Chapter 6 Comparative study of the USA and the UK · • the cultural context of sport in the USA and the UK ... commercialism in the late twentieth-century. ... Through local government

62

Comparative studies

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

By the end of this chapter you should have knowledge and understanding of:the cultural context of sport in the USA and the UK•PE and school sport in the USA and the UK•mass participation in sport in the USA and the UK•sport and the pursuit of excellence in the USA and the UK•how to critically evaluate the influence of the cultural context on all of the above. •

CHAPTER 6

Comparative study of the USA and the UK

Physical Education in schools and sport both as a mass participation activity and as a pursuit through which the achievement of excellence is

Historical determinantsUK USA

The sociological history of the UK extends much further than USA. For example, the development of the English nation began a thousand years ago.

The post colonial history of the USA is little more than two hundred years old and is considered therefore to be a young culture.

As a small island the UK did not have a ‘frontier’ to extend but had a policy of aggressive expansion overseas, giving rise to an empire.

The USA has a history of frontierism. The frontier marked the extent of western expansion into country that was often hostile.

Sport helped to establish UK traditions in the Empire and in turn the Empire was to influence the development of sport across the world.

The USA adopted a policy termed isolation and developed their own sports to suit the culture.

Cricket was played across the entire British Empire. The values of the game reflected the British class system and English values

The slow nature of the game caused it to be marginalised because it did not reflect the new values of the USA.

The greatest developmental influence on UK sport came from the reformed English Public School system.

In the USA, it was the traditional universities known as Ivy League Colleges had the greatest impact on sport in America.

The Public School established the view the taking part was more important than winning. This was associated with the notion of the ‘Gentleman Amateur’ sportsman.

The Ivy League Colleges and American society promoted the ‘win ethic’ that was later termed Lombardianism. This was later associated with professionalism.

the aim is given high priority in all three countries of study: the USA, Australia and the UK.

continued

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

2563

6 Comparative study of the USA and the UK

EXAM TIP

The lists of comparative facts given in this book are not definitive. The experiences of your teacher, further reading and personal research will enable you to add to this knowledge which, if accurate, will earn credit in the examination.

You will need to make comparisons relating to the systems, procedures, policies and practices in each of the USA and Australia as they compare to the UK.

The combination of physical effort and moral integrity associated with good sportsmanship became the dominant ethos in the UK Public Schools.

The ethos of the Colleges represented the ‘cult of manliness’ that was in keeping with the spirit of frontierism.

The case study sports in the UK embraced commercialism in the late twentieth-century.

The case study sports in the USA looked to develop commercialism in the early twentieth-century.

Table 1

Historical conclusionsThe ‘Gentleman Amateur’ ethic supported by the UK Public Schools in the nineteenth-century may have been more effective than the USA Universities ‘win ethic’ in developing a sense of fair play and sportsmanship.

Geographical determinantsUK USA

The population of the UK is approaching 62 million with a relatively high population density of 200 people per square mile.

The population of the USA is approaching 300 million with a population density of thirty people per square mile.

There are remote areas, for example the Highlands of Scotland and areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. There are no areas of genuine wilderness.

Large unpopulated areas of Wilderness sometimes called ‘frontier country’ have helped to stimulate the US passion for the ‘Great Outdoors’.

A relatively small group of islands with one type of climate, for example Western Maritime.

See map page 108 student book

The North American continent has large ranges of latitude and altitude. As a result, the USA has a wide range of climatic zones.

The restricting climate and altitude terrain limits the potential for Winter sports pursuits.

A combination of high mountain ranges and a suitable winter climate has enabled USA to stage the Winter Olympic Games on two occasions.

A well-established network of motorways, rail and air routes facilitate good internal communication in both countries and this influences the development of professional sports and pursuits in physical activities.

The advent of railways in the UK from the 1850s greatly facilitated the development of organised sport and recreational pursuits in expanding urban areas and the countryside.

Rail links are well established. Trans-American routes were laid down during the period of western expansion during the ‘frontier’ years. The rapid expansion of professional ‘major league’ sports like baseball in the 1890’s was helped by the railway system.

Table 2

EXAM TIP

To achieve level four in the stretch and challenge question which is worth twenty marks you must score 18–20 marks. To reach this target your answers must include detailed knowledge, independent opinion and conclusive evaluations.

• Examples of stretch and Challenge questions in Comparative Studies and mark schemes that will identify specific knowledge and evaluative conclusion can be found on page 000.

• Examples of evaluative statements are given at intervals throughout this book in the boxes, such as the one provided below.

