CHAPTER 6

VISUAL TECHNIQUES

GROUP AND MASS MEDIA ..................................................................................2 USEFUL VISUAL LITERACY RESEARCH FINDINGS ......................................3

A land mark study in Nepal ...................................................................................3 PICTURES AND CARTOONS AS DISCUSSION STARTERS.............................7

Cartoons ...............................................................................................................10 MINDSCAPE TEMPLATES & LINKING VISUALS...........................................12 PICTURE CARD PACKS.......................................................................................15

Photolanguage Australia ......................................................................................17 Visual explorer card pack ....................................................................................17 Twynstra card pack ..............................................................................................17 Make your own card packs ..................................................................................18 Gender awareness training: "Whose hands are doing what?"..............................18

PARTICIPANTS PICK OWN METAPHORS .......................................................20 PARTICIPANTS’ DESIGN PICTURES ................................................................22

Calendars as story boards.....................................................................................23 RESOURCES TO SEE THINGS FROM DIFFERENT ANGLES.........................23

Mandalas ..............................................................................................................23 Russian matryoshka dolls ....................................................................................25 Talking sticks .......................................................................................................26 Japanese daruma dolls..........................................................................................26

HOW TO AVOID DEATH BY POWERPOINT....................................................27 METAPHORS .........................................................................................................27

Mango: Job roles and responsibilities..................................................................27 Explaining concepts like “equity” using story and visuals ..................................30

USE OF FLIP CHARTS IN MULTICULTURAL SETTINGS..............................31 WHERE THERE IS NO VIDEO.............................................................................31

1

GROUP AND MASS MEDIA (See page 185 “Facilitating multicultural groups”) Silvio Waisbord (2001) suggested that the term “group media” is based on Freire’s work whereby small groups can use community-based forms of communication such as songs, theater, radio, video, locally developed media to develop a critical attitude towards the reality of self, the group, community and society through participation in-group interaction. In this context they are more than mechanisms to disseminate information, they could be used to identify common problems and solutions, to reflect upon community issues, and mobilise resources to change the status quo. As with any tool group media are dependant on how they are used, the skills and sensitivity of the facilitator, the appropriateness for the participants and the context. Figure 1 Comparison between group and mass media (based on Waisbord 2001) Group media Mass media Songs, story telling, theatre, radio, video, pictures, newsletters,

Mass TV, radio, National Newspapers,

Small group sized & often aimed at being used with a facilitator with dialogue

Aimed at thousand/millions, vertical communication possibly with little or no discussion

Accessible by local communities, awareness raising, interactive dialogue to show local version of progress. Ideally developed by community members who are in charge of content decisions and production processes.

Developed and controlled by multinationals, governments, urban elites and “media professionals”. Top down, persuasion, stimulus-response approach by professionals and practitioner experts to “enlighten” the population to a western vision of progress

Aims to be locally & culturally sensitive Ethnocentric, often based on “western values”

Process focused: encourage participation, critical thinking, change and action oriented

Content focussed

Focus on local issues literacy, health, safety, agricultural productivity, land ownership, gender religion

Useful for short term and urgent issues eg epidemics and health crises for quick top-down solutions

Internal knowledge, develops a sense of local ownership

External knowledge, no ownership

Still requires that locals develop skills to critique mass media symbols and messages

Requires skills to interpret hidden messages

Can lead to a number of disconnected projects by various NGOS

May only be funded in the short term and unsustainable

Long term

2

USEFUL VISUAL LITERACY RESEARCH FINDINGS A land mark study in Nepal In 1976, There was an outstanding piece of research into visual literacy of teaching pictures for health education in Nepal entitled “Communicating with pictures in Nepal” conducted by the National Development Service and UNICEF (Fussell & Haaland 1976). Whilst the study is 30 years old there are still some very useful points made. Additionally, the visuals tested were black and white and the advent of cheaper colour printing means that identification of objects photographed locally may make understanding easier. One research question was “Is it possible to communicate ideas and information to villagers by using pictures only?” The answer was “probably not” Objects often could be recognised by villagers but ideas behind pictures were rarely communicated effectively. For example, the sequence of drawings in the figure below was intended to convey the idea that people who drink polluted water are likely to get diarrhoea. It was shown to 89 villagers and only one understood the message. Why? The results of the study concluded that villagers:

• who are not used to looking at pictures may find it difficult to see what objects are shown in the picture. People have to learn to “read pictures”

• do not expect to receive ideas from pictures. Many were surprised that a picture could teach anything

• tend to “read” pictures very literally ie even if they recognised objects or people represented in the picture they may not attempt to see any link between the object or any meaning behind the picture

• do not necessarily look at a series of pictures from left to right, or assume that there is any connection between the pictures in a series.

