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Chapter 6“Reading Assessment”
Classroom Assessment for Classroom Assessment for Students in Special and General Students in Special and General EducationEducation, ,
by Cathleen G. Spinelliby Cathleen G. Spinelli
Presented by: Kathy Carr and Renee Irwin
Why Reading Assessments?
7 % - 9% of the school-age population have reading disabilities. 17.5 % of our nation’s students have reading problems during the crucial
first three years of schooling. 75% - 88% of students who were struggling readers in 3rd grade continue
to have reading difficulties throughout high school. Children who are poor readers early on are 3-4 times more likely to
become teen parents and 3 times more likely to become unemployed It takes four times as long to improve the skills of a struggling reader in
the 4th grade than one in mid-kindergarten and first grade.30 min per day in grades K-1 = 2 hours per day in 4th grade
40 % of our nation’s fourth graders can’t understand their grade level text.
20 million school-age children suffer from reading failure – 2.3 million are special education, the 17.7 remaining either receive some remedial help or are overlooked.
The Role of Teachers…Deliver appropriate instructional methods Reinforce Enrichment
Informal classroom-based assessments
monitor progress Remediate
EvaluateIdentify students’ specific
strengths & WeaknessesFormal assessments
DiagnoseScreening
A comprehensive reading evaluation includes the following emergent literary
concepts:
Oral languageAlphabetPrintPhoneme awarenessAbility to decodeRead words with irregular spelling patternsRead fluentlyComprehension of various texts
Formal Reading Assessments
Standardized and norm referenced Assessments Compares student performance among age- or grade-
level peers Objective, Multiple ChoiceDrawbacks:
Fails to provide information on the student’s actual function in class.
Does not correlate with the concepts and skills taught in the classroom curriculum
Little help in planning or evaluating progress in remedial reading programs.
Informal Reading Assessments
Nonstandardized and unnormed evaluation procedures
Helps teachers understand the reading PROCESS instead of the reading PRODUCT.Types:
Curriculum-based measurementPortfolio assessmentInformal reading inventories
Four Dimensions needed to be successful for learning to read:
1)Oral language2) Phonological awareness 3) Print awareness4) Knowledge of the alphabet
***Must be identified and addressed early!!
Emergent Literacy Assessment
Oral Language• Young readers need fundamental oral language
development- specifically receptive & expressive skills.• Messages -> Words -> Sequence of sounds -> ComprehensionHow to Assess:o Observation in authentic situations (both formal –
classroom & informal – playground).o Does the student answer questions in detail or with one
word answers? Can she retell a story in sequential order? Can he complete sentences in his own words? Does she ask for help when directions or concepts are misunderstood? Can he answer why, when, what, where questions?
Phonemic Awareness
Phonological awareness – (ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds in spoken words) - *precursor to phonics
• Understanding that the sounds of spoken language work together to make words– Example: How many sounds do you hear in monkey?
Assessment: (pg. 196, Fig. 6-1, 6-2, 6-3) Ex. –The DibelsTest – https://dibels.uoregon.edu/
• Can student add, move, or delete any designated phoneme and regenerate a word from the results?
• **Growing consensus that the most common source of reading difficulty is a core deficit related to phonological processing.
Print Awareness & Knowledge of the Alphabet
Print Awareness – Awareness that print contains a message (Figure 6-4, pg. 198)
• Concepts of letter, word, picture, and sound• Letters make up words - words make up sentences• Concepts include how print is arranged on a page• Text features (e.g., punctuation & bold face type), Book handling, etc. • Knowledge of the Alphabet – Understanding that words are composed of
individual letters. (Fig. 6-5 – 6-7)• Mapping of print to speech• Clear link between a letter and a sound• Identifying (verbally) upper and lowercase letters in isolation and/or in
context.
