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“Reports often lead to the most important business decisions.”
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Researching + Writing ReportsResearching + Writing Reports
Overview
• Define report writing.• Determine the report problem.• Determine the factors.• Gather the information needed.• Interpret the findings.• Organize the report information.• Write the report.• Write collaboratively.
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What is a report?
An orderly and objective communication of factual information that serves a business purpose.
Determine the Report Problem
• Conduct a preliminary investigation– Gather facts to better understand the problem– Consult many sources
• State the problem and purpose in writing– To help you stay on track– To allow others to review, approve, and evaluate it– To force yourself to get the problem clearly in
mind
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Determine the Factors
Types of Factors• Subtopics in information reports• Hypotheses for problems requiring a solution• Bases of comparison in evaluation studies
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Gathering the Information Needed
Two Basic Forms of Research•Secondary– Secondary research is research using data
compiled and interpreted by someone else. It is usually library and online research.
•Primary – Primary research uses data compiled and
interpreted firsthand by the writer.
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Sources for Direct Access
• Encyclopedias• Biographical Directories• Almanacs• Trade Directories• Government Publications• Dictionaries• Statistical Sources• Business Information Services• International Sources
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Sources for Indirect Access
• The Online Catalog• Online Databases• The Internet– Search Engines—single, meta, and
specialized– Personalized Search Agents
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Evaluating Websites• No widely adopted standards are currently followed.• Search engine biases are not widely understood and
change with policy and algorithm updates.• One solution is to link only through trustworthy
collection sites.• A better solution is to hone evaluation skills by habitually
looking at each site’s– purpose,– provider’s qualifications,– content validity, and– structure.
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Primary Sources
1. Company Records2. Experimentation3. Observation4. Survey5. Qualitative Research
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Before-After DesignExperiments
Difference in measurements could be caused by the experimental factor
Select experimental group
Measure variable
Inject experimental factor
Measure variable
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Controlled Before-After DesignExperiments
Select experimental group
Measure variable
Inject experimental factor
Measure variable
Select control group
Measure variable
Measure variable
Attribute difference in measurement to experimental factor plus other influences.
Attribute difference in measurement to other influences only.
Observation
• Seeing with a purpose• Systematically recording what is seen• Designed to fit problem
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Types of Samples• Random• Stratified
Random• Systematic• Area or Cluster
• Convenience• Quota• Referral
• ProbabilitySamples based on chance selection. Every element in the population has a known nonzero probability of selection.
• Nonprobability Samples based on an unknown probability of any one of the population being chosen.
Constructing the Questionnaire
• Avoid leading questions.• Make the questions easy to understand.• Avoid questions that touch on personal prejudices
and pride.• Seek facts as much as possible.• Ask only for information that can be remembered.• Plan the physical layout with foresight.• Use scaling when appropriate.
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Selecting the Manner of Questioning
• Personal (face-to-face)• Phone • Mail (print and digital)
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Developing a Plan and Conducting a Pilot Test
• Develop a working plan that anticipates possible problems.
• Conduct a pilot test for your questionnaire and working plan.
• Modify the plan and questionnaire for use in the full-scale survey
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Qualitative Research
• Focus Groups• Personal Interviews
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Interpret the FindingsAdvice for Avoiding Human Error
• Report the facts as they are.• Draw conclusions only when appropriate.• Do not interpret lack of evidence as proof to the
contrary.• Be sure your data are comparable.• Be sure you draw only logical conclusions.• Be sure the data are reliable and representative.• Give attention to all important facts.• Tailor your claims to your data.
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Attitudes and Practices Conducive to Sound Interpreting
• Maintain a judicial attitude.• Consult with others.• Test the interpretations.– 1. Test of Experience
“Is this conclusion logical in light of all I know?”
– 2. Negative TestExamine the opposite interpretation--build
a case for it.
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Use of Statistical Tools in Interpretation
• Statistical tools enable writers to simplify data.• Most readers can understand descriptive
statistics.• Writers should explicitly explain more
sophisticated statistical techniques.