The series of pictures below was intended to show how to make rehydration mixture for the treatment of diarrhoea. The interviewers told the villagers the meaning of the writing in the second picture (ie salt, baking powder and sugar) but the meaning of the series of pictures was not comprehensible to any of the 89 villagers who saw it. Figure 2 The process for making rehydration fluid

3

Pictures which try to convey ideas or instructions often use symbols which are not understood by villagers eg symbols like arrows to indicate direction; a tick meaning “right” and/or “good” and a cross meaning “wrong” or “bad”.

x → ↑ ↓ ← The figure below was shown to 89 villagers and only one of them understood the message behind this picture. Some thought the top man was standing on the head of the man below. The sequence of arrows depicting a story was not understood Figure 3 The connection between drinking impure water and diarrhoea

4

In answer to the question, “Are pictures any use then?” the answer was “yes” because people are interested and attracted by pictures even though they may need help to interpret them. If a picture’s message is explained to villagers, they will probably remember the message when they see the picture again. The research also asked “What types of pictures work best?” The researchers tested pictures in six different styles illustrated in the figure below ie: Two style of photograph:

• photo with background • photo with background cut out called a “block-out”

Four styles of drawing:

• shaded drawing • line drawing • silhouette • stylised drawing (outline cartoon style).

5

Figure 4 Six styles of pictures

6

The best results were obtained using realistic pictures with a minimum of background detail ie:

• photos with backgrounds cut out ie “block-outs” (see no 2 above) • pictures to attract and maintain attention and reinforce learning • oral and picture messages combined • pictures to leave behind as a reminder of the messages taught

The pictures to avoid were:

• those showing a lot of different objects in the same picture (too confusing) • silhouettes (villagers linked to silhouettes to monsters, ghosts. NB The early

adverts for the pill in India showed a silhouette of a woman’s head in profile learning back and dropping a pill into her mouth. The picture was widely disseminated without prior testing and the campaign failed dismally).

Colours had to be chosen with care (to cultural meaning) and where possible the same as real life eg:

• bright colours for happiness • orange or yellow for gods • brown grey for negative.

Some development workers found it useful to:

• teach children in school what the pictures meant • get children to copy the pictures and take them home to reinforce

understanding of parents • leave copies of pictures in villages as a visual reminder

PICTURES AND CARTOONS AS DISCUSSION STARTERS (See pages 190-191 “Facilitating multicultural groups”) The Hungry Man In “The Hungry Man” story (Ginzburg 2004), a villager who is portrayed as not hungry at the start of a development project becomes hungrier as well-meaning development workers focus on their tried and tested “process” ie needs analysis, report writing, organising workshops etc whilst forgetting about the man’s everyday needs for food. It makes fun of the saying “If you give a man a fish, you feed him for a day, if you teach a man to fish you feed him for a lifetime”

7

Figure 5 Illustrations from the Hungry Man

8

There you go In another book entitled, “There you go” (Ginzburg 2005) challenges the arrogant assumption that Westerners can teach “sustainable development” to tribal peoples by introducing (imposing) impractical and short sighted “income generating” projects whilst ultimately leading to economic collapse of the environment or barefaced theft of mineral, timber and other resources by companies from outside. Figure 6 Illustrations from “There you go”

9

“All we could bring them was DEVELOPMENT!” is the caption in the story (see picture below and note how each Westerner clasps his briefcase to himself...as evidenced by the need for coordination and “harmonisation” of projects, programmes, resources, money, accounting and evaluation systems etc between donors in development work.

“All we could bring them was DEVELOPMENT!”

