used to identify the element
He
Hg
When an atom absorbs energy it reemits it as light
White Light Source
Emits at every wavelength(all colors) also called a continuous spectrum
emission spectrum of Hydrogen
H produces its own unique and distinctive emission spectrum
Spectra
The Bohr Model of the Atom
• The Nuclear Model of the atom does not explain how the atom can gain or lose energy
• Neils Bohr developed a model of the atom to explain the how the structure of the atom changes when it undergoes energy transitions
• Bohr’s major idea was that the energy of the atom was quantized, and that the amount of energy in the atom was related to the electron’s position in the atom– quantized means that the atom could only
have very specific amounts of energy
1885 to1962Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1922
20
The Bohr Model of the AtomElectron Orbits
• the Bohr Model, electrons travel in orbits around the nucleus– more like shells than planet orbits
• the farther the electron is from the nucleus the more energy it has
e-
e-
e-
e-
e-
Rank the electrons fromhighest to lowest energy
The Bohr Model of the AtomOrbits and Energy
• each orbit has a specific amount of energy
• the energy of each orbit is characterized by an integer - the larger the integer, the more energy an electron in that orbit has and the farther it is from the nucleus– the integer (whole #s), n, is
called a quantum number
Bohr orbits are like steps in a ladder. It is possible to be on one
step or another, but it is impossible to be between steps.
22
BOHR MODELOF ATOM
Neils Bohr, a Danish physicist, studied the hydrogen atom extensively, and developed a model for the atom that was able to explain the line spectrum.
Bohr’s model of the atom consisted of electrons orbiting the nucleus at different distances from the nucleus, called energy levels.
In this model, the electrons could only occupy particular energy levels, and could “jump” to higher levels by absorbing energy.
23
BOHR MODELOF ATOM
The lowest energy level is called ground state, and the higher energy levels are called excited states.
When electrons absorb energy through heating or electricity, they move to higher energy levels and become excited.
energy
24
BOHR MODELOF ATOM
When excited electrons return to the ground state, energy is emitted as a photon of light is released.
The color (wavelength) of the light emitted is determined by the difference in energy between the two states (excited and ground).
Lower energy transition
give off red light
Higher energy transition give off blue light
The Bohr Model of the AtomGround and Excited States
• The lowest amount of energy hydrogen’s one electron can have corresponds to being in the n = 1 orbit –this is the ground state
• when the atom gains energy, the electron leaps to a higher energy orbit –this is the excited state
• the atom is less stable in an excited state, and so it will release the extra energy to return to the ground state– either all at once or in several steps
The Bohr Model of the AtomHydrogen Spectrum
• every hydrogen atom has identical orbits, so every hydrogen atom can undergo the same energy transitions
• however, since the distances between the orbits in an atom are not all the same, no two leaps in an atom will have the same energy– the closer the orbits are in energy, the lower the
energy of the photon emitted– lower energy photon = longer wavelength
• therefore we get an emission spectrum that has a lot of lines that are unique to hydrogen
The Bohr Model of the AtomHydrogen Spectrum
Which e- has longer wavelength and lower energy (red, violet or blue-green)?
The Bohr Model of the AtomSuccess and Failure
• the mathematics of the Bohr Model very accurately predicts the spectrum of hydrogen
• however its mathematics fails when applied to multi-electron atoms– it cannot account for electron-electron
interactions
• a better theory was needed
29
QUANTUM MECHANICALMODEL OF ATOM
In 1926 Erwin Shrödinger created a mathematical model that showed electrons as both particles and waves. This model was called the quantum mechanical model.
This model predicted electrons to be located in a probability region called orbitals.
An orbital is defined as a region around the nucleus where there is a high probability of finding an electron.
1887 to 1961Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1933
Orbits vs. OrbitalsPathways vs. Probability
Orbit – acts as a particle and follows a well-defined path
Orbital – acts as a wave and particlethus could end up anywhere in a
probability map
31
QUANTUM MECHANICALMODEL OF ATOM
Based on this model, there are discrete principal energy levels within the atom.
Principal energy levels are designated by n.
The electrons in an atom can exist in any principal energy level.
As n increases, the energy of the
electron increases
32
10.7, 10.8
QUANTUM MECHANICALMODEL OF ATOM
Each principal energy level is subdivided into sublevels.