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A Logical Conclusion?
Q. The editor of a leading magazine for businesspeople reported that unsolicited email she had received from her readers justified a conclusion that the public favored stronger government controls over unions.
A. Does the editor receive mail from readers representative of the public? More than likely the group writing her consists of limited segments of the total population.
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A Logical Conclusion?
Q. A report writer found data showing that sales of soft drinks were correlated with vacation travel. She concluded that soft drink sales were heavily affected by vacations.
A. Probably both are related to seasonal factors. They have no cause-effect relationship.
Organize the Report Information
An outline
• Groups things that go together• Orders them logically• Relates ideas hierarchically• Provides for efficient and orderly drafting• Can be changed as your report develops
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I. First-level headingA. Second-level, first partB. Second-level, second part
1. Third-level, first part2. Third-level, second part
a. Fourth-level, first part(1) Fifth-level, first part
(a) Sixth-level, first partII. First-level heading
A. Second-level, first partB. Second-level, second part
Etc.
One Outline Option:Conventional Outline Form
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1.0 First-level heading 1.1 Second-level, first part1.2. Second-level, second part
1.2.1 Third-level, first part1.2.2 Third-level , second part
1.2.2.1 Fourth-level, first part2.0 First-level heading
2.1 Second-level , first part2.2 Second-level , second part
Etc.
Another Outline Option:The Decimal System
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Procedure for Constructing an Outline by Process of Division (1 of 3)
Step 1
Divide the whole into comparable parts. This gives the Roman number parts of the outline. Usually an introduction begins the outline. Some combination of summary, conclusion, recommendation ends it.
I.Introduction
II.
III.
IV.
V.
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Procedure for Constructing an Outline by Process of Division (2 of 3)
Step 2
Divide each Roman section. This gives the A, B, C headings.
.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
A
B
ABC
ABC
A
B
A
B
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Step 3Then divide each A, B, C heading. This gives the 1, 2,3 headings.
Continue dividing as long as it is practical to do so.
Procedure for Constructing an Outline by Process of Division (3 of 3)
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
A
B
ABC
ABC
A
B
A
B
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123
12
Division by Conventional Relationships
• Time• Place• Quantity• Factor
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From Outline to Table of Contents
• Formatting Decisions• Topic or Talking Headings• Parallelism of Construction• Conciseness in Wording• Variety of Expression
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Formatting Decisions
• Instructive• Readable• Appropriate
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Topic or Talking Headings
• Topic Headings – short constructions, frequently consisting of one or two words.
• Talking Headings – constructions that both identify the subject and indicate what is being said about it.
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Parallelism in Construction of Headings
• Noun Phrase– “High Rate of Sales in District III”
• Sentence– “District II Sales Rank Second”
• Truncated Sentence– “District I at Bottom”
Equal level headings should be in the same grammatical format—for example, all noun phrases, all sentences, or all truncated (headline-style) sentences.
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Point out any violations of grammatical parallelism in the following subheads of
major division of a report.
I. Sporting Goods Show Large IncreaseII. Modest Increase in Hardware Volume
III. Automotive Parts Remain UnchangedIV. Plumbing Supplies Decline Slightly.
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Point out any violations of grammatical parallelism in the following subheads of
major division of a report.
A. Predominance of Cotton Farming in Southern RegionB. Livestock Paces Farm Income in the Western RegionC. Wheat Crop Dominant in the Northern RegionD. Truck Farming Leads in Central and Eastern Regions
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Conciseness in Wording
Not this:Personal appearance enhancement is the most desirable benefit of Lasik surgery that patients report.
But this:Personal appearance most desirable benefit
Headings should be as short as possible while still conveying clear meaning.
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Variety of Expression
Replace monotonous repetitions of words in topic headings with a variety of words.Not this:– Illinois Computer Sales– New York Computer Sales–Washington Computer Sales
But this:– Illinois Ranks First in Industry Sales– New York Maintains Second Position–Washington Posts Third Slot
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Write the Report
• Put the report in context with your beginning and ending.