Phonics AssessmentPhonetic analysis – relationship between sounds (phonemes) and letters or spellings
that represent sounds in writing (graphemes)Phonics (word attack or decoding) – ability to pronounce words that are not within
sight vocabulary- sound-symbol associationsStructural Analysis- word attack approach where words are decoded by subdividing
them into meaningful parts (i.e. prefixes, root words, syllabication
Assessment - • (p.200 Figs. 6-7, 6-8) In order from single consonant – silent letters• Have students read phonetically correct nonsense words (critical sound-symbol
relationships) –can not depend on sight vocabulary
Vocabulary - Word Meaning
• Students’ knowledge of word meaning is critical for word recognition, word attack, and reading comprehension.
• Necessary to identify words that are not within the readers’ sight vocabulary.
• Good readers use context clues or word knowledge to assist them to decode unfamiliar words.
• Lack of word meaning = no comprehension • Affected by personal experiences, vocabulary of teachers,
parents, peers, and significant others, language sources
Vocabulary Assessment
Vocabulary Development – Assessment focuses on the ability to determine the knowledge of, and the ability to store and retrieve the meanings and pronunciations of, words
Word meaning – Figure 6-11• Flashcards• Word knowledge assessments • Have students read a passage and then define or explain specific
vocabulary words within the passage• Advanced students - use of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms,
homographs, multiple meanings, abstract and colloquial terms, neologisms , euphemisms, pejoratives, and etymology
Word RecognitionSight vocabulary - students’ ability to identify a sequence of
letters that forms a word as a single unit without hesitation. Assessment - • When assessing word recognition, provide authentic
assessment replications (especially for the exceptional) as well as oral and silent reading.
• Use commonly used print for assessments – newspapers, signs, cursive writings, etc.
• For the Fry word list and full scope and sequence of vocabulary words at previous grade levels –
• http://www.sju.edu/~cspinell/
Oral Reading
To assess word recognition – use an oral reading sample –
Words per passage – 50 (primary level) – 400 (secondary level) Choose a new passage that makes sense on its own Note how students read – such as reading with expression, attending to
punctuation, and using context clues.
How do we determine appropriate readability (instructional) level? Word recognition should be 90% accurate (or students will not have sufficient comprehension).
Types of Reading Assessments
• Reading Error Pattern Analysis – the study of the mistakes students make while reading orally (how students process reading material) Fig. 6-13 – Common oral reading errors.
• Miscue Analysis – focuses on both word analysis and comprehension with an emphasis on the types of errors (qualitative – meaning-related rather than quantitative -grammatically correct) pg. 211
• Running Records – monitoring students’ oral reading by closely monitoring and recording their errors while they read.– Used to evaluate text difficulty and match book levels for instruction
and independent reading, to group students, to keep track of individual progress. Tips – pg. 213
• Fluency
Fluency
Reading fluency – the development of speed after accuracy is assured.
• Should be assessed regularly in the classroom • Easy, efficient, valid, and reliable• Use to monitor an individual student, assessing the whole class,
and comparing individual to group• Assessment only requires the student to read orally• Reading rates & Norms (pg. 217, fig. 6-17 – 6-19) *Students who have low fluency tend to have poor comprehension and are likely to remain poor readers throughout their lives.
Reading Material and Strategies on Fluency
• Instructional materials matter • Remember reading levels:
– Independent Level – 95% accuracy– Instructional Level – 90-95% accuracy– Frustration Level – less than 90% accuracy
Collect Data - • Studies show that there is greater student achievement when
teachers are meaningfully involved in collecting and evaluating student data.
• Teachers spend an average of only 2.25 minutes per student collecting a one-minute reading sample (including preparing, administering, scoring, and graphing the progress).
Reading Material and Strategies on Fluency
• Instructional materials matter • Remember reading levels:
– Independent Level – 95% accuracy– Instructional Level – 90-95% accuracy– Frustration Level – less than 90% accuracy
Collect Data - • Studies show that there is greater student achievement when
teachers are meaningfully involved in collecting and evaluating student data.
• Teachers spend an average of only 2.25 minutes per student collecting a one-minute reading sample (including preparing, administering, scoring, and graphing the progress).