These booklets may be ordered from: Website: www.HungryManBooks.com or Email: contact@hungrymanbooks.com Cartoons (See page 190 “Facilitating multicultural groups”) Cartoons can be great fun. But be careful as some may offend and others may be misunderstood. In Quaker groups, symbols are not allowed. In Islamic cultures pictures of the Prophet Mohammed are not allowed, however Arab designs and calligraphy are so beautiful (http://islam.about.com/blclipart.htm). See also Chapter 4 “Processes to involve all the senses” in Hogan (2003). Do not assume that people understand the indirect messages and intended humour behind cartoons. Also conventions like speech and thought bubbles may need to be taught in a non patronising way. People may feel patronised if presented serious information in a cartoon strip or if they feel they are being drawn in a “funny way”.

10

Cartoons may not be good way of conveying educational messages (Dudley & Haaland 1993). The cartoon shown below has a speech bubble “Thank goodness, a panel of experts”. The picture is well known in the development field, though I do not know the origin of it. But make sure that it is shown to be “tongue in cheek” ie making fun of so-called experts who land in foreign places like aliens and assume that they alone can solve local problems. Figure 7 Cartoons may be ambiguous

The facilitated discussion framework may be useful to see if participants have understood the message. As facilitators we cannot be sure that the irony, sarcasm, pathos or humour is understood amongst people of the same background let alone cross-culturally. Also as recent world events have shown, cartoons may not be appreciated across cultures. In the picture below, participants in a workshop in Sabah were asked to draw “actual development” (on the left) and what they saw as “positive development” on the right. The drawing and explaining of the pictures stimulated vibrant discussions.

11

Figure 8 Comparison between actual development and what the locals want

MINDSCAPE TEMPLATES & LINKING VISUALS See page 195 “Facilitating multicultural groups”

Tolerance intercultural dialogue and respect for diversity are more essential than ever in a world where roles are becoming more and more

closely interconnected.

Kofi Annan, Secretary General of the United Nations 1997-2006

Often it is best to invite participants to make up their own metaphors for ways of “bridging differences”. However, you may wish to choose linking metaphors for example, hands, ladders, bridges, globes and trees.

Another approach is to start with a mindscape template which often relates to commonly know metaphors.

12

Rainbows Rain, colours, clouds, sun, pot of gold/goal, paths, floods, calm and peace after the flood or storm, local legends

Ladders Steps, stages, hierarchy, degrees of difficulty, power, participation, empowerment

13

Landscapes Journeys, goals, travel up to mountains or down towards the sea

Trees Roots, solid, branches leaves, growth stability. Roots may represent cultural roots, branches and leaves, your growth and individuality. An individual’s beliefs=leaves, source of beliefs in roots.

Bridges Linking of minds, ideas, cultures, conflict resolution, cultural values bridges, and process. Bridges may be temporary or permanent

14

Onions: Layers within layers, research. PICTURE CARD PACKS (See page 203 “Facilitating multicultural groups”) The use of picture packs is now a well known approach to promote dialogue to:

• explore different perceptions • collectively explore a complex topic from a variety of perspectives • build shared understandings.

They are particularly important in cultures which are more visual than written. Go to Innovative Resources website to see exciting examples: www.innovativeresources.org/

15

Figure 9 Examples of bear cards

Figure 10 Example of koala cards to illustrate feelings Stones…have feelings too!This card pack has three suggested feelings words on the back of each stone to help groups to identify feelings Figure 11 Examples of stones cards to illustrate feelings

The stones are particularly useful with groups of young (and older) males.

16

Photolanguage Australia See page 192 “Facilitated discussion framework for picture analysis” in “Facilitating multicultural groups” Photolanguage Australia: Human values, a manual for facilitators, (Cooney & Burtin 1986) contains 130 black and white photographs. The cost of US $52.00 is affordable. These can be ordered from Innovative Resources http://www.innovativeresources.org/display_details.aspx?productcode=8080

Visual explorer card pack The “Visual explorer: Picturing approaches to complex challenges” card pack was developed by the Center for Creative Leadership and contains 224, A4 colour images (photos, graphics, paintings from around the world) (Palus & Horth 2001).