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

64

Comparative studies

Geographical determinants• Urbanisation and high population

densities may not produce the healthiest environmental living conditions. The close proximity of people however promotes social interaction and communication. It could be argued that these factors have been most influential in the development of Physical Education and sport.

• A well established travel network in the UK provides easy access to Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Increasing numbers of people are encouraged to enjoy active and healthy pursuits in these areas but they are of limited space. Overcrowding consequently is bringing problems of erosion and pollution.

• The ‘Wilderness’ areas such as those found in the USA Yosemite National Park unlike the UK equivalent, for example The Lake District are so vast that visitors make little impact on the natural environment

Government Policy

UK USA

The Monarch is Head of State and the Prime Minister is Head of Government. Overarching power is exercised by the UK Government and the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland which are autonomous bodies.

The USA is a Republic with a strong democratic influence. There is no history hereditary class privilege that has had the power to determine or influence the opportunity of the people.

Through local government the UK is to an extent decentralised.

The USA has always been committed to a decentralised model of control and this is reflected in each State having autonomy.

Decentralisation is less evident in the Government’s National Curriculum in schools model and in the Department for Culture, Media and Sport through which the Government have taken more responsibility for sport.

Decentralisation is strongly evident as there is no National Curriculum in Schools and the Government have little responsibility for sport, for example limited funding for Olympic involvement. Sport is largely self funding through commercial enterprise.

UK is inclined toward a mixed economy which restricts commercial enterprise. This has limited the commercialisation of sport.

USA is inclined toward a capitalist economy which encourages commercial enterprise. This economy has encouraged the commercialisation of sport.

Professional sports are becoming increasingly commercialised but are still controlled by sporting governing bodies.

Professional sports are organised as a commercial industry and operate as business cartels to maximise profit.

Table 3

Commercialisation of sport• In the latter part of the twentieth-century,

cricket and both codes of rugby changed from an amateur and semi-professional approach to a commercialised model that is dominant in the twenty-first-century. (Note that the sports mentioned above are identified as case studies in the syllabus.)

• Association Football at the highest level embraced professionalism shortly after the formation of the Football Association in 1863. It was in the 1990s however, with the creation of BSkyB that UK football became a commercial product.

• All professional sport in the twenty-first-century is strongly associated with the ‘Golden Triangle’ and at this level sport is considered to be a commodity.

• Association Football is the only UK sport that can match the USA ‘Big Four’ sports as a commercial product.

• UK sport is copying the USA model which has developed professional sport into an entertainment industry. The copying of an idea from another country is termed ‘cultural borrowing’

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

2565


A comparison of commercialism in sport in the UK and USA

Key Factor UK USA

Economy The model of economy although essentially capitalist is inclined towards a mixed model. This model is less favourable to the formation of commercial enterprise.

The capitalist economy enabled professional sports to become a commercial businesses.

Status The amateur ethic was dominant during the nineteenth and much of the twentieth century.

The early acceptance of professionalism promoted the concept of sport as a consumer commodity.

Ethos The ethic of participation prevailed in UK sport throughout sporting development of the nineteenth- and twentieth-centuries.

The Lombardian ethos that is associated with professional sport helped to create an image that was reflective of entertainment.

Organisation Sport continues to have a strong input from the governing bodies the concept of the business cartel does not operate to the same extent.

Professional sport in the USA is organised as a business cartel for the sole purpose of profit making.

The media Exclusive coverage was to be avoided in the 1960s.

Exclusive coverage was encouraged in the 1960s.

The media The UK Government and the only available television channels at the time, namely the BBC and ITV agreed that ten sporting events could be shown by either company.

The media outlet of television became inextricably linked with sport and commercial sponsorship in the 1960s (the Roone Revolution).

The media Sport was presented in the traditional way. Sport was presented as an entertainment commodity.

Commercial sponsorship

Commercial sponsorship was evident in some sports in the 1960s but was much slower to be accepted across the major case study sports.

Large businesses sponsor sport as a result of media profile and methods of presentation. The ‘Big Four’ immediately embraced business opportunities.

Cultural determinants

The nature of the economy and historical determinants like class privilege has prevented a UK equivalent of the ‘American Dream’. These factors inhibited the growth of sport as a commercial industry.

The ‘Dream’ is the keystone of American culture. It draws together and endorses all cultural forces. The Dream can be attained through sport and is driven by the accumulation of wealth.

Table 4

Commercialism and Sport• It is likely that sport and commercialism were

incompatible in the UK for so long because of the determinants of an old culture whereas the young culture together with a desire for ‘isolation’ of the USA encouraged the union of sport and commercialism.