Do you know? What is the difference between word recognition and vocabulary?Word recognition – able to identify the word without hesitation, Vocabulary – knowing the meaning of the word
What is the frustration % level for oral reading? Instructional? Independent?
Frustration – less than 90%, Instructional – 90% - 95%, Independent – more than 95%
Name 2 types of oral reading assessments.Miscue analysis, Reading error pattern analysis, running records, fluency What 2 cognitive tasks are involved in reading that compete for each
other?Word recognition and comprehension
Reading Comprehension Assmt.
Page 221Text comprehension is:Understanding, remembering, and communicating
what has been read.Making connections at the literal, interpretive, and
application levelsUnderstanding literary elements, text patterns, text
organizations, and author’s purpose.The FIVE levels of reading comprehension are:
understanding facts, reorganizing, inferring, evaluating, and criticizing.
Components of Reading Comprehension
Page 221Text comprehension is: Understanding, remembering, and communicating what has
been read. Making connections at the literal, interpretive, and
application levels Understanding literary elements, text patterns, text
organizations, and author’s purpose. The FIVE levels of reading comprehension are: understanding
facts, reorganizing, inferring, evaluating, and criticizing.
Explicit Implicit, & Critical Comprehension
Page 223-224EXPLICIT comprehension: the ability to grasp reading
matter at a literal or factual level. [i.e.: main idea].IMPLICIT comprehension: ability to interpret or infer
information, draw conclusions, make generalizations, summarize, etc…
CRITICAL comprehension: most abstract of the 3. The ability to “read between the lines, “ to judge and evaluate printed text.
See pages 224-225, Figures 6-24 and 6-25 for checklists.
Cloze Procedure
Page 224 Assess word prediction abilities, to measure comprehension,
and determine how students use context clues to identify words.
Students read a passage and supply the missing word from previous knowledge {skill is analyzing text and structure}. We lived in ___ large, brown cardboard box ___ we ate as many ___ of food as we ___ find.
It focuses on comprehension versus fluency and is untimed. [see figure 6-26 on page 226].
Teachers can construct their own Cloze Procedures using any text (page 225) and administer any time (page 225).
Maze Procedure
Page 227• Assessment technique that is similar to the cloze procedure,
but this method offers students choices for the missing words rather than relying on previous knowledge. [only one choice is correct]
• Valid indicator of RC for a child who has word retrieval problems. ELL/ESL students benefit from this method.
• See Figure 6-27 on page 227.• Example, “We lived together in (a / of / it ) large, brown
cardboard box ( and / are / any) we ate as many (scraps / sent / scarf) of food as we (could / cold/ cough) find.
Think Aloud Procedure
Page 228o A method of attaining insight into the reader’s approach to
text processing. o Students read a text aloud and stop at the end of each
sentence and think aloud about what they’ve read, and what strategies they are using to understand the text.
o The teacher then asks questions about the passage that relate to content, structure, and difficulty level.
o Sample Think-Aloud Questions: o How does the student use existing information?o Can the student relate existing information with new information?o Can the student predict or anticipate upcoming events in a story?
Retell Procedure
Page 228-230 (see figures 6-29 & 6-30 on page 229) Students demonstrate their understanding of reading material by retelling
or paraphrasing the passage. Can be oral or written: both engage student in holistic comprehension and
organization of thoughts vs. just isolated pieces of information. The teacher can obtain qualitative, quantitative, and organization
measures for determining whether students understand the story structure and can accurately recall details from the story in a logical, proper sequence.
When necessary, teachers can guide by asking: “What comes next?” or “Then what happened?”
Students must be able to explain the passage in their own words. Not necessarily a good indicator for children whose first language is not
English or for students who have an expressive language disorder.
Metacognition
Page 230 The awareness of one’s own thinking processes The strategies used And the ability to regulate these to ensure successful learning
(what to do when you don’t know what to do). Reading is a metacognitive act that allows the reading to
monitor comprehension during reading (consciously or not). Students who have difficulty with reading and comprehension
often do not understand or do not use metacognitive strategies.