• Be objective.– Believability– Impersonal vs. personal writing
• Maintain a consistent time viewpoint.• Use transitions.• Maintain interest.
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Beginnings and Endings
• A good beginning . . .– states the subject of the report– reveals what kind of data it is based upon– indicates its likely significance to the reader
• A good ending . . .– may summarize; or summarize and interpret; or
summarize, interpret, and recommend—depending on the reader
– must make the informational “gist” clear– must make the contents’ significance clear
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Impersonal vs. Personal Styles (1 of 2)
ImpersonalWith the Jones project completed, work now is continuing on the next annual report, with a special focus on the new high-temperature technique.
PersonalDuring the first week of the period, I was completing the Jones project. I now am writing a description of the new high-temperature technique for the next annual report.
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Impersonal vs. Personal Styles (2 of 2)
ImpersonalThe current period has been devoted to training on the use of the new equipment.
PersonalI have spent the current period getting trained on using the new equipment.
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Maintain Logic and Consistency in Time Viewpoint (1 of 4)
Avoid Illogical Time ShiftsAlmost 37 percent of the merchants interviewed favored the Wilson plan. Only 14 percent of them prefer the Borden plan.
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Maintain Logic and Consistency in Time Viewpoint (2 of 4)
Consistent PastSince Dixie Cola was produced and distributed in the South, there was little difficulty in establishing its identity in that region.Strong markets were designated as those that required little or no logical adaptation of commercials. Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama fell in that category.
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Maintain Logic and Consistency in Time Viewpoint (3 of 4)
Consistent PresentSince Dixie Cola is produced and distributed in the south, there is little difficulty in establishing its identity in that region.Strong markets are designated as those that require little or no local adaptation of commercials. Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama fall in that category.
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Maintain Logic and Consistency in Time Viewpoint (4 of 4)
Logical Shifts Are AppropriateOf the merchants interviewed, 54 percent feel that such legislation is needed. Only 33 percent held this position a scant three years ago. Current indications are that the number favoring the bill will be much greater within another three years.
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Transitions are Bridges for Moving the Reader Through Your Report
Idea Idea Idea
Transition Transition
Etc.
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End of paragraph
Beginning of next paragraph
Beginning of next paragraph
Beginning of next paragraph
End of paragraph
Beginning of nextparagraph
Second is the error of representing both X and Y scales on the grid by unequal distances. Any deviation from . . .
A third error concerns the determination of proportions of the . . .
In spite of its economy, the Xerox copier presents a major disadvantage. It has the highest breakdown record of the machines tested. In fact, over the past seven months. . .
. . . which makes these visuals among the simplest to construct.
Even though the line graphs are simple, three errors commonly are made in constructing them. One is the common violation of zero origin. The Y scale (vertical axis) must . . .
. . . clearly is the most economical to operate.
Use of Transition Words to Relate Paragraphs
Transition Through Word Connection (1 of 2)
• Wormy oranges dumped from a passing ship floated ashore in Texas. Consequently, another battle had to be waged against the Mediterranean fruit fly.
• Transitional elements are essential to understanding. They are the mortar that hold bricks of thought together.
• Before buying plants, be sure you know which varieties are adapted to your area. Adapted varieties usually are sold by local nurseries.
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Transition Through Word Connection (2 of 2)
• A knowledge of your subject, a familiarity with words, and a compassion for your reader--all are essential to clear exposition.
• In early spring, prepare the soil. After the soil warms, drill the seed at a rate of ten pounds per acre.
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Maintain Interest
• Select words carefully.• Watch the rhythm of expression.• Stress content over techniques.• Be complete without using more words than
necessary.
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Writing Collaboratively
• Determine the group makeup• Plan for effective participation• Choose the means of collaboration
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1. Make a project plan.2. Determine the purpose.3. Identify the factors.4. Gather the information needed.5. Interpret the information.6. Organize the material.7. Plan the writing requirements.8. Assign parts to be written.9. Write parts assigned.10. Revise collaboratively.11. Edit the final draft.
Researching and Writing the Collaborative Report
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