CHAPTER 6 Qualitative and Unobtrusive Measures. Qualitative Measures Qualitative research is any research that relies primarily or exclusively on qualitative

CHAPTER 6

Qualitative and Unobtrusive Measures

Qualitative Measures

Qualitative research is any research that relies primarily or exclusively on qualitative measures

Qualitative research (i.e., measures) used to: Generate new theories or hypotheses Achieve a deep understanding of an issue Develop detailed stories to describe a phenomenon

Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Qualitative data consists of “words” Quantitative data consists of “numbers” All qualitative data can be coded quantitatively All quantitative data is based on qualitative

judgment

Qualitative Data

Includes any information that can be captured that is not numerical in nature (Miles & Huberman, 1994)

In-depth interviews (individual and group) Direct observation (respondent is not queried) Written documents (existing documents)

Qualitative Traditions

Ethnography studying a phenomenon in the context of its culture

Phenomenology studying how a phenomenon is experienced by participants

Field Research researcher observes a phenomenon in its natural state (“in

situ”) Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)

to develop a theory (“grounded” in observation) about a phenomenon of interest

Qualitative Methods

Participant observation researcher becomes a participant (i.e., member) in the culture

being observed Direct observation

researcher not a member of the culture being studied but remains unobtrusive

Unstructured interviewing direct interaction between the researcher and respondent; no

structured interview or set direction Case studies

intensive study of a specific individual or specific context

Table 6-3 Criteria for Judging Research Quality from a More Qualitative Perspective

Traditional Criteria for Judging Quantitative

Research

Alternative Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research

Internal validity Credibility

External validity Transferability

Reliability Dependability

Objectivity Confirmability

Quality of Qualitative Research

Credibility establishing that the results are credible from the perspective of the

participant Transferability

degree to which results can be generalized to other contexts Dependability

description by the researcher of changes within the context that the research occurs and how these might affect conclusions

Confirmability degree to which others can confirm or corroborate the results

Unobtrusive Measures

Indirect Measures The researcher collects data without the

participant being aware of it Attention must be paid to ethical considerations

Possibility of deception Invasion of privacy No informed consent

Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)

Content Analysis Systematic analysis of text in order to identify

patterns Thematic analysis of text Indexing Quantitative descriptive analysis


Content Analysis (cont’d) May involve sampling from the population of

potential texts Identification of units of analysis Coding of units of analysis Limitations


Secondary Analysis of Data Re-analysis of quantitative data May involve combining information from multiple

data sets Can be used for replication or to subject data to

other, more sophisticated analyses Limitations

Not everything that can be counted counts, and not everything that counts can be countedAlbert Einstein

Qualitative Research – some issues

What do you know about Qualitative Research? What have you heard or read about qualitative

research? Easy to do Not scientific Subjective

What do you know about Qualitative Research? What have you heard or read about qualitative

research? Inductive: Finding a theory to explain one’s findings Interactive research compared to quantitative:

spending time with respondents versus “drive byes.” Data collection methods can be somewhat involved

Credibility of Qualitative Inquiry

Dependent on three distinct but related inquiry elements: Rigorous methods

fieldwork = yields high quality data – which are systematically analyzed with attention to issues of credibility

Credibility of the researcher Dependent on training, experience, track record

Philosophical belief in the value of qualitative inquiry naturalistic inquiry, qualitative methods , inductive

analysis, purposeful sampling, holistic thinking

Comparing Quantitative & Qualitative Methodologies Which research methodology is represented by

these characteristics (Qual. or quant.)? Purpose of the study Pose problem/ raise Questions Define research population Develop time frame Collect & analyze data Present outcomes

Data Collection

Once you have identified that a qualitative methodology best fits your research question, there are numerous data collection strategies to select from….

Some considerations: Full & unqualified consent Site selection: Can be difficult. Knowing someone can help

get you in Should have more than one way of collecting data –

triangulation Establishing trust

Data Collection

Some considerations: Access:

Unqualified access = total access to the research site Qualified access = might need to select another research

site/participants Informants: insider who knows environment/politics Gate keepers (e.g. principal; dept chair, Ad) Negotiating: Notes/data belong to you/respondent = confidentiality What will you deliver??? Drafts of research writing, final paper, Entering with a problem statement does not mean that it will

remain the same throughout the data collection Emergent possibilities

Fieldwork

Possibilities & Pitfalls Anxiety producing Safe places Being unobtrusive

Researcher wants to be sure not to call attention to self…blending in is important…those observed should not even know your are there after a while

Did you come in with preconceived opinions?

Fieldwork

Possibilities & Pitfalls Establishing & Maintaining rapport

Rapport: Appearance, speech, behavior, must be acceptable to research participants

Know the others’ language Nonjudgmental Inoffensive Patient Sense of humor CONFIDENTIALITY

Subjectivity

Fieldwork

Observations How long are you going to be in the field? Field notes? Videotape?