The cost of US $395.00 is rather prohibitive. Additionally the total pack is very heavy. Go to www.ccl.org/publicationsClick on “diversity and culture”

Twynstra card pack This card pack includes pictures of peoples of different cultures. The cards are in full colour, but the disadvantage is the card size is only slightly large than normal playing cards which mean they can only be used in very small groups and you would need

17

multiple packs. It is fairly inclusive cross-culturally; however I found I would need to add my own cards too. Twynstra is a group of consultants in the Netherlands. Email: info@tg.nl Website: www.twynstragudde.nl Go to “Kennis en Kunde en” after that to “Boeken en” then to “Twynstra Gudde Boekenlijst at management book”. Make your own card packs In view of cost and cultural contexts I also make up my own colour packs using local post cards, old calendars, pictures from magazines and my own local photos. For fun I tired out my Lao Card Pack (A4 digital images) with a group of Australian students from mixed cultural backgrounds. The pictures still promoted dialogue even though none of them was from Lao PDR! Gender awareness training: "Whose hands are doing what?" The "Whose hands are doing what?" manual and pictures may be used to:

• raise awareness of different and overlapping roles of men and women • encourage discussion between people about male and female roles (which may

differ in different ethnic groups, villages, towns, cities. • raise awareness that women need to be involved in all aspects of life

There are 70, A4 colour pictures developed in Lao PDR by Dr Outhaki Khamphoui, a gender consultant in Lao PDR. At the beginning the facilitator does not explain the meaning of the colours framing the picture but holds up a card and asks participants “Who normally performs this role: women, men or both?” Participants can then hold up the cards at the front of the room Women’s roles on left; men and women’s roles in middle and men’s roles on the right. After all the cards are sorted the facilitator then points out the meaning of the coloured frames:

• Green: Productive roles ie all activities for making a living: earning cash or production for subsistence or profit

• Yellow: Reproductive roles ie all activities concerning the household, child rearing, caring for the elderly and sick and enabling the household members to do productive activities

• Red: Community roles ie all activities concerning community life including management, administration and meetings.

There is a fourth kind of role: Leisure activities in free time. The facilitator concludes “Can you conclude that women do a fair share of agricultural production work and that their role in agriculture is important?” “Yes” Therefore women need to be included in training events and village meetings about agricultural subjects etc. The idea is not to focus on the fact that women do much more work than men because that might polarise the discussion and create conflict. Sets of the 70 colourful laminated cards are available for US$ 120 from Dr Outhaki Khamphoui via email: outha_ck@yahoo.com

18

Figure 12 Examples of “Whose hands are doing what?” cards.

19

Other uses The idea of “Whose hands do what?” would be a very useful prototype for analysis of work in organisations, families, communities, universities etc. See Currie, Thiele & Harris (2002) POSTERS FOR GROUP DISCUSSION Doors Posters of doors can be very useful as stimuli in group discussions on “Where to from now?” sessions. The question “Which door would you chose to go through ...

• in your next job • on your return home to your own country • in the next phase of your life?

and why?” All posters.com sell colourful posters of multiple doors (New York, Ireland, Tibet, Rochester). You can make up your own based on collages of pictures of doors in the areas you work in. PARTICIPANTS PICK AND DRAW OWN METAPHORS Allow participants to use their own artistic styles, traditions and folklore symbols to represent their ideas (eg a female participant from Sabah of Indian background) used the picture of Ganesh, the Hindu elephant god as a symbol for attributes of a facilitator. See below)

20

Desirable characteristics of a facilitator drawn by a participant in a picture of Ganesh, the Hindu elephant god, considered to be the master of intellect & wisdom.

21

PARTICIPANTS DESIGN OWN TEACHING PICTURES (See page 200-201 “Facilitating multicultural groups”) In Lao PDR, participants drew pictures illustrating people from different ethnic groups holding their Land Titles to be used wtih villagers. In lowland areas where traditionally the youngest female inherits from her parents they noted that pictures of men and women holding a land title together could make women think they had to put their husband’s names on their land titles. After marriage a couple might buy land together and in which case both names would be suitable, so visuals needed captions and explanations.

“We must test visuals. Pictures of women and men may make women think we want them to put their husband’s names on their land titles. We need to have different pictures showing our ethnic groups too”.