Metacognition Cont.
Page 230 Metacognition = thinking + reflective processes. An understanding of when, where, and how to apply, regulate, and
monitor strategy use. FIVE primary components of using metacognitive strategies: 1) preparing
and planning for learning; 2) selecting and using learning strategies; 3) monitoring strategy use; 4) orchestrating various strategies, and 5) evaluating strategy use and learning.
Skilled readers ask specific questions such as, “Why am I reading this?” “When I don’t understand something, what can I do to get back on track again?” “Can I summarize the major points made in this text?”
Teachers can asses students’ knowledge of strategic reading process by using the metacomprehension skills of self-assessment in Figures 6-31 and 6-32 on page 231.
General Reading Assessment Measures
Page 232 Portfolio Assessments: the collection and evaluation of
students’ authentic work. (natural settings) Reading Inventories: informal RI consist of graded reading
passage help to determine students’ independent, instruction, and frustration levels in word recognition and comprehension
CBMs: provide a means to frequently measure students’ curricular progress and are easily administered, scored, and graphed.
Performance Assessment: provides an opportunity to evaluate reading skill development using authentic tasks.
Portfolio Assessment
Page 232-234 (see pg 233 figure 6-33 and page 234 figure 6-34) Continuous process of gathering genuine evidence of efforts, progress,
and achievement. Provides links to important literacy experiences and assessment links. The goal is to be responsive to what students are doing. Very flexible technique; excellent for communication between special
education and regular education teachers when a child is mainstreamed. Clear purpose: content predetermined and clear.
Depends on: intended audience; what needs to be known about the students’ learning; will it display progress or corroborate other evidence; what evidence must be included; should best work be included or a progressive record of growth (or both); and should only finished pieces be included or items in progress.
Informal Reading InventoryPage 234-237 (IRI) Consists of graded classroom word lists and reading
passages with comprehension questions for each passage. Graded word = determine which passage to administer
(decoding) Graded passages = students understanding of words in
context, attention to meaning, and strategies for coping with unfamiliar words.
Student is to summarize the text or answer questions about it, not just read fluently.
Performance levels: independent, instructional, frustration, listening determined by # of words read accurately and the % of comprehension questions answered correctly.
Informal Reading Inv. Cont.
Page 235 See page 234 for How to construct an informal reading inventory.
However, there are IRIs available for use, like the DRA2. See page 236 for How to administer an informal reading inventory. See page 236 for Scoring criteria for determining independent,
instructional, and frustration levels. Commercially Prepared IRIs: Critical Reading Inventory, Analystical
Reading Inventory, Informal Reading Inventory, Basic Reading Inventory, Classroom Reading Inventory, Stieglitz Informal Reading Inventory, and Qualitative Reading Inventory.
Readibility levels may vary from subject to subject.
Readability Exercise
Page 237*Use Figure 6-35 on page 239 to find the readability
level of whatever text you were given.The *** is at a readability level of &&&The *** is at a readability level of &&&The *** is at a readability level of &&&The *** is at a readability level of &&&The *** is at a readability level of &&&
Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM)
Page 237-239• Specific set of standardized procedures that are used to
assess students’ achievement in their academic curriculum.• A Reading CBM establishes district or classroom performance
standards and generally monitors progress toward individual long-range (or short-term) goals.
• Teachers can create their own CBM for reading or use various commercial CBMs. The same format for the DRA2 is used. Computer software is also available.
• A sample CBM is in Figure 6-36 on page 241.
Performance-Based Assessment
Page 242-244 Measures specific skill components and evaluated
demonstrations of reading abilities. Students read a passage for a purpose; use one or more
cognitive skills as they construct meaning from the text; and write about or perform a task about what they read. (see figure 6-38 on page 242).
Can be used in program planning and evaluation (Let’s review figures 6-39 & 6-40 on page 243). X
Rubrics can also be used to rate reading performance assessment activities (Review figure 6-41 on page 244).