• It could be argued that modern commercial sport is encouraging a dysfunctional culture of gamesmanship, player violence and unethical practice whilst the desirable values of amateur sport are discarded

Be aware of the following:

• Media finance can be precarious and companies have been known to collapse, for example in 2002 ITV Digital was declared bankrupt whilst owing 200 million pounds to football clubs.

• Financial risk often called ‘boom or bust’ in the UK, is the underpinning factor of American capitalism.

• The withdrawal of media finance can also occur in the UK because of the traditional system of promotion and relegation.

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

66

Comparative studies

• Relegation in UK is now a serious business involving the loss of media revenue and a reduced demand for merchandising.

• By contrast, in the USA relegation is not a part of the professional sports scene.

• The RFU was initially reluctant to accept professionalism and the ethos of commercialism. This is because the game had roots in the amateur ethos of the public school system and was regarded as a middle class preserve.

• It is now a highly commercialised sport of national and global significance.

• Rugby League readily accepted professionalism. This is because the game has working class roots in the areas of England formerly associated with heavy industry.

• At the commencement of the 2009 season, the UK based Super League (Rugby League) is adopting the American model and has abolished the policy of relegation.

• Cricket has adopted a Twenty20 version of the game. This faster, shorter and more intensive form of the game has immediate

CapitalismThe economic system that gives wealth and

control to the individual.Capitalism is the system which organises

society in the USA and makes the American Dream possible.

FreedomThe USA is the landof liberty. Capitalismallows any individualwith a competitive

ethic the freedom tochoose their destiny

and to prosper.

OpportunityThe USA is the land ofopportunity. Capitalism

gives opportunity to individuals to achieve the

‘Dream’ providing theyare competitive and

have a strong work ethic.

Competitive ethicCapitalism generatesintense competitionbetween individuals.

In sport this competitiveethic is prominent

and is termedLombardianism (see page 119).

Frontier SpiritThe frontier spirit is reflected in the competitiveness found in high-level sport.

The challenges of the frontier generated the spirit of survival,toughness and individual enterprise that embraced the developing ‘New World’.

The legacy of the frontier spirit has helped to instil love of liberty and opportunity.The competitive ethic of the frontier spirit has influenced the promotion of capitalism.

entertainment appeal and coloured uniforms add to the spectacle.

Social determinants affecting sport in the UK and USABoth in the UK and USA access to sport is determined by three factors;

1. Opportunity - s having the chance to take part or to achieve the highest levels in sport. Chance may be determined by time and money.

2. Provision - refers to having the conditions, equipment and facilities to participate or reach the top in sport.

3. Esteem - indicates that confidence is a determining factor in the decision to participate and to strive for the top levels in sport.

The social values that underpin the organisation of the UK and USA societies are indicated below. Comparisons have been paired to indicate similarities and differences but sometimes a direct relationship has been difficult to establish.

Fig 6.1 Flow chart shows the link between the frontier spirit, the competitive ethic, the American Dream and capitalism

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

2567


UK USA

Value Explanation Social Value Explanation

Democracy The right to freedom. It involves the right of free speech and express.

Land of Opportunity

The American Dream is associated with individuality and opportunity. Equal opportunity or the chance to achieve is available to all.

Teamwork Working as part of a team has been a traditional British value since possibly the struggle for Empire and the incorporation of team games in the Public Schools system.

Pluralism Describes a group ethos.

This group comprises the vast majority of Americans who believe that liberty and justice are equally available to all Americans.

Individuality The value of the individual is important in the UK and underpins democracy. The mixed economy of the UK places a greater emphasis on teamwork than does the USA capitalist economy.

Hegemony Describes a group ethos. This is the group who has the power to influence and dominate USA society. This group comprises a small minority of the wealthiest people in the USA.

Fair play A sense of fair play is central to the British sporting ethos and the participation ethic continues to over ride the ‘win at all cost’ ethic that is the mainstream prevalence in the USA.

Stacking The organisation of society on the basis of mainstream culture and ethnicity.

Centrality Centrality does not exist as a common term in the UK. The concept however, remains in evidence. Ethnic players now occupy decision making positions in football but rarely appear in this capacity in either rugby code or cricket.

Centrality Refers to the central role in the major American sports that is often given to players from the WASP mainstream culture.

Competitiveness Winning is of increasing importance at professional level since the advent of commercial sport.

Lombardian ethic

Is the win at all cost ethic. It links with competitiveness and capitalism

Participation Emphasis is placed on participation rather than competitive elitism.

Counter culture ethic

This approach has an anti-competitive focus and emphasises the intrinsic benefits which can be derived from participation.

Radical ethic

A winning outcome is important, as this is a mark of achievement. The process of arriving at achievement is however most important.