The sublevels are designated by the letterss, p, d and f.
As n increases, the number of sublevels increases.
33
QUANTUM MECHANICALMODEL OF ATOM
Within the sublevels, the electrons are located in orbitals. The orbitals are also designated by the letters s, p, d and f.
The number of orbitals within the sublevels vary with their type.
s sublevel = 1 orbital
p sublevel = 3 orbitals
d sublevel = 5 orbitals
f sublevel = 7 orbitals
An orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
= 2 electrons
= 6 electrons
= 10 electrons
= 14 electrons
How does the 1s Subshell Differ from the 2s Subshell
Probability Maps & Orbital Shapes Orbitals
Probability Maps & Orbital Shapep Orbitals
Probability Maps & Orbital Shaped Orbitals
38
ELECTRONCONFIGURATION
The distribution of electrons into the various energy shells and subshells in an atom’s ground state is called its electron configuration
The electrons occupy the orbitals from the lowest energy level to the highest level (Aufbau Principal).
The energy of the orbitals on any level are in the following order: s < p < d < f.
Each orbital on a sublevel must be occupied by a single electron before a second electron enters (Hund’s Rule).
39
ELECTRONCONFIGURATION
Electron configurations can be written as:
2 p6
Principal energy level
Type of orbital
Number of electrons in
orbitals
40
ELECTRONCONFIGURATION
Another notation, called the orbital notation is shown below:
1 s
Principal energy level
Type of orbital
Electrons in orbital with
opposing spins
Filling an Orbital with Electrons
• each orbital may have a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spins– Pauli Exclusion Principle
• electrons spin on an axis– generating their own magnetic field
• when two electrons are in the same orbital, they must have opposite spins– so there magnetic fields will cancel
42
↑ 1s2
H ↑ 1s1
Hydrogen has 1 electron. It will occupy the orbital of lowest energy which is the 1s.
He
Helium has two electrons. Both helium electrons occupy the 1s orbital with opposite spins.
↓
1s
1s
ELECTRONCONFIGURATION
43
B 1s22s22p1↑↓ ↑1s
2p
Boron has the first p electron. The three 2p orbitals have the same energy. It does not matter which orbital fills first.
C
The second p electron of carbon enters a different p orbital than the first p due to Hund’s Rule.
1s22s22p2↑
2s
↑↓
1s
↑↓2s
↑↓
2p
↑↓
ELECTRONCONFIGURATION
44
2p
Ne
The last p electron for neon pairs up with the last lone electron and completely fills the 2nd energy level.
1s22s22p6↑1s
↑↓2s
↑↓ ↑↓
ELECTRONCONFIGURATION
↑↓ ↓
Na ↑ 1s22s22p6
Sodium has 11 electron. The first 10 will occupy the orbitals of energy levels 1 and 2.
3s
3s1
core electrons
valence electron
45
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
As electrons occupy the 3rd energy level and higher, some anomalies occur in the order of the energy of the orbitals.
Knowledge of these anomalies is important in order to determine the correct electron configuration for the atoms.
46
10.15
ELECTRON CONFIG. & PERIODIC TABLE
47
ELECTRON CONFIG. & PERIODIC TABLE
The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. The period number corresponds to the number of energy levels that are occupied in that atom.
The vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups or families. For the main-group elements, the group number corresponds to the number of electrons in the outermost filled energy level (valence electrons).
48
ELECTRON CONFIG. & PERIODIC TABLE
One energy level
3 energy levels
4 energy levels
49
ELECTRON CONFIG. & PERIODIC TABLE
1 valence electron
5 valence electrons
3 valence electrons
50
10.15
The valence electrons configuration for the elements in periods 1-3 are shown below.
Note that elements in the same group have similar electron configurations.
ELECTRON CONFIG. & PERIODIC TABLE
51
10.16
ELECTRON CONFIG. & PERIODIC TABLE
Arrangement of orbitals in the periodic table
52
10.16
ELECTRON CONFIG. & PERIODIC TABLE
d orbital numbers are 1 less than the period number
53
10.16
ELECTRON CONFIG. & PERIODIC TABLE
f orbital numbers are 2 less than the period number
54
ABBREVIATEDELECTRON CONFIG.