22

Calendars as story boards (See page 201 “Facilitating multicultural groups”) In many developing countries, calendars are produced as a way of promoting the work of an organisation. They can also be produced with a dual purpose ie calendar and educational story board which can be used long after the calendar is out of date.

“We could produce a calendar of story pictures. Many villagers cannot read. They like pictures too. We can print the story and questions to ask them on the back. At the end of the year we can continue to use the pictures instead of throwing them away”. RESOURCES TO SEE THINGS FROM DIFFERENT ANGLES Mandalas See P 208 “Facilitating multicultural groups” A mandala is a symbolic, usually circular figure divided into parts. The circle is one of the most important symbols of humankind. It can be drawn to represent the whole divided into its parts with concentric circles or segments. In Buddhism and Hinduism it may be used to represent the universe and for meditation. Through use of the mandala, UNICEF hoped to promote greater understanding and awareness regarding the Convention on the Rights of the Child in Bhutan. See The future of the nation lies in the hands of our children (UNICEF 2000).

23

The centre the abode of the deity, in this case the child is surrounded by a series of circles and squares symbolizing the principles of the Convention and emphasizing their symmetry, interdependence and interrelatedness. As a ripple in a pond, each idea builds upon the next as it grows larger and flows outward. The cardinal points are the four main provisions and principles of the Convention: survival, development, protection and participation. Figure 12 Mandala representing the rights and needs of the child (Bhutan)

My name is today Many of the things we need can wait.

the Child cannot. Right now is the time her bones are being formed, her blood is being made and her

senses are being developed. To her we cannot answer Tomorrow.

Her name is Today

Gabriela Mistral (Nobel Laureate)

24

Russian matryoshka dolls

Wooden, painted matryoshka or nesting dolls were first made in the late nineteenth century in Russia. A matryoshka doll (also called a stacking, nested or Babushka doll) is a set of dolls of decreasing sizes placed one inside another. A set of matryoshkas consists of a wooden figure which can be pulled apart to reveal another figure of the same sort inside. The number of nested figures is usually five or more. Inside, it contains other figures that may be of both genders, usually ending in a baby that does not open. These may be used as a metaphor for the layers within layers of understanding and meaning that facilitators help groups to identify in understanding a concept. The tactile process of undoing the dolls can provoke thinking about complex problems.

25

Talking sticks The drawing of traditional talking stick on the right is by Standing Wolf, his grand daughter, Carol Locust explained on the website cited below. The talking stick has been used for centuries by many American Indian tribes as a means of just and impartial hearing. The talking stick was commonly used in council circles to designate who had the right to speak. When matters of great concern came before the council, the leading elder would hold the talking stick and begin the discussion. When he finished what he had to say he would hold out the talking stick, and whoever wished to speak after him would take it. In this manner the stick was passed from one individual to another until all who wished to speak had done so. The stick was then passed back to the leading elder for safe keeping. Some tribes used a talking feather instead of a talking stick. Other tribes might have a peace pipe, a wampum belt, a sacred shell, or some other object by which they designate the right to speak. Whatever the object, it carries respect for free speech and assures the speaker he has the freedom and power to say what is in his/her heart without fear of reprisal or humiliation (Locust 2006). http://www.acaciart.com/stories/archive6.html Japanese daruma dolls Daruma or “make a wish” dolls from Japan date back to the eighteenth century. Sometimes they are used when making New Year wishes. They are made of papier maché and are constructed without eyes. When a goal is set one pupil is painted and the doll placed in a significant spot to remind the person of the goal. (Traditionally this would be in a Buddhist or Shinto altar in the home or workplace). When the goal is achieved the other pupil is painted and in a small ceremony thanks are given for the achievement. The doll is kept as a reminder of goals achieved. See http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/daruma.shtml

26

HOW TO AVOID DEATH BY POWERPOINT (COMING SOON) PowerPoint is really a presentation tool, however there are ways of using it in a facilitative way to generate interaction. See Hogan, C. F. (in press) 'How to avoid death by PowerPoint', Training and Management Development Methods, vol. MCB University Press, UK. METAPHORS: MANGOES, INDIVIDUALS AND THEIR JOBS Mango: Job roles and responsibilities Most job descriptions determine, in part, what jobholders do. However, no job descriptions determine wholly what people do. This we all know, but we have not used that knowledge to understand the characteristics of particular jobs, nor to help jobholders to get the most out of jobs, or to improve their effectiveness. Rosemary Stewart (1982) developed a simple model to analyse this interplay between individuals and their jobs. This model is illustrated below: Figure 13 Demands, constraint and choices model

Choices

Demands Constraints

The size of the demands, constraints and choices will vary in different jobs.