Discrimination Both countries are cosmopolitan societies and both are striving to overcome discrimination.

Table 5

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

68

Comparative studies

Social values• The notion of democracy is believed in the

western world to be good and is celebrated both in the UK and USA.

• Arguably, even the most democratic system cannot give a fair and equal opportunity to all people, for example the hierarchical class system of UK and the WASP domination in USA could be linked with opportunity in sport

American society, in addition to the hegemonic and pluralistic view, was organised on the basis of ethnic groups. Ethnic minority groups have a place on the hierarchy and this is depicted in the list below. This model can be described in the context of centrality and stacking.

1. WASP2. Ethnic Europeans3. African Americans4. Mexicans & Puerto Ricans5. Vietnamese6. Native American Indians

• The WASP mainstream culture is the central controlling dominant culture whilst the ethnic minority groups are stacked in order of status and power.

• The terms stacking and centrality are also applied to the correlation between racial background and the positions of players in prominent American team sports.

• Be aware that UK society was at one time organised on a clear structure based on social

CHECK

If you are satisfied with your knowledge and understanding of what you have revised so far, tick off the sections. If you are not satisfied then revisit the sections detailed below: Physical education and school sport in USA

and UK, pages 121-132Mass participation (particularly amongst young

people) in the USA and UK, pages 133-141.Sport and the pursuit of excellence in the UK,

pages 141-143.

class. Class barriers are less clearly defined in the twenty first century.

• Both in the UK and the USA the structure and organisation of society is less clearly defined in contemporary society.

The changing structure of USA society has significantly encouraged the sporting success of African American ethnic minority group.

Physical Education and school sport in the UK and the USAThe central support by government in the UK of Physical Education and its consequential place in National Curriculum has increased the status and helped the development of the subject. Conversely, a system given totally to decentralised control allows School Boards of individual schools in the USA to devalue Physical Education and so eliminate it from the curriculum.

Physical Education in the UK Physical Education in the USAStatus PE is secure as a curriculum subject and

is compulsory for all up to the age of 16 years.

Daily PE is an insecure curriculum subject as it being withdrawn in a significant number of States.

Status High status. Questionable status.

Control The government determines core curriculum.

The School Board controls the curriculum.

Administration Administration is traditionally decentralised but central government determines the core curriculum. Schools and teachers have retained a degree of autonomy.

Administration is decentralised with the individual States having supervisory control. There is a strong tradition of school and teacher autonomy.

Value PE is an integral part of the core curriculum and is perceived as an essential educational experience.

PE is considered to have limited educational value. It is furthermore, believed to be financially uneconomic.

Value PE continues to be a subject of value despite the increased accountability that has been placed on schools to achieve high academic results.

The ‘No Child Left Behind’ Act has increased the accountability that has been placed on schools to achieve high academic results. This act has had a negative impact on PE.

Table 6

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

2569


Strategies to promote PE and school sport in the UKThe PE, School Sport and Young People (PESSYP) strategy has nine strands or priorities.

Strand The strategy promoted by the strand

Sports colleges Sports colleges receive additional government funding to increase the opportunities for young people to become involved in sport. Sports colleges link with other local schools to form School Sports Partnerships.

School Sports Partnerships (SSPs)

The School Sports Partnerships strategy brings together individual Sports Colleges with groups or ‘clusters’ of schools. The principle aims of SSPs are to increase participation, promote excellence and develop sporting links in the wider community.

Professional development

The professional development of teachers and coaches involves providing teachers with training to improve the quality of their lesson delivery.

Step into sport This strategy provides a clear framework to enable young people aged 14–19 years to be involved with sports leadership.

Club links Club links aim to strengthen the associations between schools and sports clubs.

Gifted and talented This strategy is designed to help young people with identified ability develop core skills that are the basis of all sports.

Sporting playgrounds This strategy involves the development of primary school playgrounds to promote play and physical activity.

Swimming Via this strategy, the teaching of swimming is being increasingly promoted in primary schools, not only as a healthy activity but as part of a healthy lifestyle.

High quality Physical Education and School Sport (PESS)

PESS involves guidance as to how a school can improve the quality of Physical Education.

Table 7 The PE, School Sport and Young People (PESYP) strategy

Kitemarking for school Physical EducationKitemarking for School Physical Education involves a scheme to reward schools who are delivering The PE, School Sport and Young People (PESSYP) strategy to a particularly high standard. There are three Kitemark awards:

1. Activemark. An award for Primary Schools2. Sportsmark. An award for Secondary Schools3. Sports Partnershipmark. An award for

achievement across the School Sport Partnership

Strategies to promote Physical Education in the USA• Physical Education for Progress (PEP) aims to

reverse the decline and improve the quality of Physical Education

• Adapted Physical Programmes. Involves Special Needs provision.