Can be highly problematic in schools

Data Collection Types/Aspects

Participant-Observation (wide range of possibilities) Helps researcher develop “trusted person” status Allows researcher to observe how observed person’s

actions correspond to observed person’ words Allows researcher to see the unexpected Assists in the development of interview questions –

connecting to known behaviors you have observed


Continuum of Participant-Observation: Mostly observation to mostly participation Where on the continuum you place yourself is directly

related to the questions you are asking, context of study, and your theoretical framework

Main Goal of Participant-Observation: To understand the research setting, participants and their behaviors


Participant-Observation Process: Systematic observation & detailed recordings of

environment Constant analysis of observations – “What’s

happening here?” Evidence of personal bias: Am I being judgmental?


Observation General methods…

Studying the setting Describing it in detail “Making the familiar strange.” What do you notice about the participants in their natural

settings? interactions? Comparing their words/beliefs to their

actions Non verbal feedback? Gestures?

Field notes

Notebook form Needs to be detailed & thorough Time consuming when done correctly Descriptive and analytic

Field notes

Field notebook – primary recording tool (confidential) Describes environment, people, events, activities,

interactions, researcher ideas, reflections, questions, exploring researcher bias

After observation, researcher returns to notes to complete detailed summaries and expand upon observations

Descriptive and analytic: Accuracy without being judgmental Such detail that you can visualize the moment a year later

Field Notes

Poor example of Field Notes: “The class was disorderly and noisy”

Good example of Field Notes: “The 5th grade class contained 15 girls and 12 boys.

When I entered they were in groups of 6. One group of 4 girls were trying to see who could blow the biggest bubble with their gum. A group of 5 boys began imitating a martial arts movie they had seen on TV…”

Field Notes

Analytic Notes: Observer comments

Observer Comments to researcher – informal statements the respondent makes

Daily reflection Thoughts, concerns the researcher has with the setting,

study, emerging themes, etc. Researcher acknowledges feelings, problems, ideas,

etc.

Interviewing

Questions: Should be reflective of observations

What did you learn as a participant-observer? Developing questions - Where should your questions

come from? Format? RAPPORT Structured? Open Ended? Probing? Non- Verbal Messages from respondent

Interviewing

Requires skill and practice Types of questions asked (Patton, 2002)

Experience and behavior interview questions: What respondents do or have done

Opinion and value questions: How respondents think about their behaviors and experiences

Feeling questions: Questions that elicit how respondents react emotionally to or feel about their experiences and opinions

Continued…

Interviewing

Types of questions asked (Patton, 2002) Knowledge questions: What respondents know about their

worlds Sensory questions: elicit descriptions of what and how they

see, hear, touch, taste, smell the world around them Background and demographic questions: Quest. That elicit

respondents’ descriptions of themselves

Interviewing

Other aspects of interviews Key informants: possess special knowledge

May add information that researcher would otherwise not have access too.

Can sensitize the researcher to aspects of the particular culture being investigated

Possibilities of interviews: rich data, etc. Possible pitfalls:

Interruptions redirecting poor questions researchers inability to follow up/probe

Interviewing

Sequencing of Questions facilitates completeness/comprehensiveness

Interviewing is not for everyone Nature of interactions will change Strengths/weaknesses Need to be a good listener

Documents

Interviewing

Where will interview occur? A convenient location for respondent? When will you meet? Time of day is important- tired /rushed How long do you anticipate it will last? How often will you meet? Audiotaped? Interruptions? Transcribing interviews-long , but meaningful process

Documents: Curricular guides, newsletters, transcripts – corroborate

observations/findings LEADING TO trustworthiness

Data Analysis

Organizing what you have seen, heard, and read, so that you can make sense of what you have learned.

Ongoing throughout study: permits researcher to focus and shape the study as it

proceeds Rudimentary Coding Scheme

Counting or enumerating items means they must defined and located within data records

Categorizing; dividing & subdividing Field notes are coded, audiotapes are coded

Data Analysis

Voluminous Computer programs Trustworthiness (Reflect on data –What is data

telling you?) TRIANGULATION of data sources

Use of multiple data collection techniques = data collected in 1 way can be cross checked for accuracy with another

Prevents researcher from accepting to readily the validity of initial impressions

Assists in correcting biases that occur when the researcher is the only observer

Data Analysis

Trustworthiness (continued) Observations, interviews, documents, etc. Researcher bias – continual alertness Peer debriefer

someone who reads your field notes, transcriptions, interpretations

Member Checks data sources provided to participants for their review,

comments, expansion of thoughts

Telling the Story

Maintaining confidentiality – Highest priority “Writing is a political act” (Glesne & Peshkin):

Intended and Unintended consequences Can respondents be subjected to unwanted publicity? Keeping at it….

Include…Narratives/vignettes/direct quotations … support the claims one makes in their findings