Choices

Demands Constraints

Choices

Demands Constraints

MANAGER A MANAGER B

SameJob

27

I use the metaphor of a mango or any local fruit to explain this model to participants. The circles below are a bit like a mango:

1. the seed is like things you should do in your job ie demands

2. the flesh is like additional things you might want to do, and how you would go about it ie choices

3. the skin is like things that stop you from getting things done ie constraints.

28

Handout and activity 1. Alone or in pairs use large felts pens and draw or write words to describe what you do at present 2. Give main ideas to the whole group 3. Clarify your roles to each other

1. Things you should do ie Demands

2. Additional things you do or might want to do ie Choices

3. Things that stop you doing the things you should do ie Constraints

29

Explaining concepts like “equity” using story and visuals Story: The stork and the dog An easy way to illustrate the need for equity ie taking into account the different needs of women and men is “The story of the stork and the dog”. (A stork is a bird with a very long beak). Figure 14 The stork and the dog

Both the stork and the dog need to drink. A stork has a long beak and a dog has a small mouth. As a result, the stork cannot drink out of a shallow bowl and the dog cannot eat out of a long, narrow glass. They each need the same thing, ie a drink, but have to have different resources to achieve this. In this instance the picture of the stork and dog make the point more clearly than just the story alone.

30

USE OF FLIP CHARTS IN MULTICULTURAL SETTINGS

Participants’ ideas recorded in Lao language and English side by side. Alternating colours help participants to distinguish one idea from the next. The flip charts were folded repeatedly horizontally to give writing guides for the scribes. WHERE THERE IS NO VIDEO

Participants role played possible ways of reaching the community about the Lao Government Land Titling Project. There was no video equipment, so they improvised and creatively presented as if they are on TV.

31

REFERENCES Cooney, J. & Burtin, K. 1986, Photolanguage Australia: Human values, a manual for

facilitators, Catholic Education Office, Sydney, Australia. Currie, J., Thiele, B. & Harris, P. 2002, Gendered universities in globalised

economies: Power, careers and sacrifices Lexington Books, Lanham, USA. Fussell, D. & Haaland, A. 1976, Communicating with pictures in Nepal: Report of a

study by National Development Service and UNICEF, UNICEF, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Ginzburg, O. 2004, The hungry man, Hungry Man Books, Bangkok, Thailand.

www.hungrymanbooks.com. Ginzburg, O. 2005, There you go, Hungry Man Books, Bangkok, Thailand.

www.hungrymanbooks.com. Hogan, C. F. 2003, Practical facilitation: A toolkit of techniques, Kogan Page,

London, England. Hogan, C. F. in press, 'How to avoid death by PowerPoint', Training and Management

Development Methods, vol. MCB University Press, UK. Locust, C. 2006, The talking sticks, Native American Research and Training Center Tucson, Arizona. Retrieved 16 May 2006, from

http://www.acaciart.com/stories/archive6.html. Palus, C. J. & Horth, D. M. 2001, Visual explorer: Picturing approaches to complex

challenges, CCL Press, Singapore. Stewart, R. 1982, Choices for the manager: A guide to managerial work and

behaviour, McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead, England. UNICEF 2000, The future of the nation lies in the hands of our children: A resource

guidebook supporting the rights & needs of children in Bhutan based on the convention on the Rights of the Child, Thimphu, Bhutan, December.

Waisbord, S. 2001, Family tree of theories, methodologies & strategies in

development communication: Convergences & differences, Rockefeller Foundation, Retrieved: March 22, 2006, from http://www.comminit.com/strategicthinking/stsilviocomm/sld-1783.html.

Copyright © Hogan, C. F. 2007

Additional materials on author’s website (www.hogans.id.au) to accompany the

published book, Facilitating multicultural groups Kogan Page. London. Feel free to use and copy as long as you acknowledge your source.

Thank you

32