When writing electron configurations for larger atoms, an abbreviated configuration is used.
In writing this configuration, the non-valence (core) electrons are summarized by writing the symbol of the noble gas prior to the element in brackets followed by configuration of the valence electrons.
55
ABBREVIATEDELECTRON CONFIG.
K Z = 19
1s22s22p63s23p6 4s1
core electrons
valence electron[Ar] 4s1
Previous noble gas
56
ABBREVIATEDELECTRON CONFIG.
Br Z = 35
1s22s22p63s23p6 4s2
core electrons
valence electrons[Ar] 4s23d104p5
3d10 4p5
Electron Configuration of As from the Periodic Table
As = [Ar]4s23d104p3
As has 5 valence electrons
As
1234567
1A
2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
8A
4s2
Ar3d10
4p3
58
TRENDS INPERIODIC PROPERTIES
The electron configuration of atoms are an important factor in the physical and chemical properties of the elements.
Some of these properties include: atomic size, ionization energy and metallic character.
These properties are commonly known as periodic properties and increase or decrease across a period or group, and are repeated in each successive period or group.
59
ATOMIC SIZE
The size of the atom is determined by its atomic radius, which is the distance of the valence electron from the nucleus.
For each group of the representative elements, the atomic size increases going down the group, because the valence electrons from each energy level are further from the nucleus.
60
ATOMIC SIZE
61
4 p+
2e-
2e-
12 p+
2e-
8e-
2e-
Be (4p+ & 4e-)
Group IIA
Mg (12p+ & 12e-)
Ca (20p+ & 20e-)
20 p+
2e-
8e-
2e-
8e-
12
Mg
4
Be
Ca 20
62
ATOMIC SIZE
The atomic radius of the representative elements are affected by the number of protons in the nucleus (nuclear charge).
For elements going across a period, the atomic size decreases because the increased nuclear charge of each atom pulls the electrons closer to the nucleus, making it smaller.
63
ATOMIC SIZE
Li (3p+ & 3e-)
Period 2
Be (4p+ & 4e-) B (5p+ & 5e-)
6 p+
2e-
4e-
C (6p+ & 6e-)
8 p+
2e-
6e-
O (8p+ & 8e-)
10 p+
2e-
8e-
Ne (10p+ & 10e-)
2e-
1e-
3 p+
2e-
2e-
4 p+
2e-
3e-
5 p+
65
IONIZATIONENERGY
The ionization energy is the energy required to remove a valence electron from the atom in a gaseous state.
When an electron is removed from an atom, a cation (+ ion) with a 1+ charge is formed.
Na (g) + IE Na+ + e-
66
IONIZATIONENERGY
The ionization energy decreases going down a group, because less energy is required to remove an electron from the outer shell since it is further from the nucleus.
Larger atomLess IE
67
IONIZATIONENERGY
Going across a period, the ionization energy increases because the increased nuclear charge of the atom holds the valence electrons more tightly and therefore it is more difficult to remove.
68
IONIZATIONENERGY
In general, the ionization energy is low for metals and high for non-metals.
Review of ionization energies of elements in periods 2-4 indicate some anomalies to the general increasing trend.
69
IONIZATIONENERGY
These anomalies are caused by more stable electron configurations of the atoms in groups 2 (complete “s” sublevel) and group 5 (half-filled “p” sublevels) that cause an increase in their ionization energy compared to the next element.
Be 1s2 2s2
B 1s2 2s2 2p1
More stableHigher IE
N 1s2 2s2 2p3
O 1s2 2s2 2p4
More stable (1/2 filled)Higher IE
70
METALLICCHARACTER
Metallic character is the ability of an atom to lose electrons easily.
This character is more prevalent in the elements on the left side of the periodic table (metals), and decreases going across a period and increases for elements going down a group.
71
METALLICCHARACTER
Most metallic elements
Least metallic elements
72
Example 1:Select the element in each pair with the larger atomic radius:
K Bror
Larger due to less nuclear
charge
73
Example 2:
F Cor
Highest IE due to most
nuclear charge
Indicate the element in each set that has the higher ionization energy and explain your choice:
N
74
THE END