• Title IX Government legislation that addresses gender equality in Physical education and Sport

Outdoor education in the UKThe term outdoor education implies a formal process of conveying educational values. This takes the form of teaching physical skills and facilitating personal and social development in the outdoor natural environment.

• In the UK outdoor education is a part of the National Curriculum.

• Outdoor education is organised by the school.

In the UK, the following benefits for children are believed to arise from outdoor education.

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

70

Comparative studies

There are drawbacks that make it difficult for schools to commit fully to outdoor education. Such drawbacks are identified below:

• Finance - the delivery of an Outdoor education programme is often expensive.

• Location - a suitable natural environment may be a considerable distance from school.

• Health & safety - many schools are concerned that outdoor adventures activities present problems relating to health and safety legislation.

• Pupil absence - important lessons may well be missed when a pupil is engaged in outdoor adventure activities.

• Teacher cover - in their absence teachers supervising Outdoor education courses will need to have lessons covered by colleagues.

The benefits ofOutdoor Education

1. Cognitive challenge

2. Leadership opportunities

3.Enviromental appreciation

4. Physical challenge

5. Social experiencesFig 6.2 The benefits of outdoor education

Outdoor education in the USA• Since the mid twentieth-century, Summer

Camps (sometimes called Camp Schools) for young people have increased significantly.

• Summer Camps take place in the summer vacation for durations of a few days or up to eight weeks.

• Summer Camps are generally not organised by schools.

• There are three classifications of camps. 1. State sponsored Camps – these enable

less wealthy children to enjoy outdoor adventure experiences.

2. Camps sponsored by business, ethnic and religious groups.

3. Commercial camps – these can be very lavish and extremely expensive being available only to rich families.

The benefits of summer camps is shown in Figure 6.3 below.

The benefits ofsummer camps,

e.g. outdoor adventurecamps

New skills

IndependenceEnrichment

Culturalexperiences

Challenge

Knowledge Promote activity and healthy,balanced and active lifestyles

Self-discovery

Fig 6.3 The benefits of summer camps, e.g. outdoor adventure camps

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

2571


Inter-school sport in the UK and Inter-mural sport in the USAThe table below indicates similarities and differences that exist between the UK and USA

on the basis of organisation, status and ethos of school sport

Inter-school sport in the UK Inter-mural sport in the USA

Organisation Competitions and leagues are administered by several agencies, for example teachers organising ‘friendly’ fixtures, local school leagues and NGB competitions.

The State High School Athletic Association (SHSAA), which is a national advisory body, has branches in each state and controls inter-mural athletic competition.

Frequently organised as extra–curricular activities after school.

Takes place in the evenings to attract spectators.

Usually takes place on school fields or premises.

Played in the high school stadium.

There may be some grants or donations from former pupils but schools tend not to be reliant on them.

Alumni donation (financial support from former pupils) helps to finance teams.

Gate money is not taken and is not a source of income.

‘Gate money’ is an important source of revenue.

Some sponsorship from businesses may be available but sponsorship is not widespread.

Heavy reliance on sponsorship and Alumni donation.

The PE teacher often is in charge of the organisation and coaching of teams.

The coach is in charge although they may operate below the status of the Athletic Director.

Status Some schools and colleges have developed academies of sport but these tend to be associated with professional sports clubs.

USA high schools are perceived as centres of sporting excellence.

Physical Education is considered to be of higher status to sport.

Sport has high status and is considered to be more important than Physical Education.

Some University scholarships are awarded but it is not common in UK.

The best players are awarded scholarships from Colleges (Universities).

School sport is not organised to reflect the professional sports scene.

School sport is a direct reflection of the professional sports scene.

There is little media attention given to UK inter-school sport.

Considerable media attention.

Sport in UK schools does not aspire to become a business.

Sport is very expensive with media, sponsorship and large crowds. High school sport is organised as a business.

Ethos Winning is not of overriding importance. Participation is considered more important than winning.

The Lombardian win at all cost ethic prevails.

The teacher is employed on what is usually a permanent contract.

The coach is employed on the basis of a contract that is termed ‘hire and fire’.

Sport tends to be inclusive and available to all children.

Sport tends to be exclusive and elitist.

Table 8

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

72

Comparative studies

• It could be argued that inter-school sport in the UK carries significant educational value because it aims to provide the individual with a holistic experience as part of the mission of the school.

• Conversely, it may be said that inter-mural sport in the USA is an end in itself, focusing on elitism and the development of the profession athlete.

• It may appear that in the UK standards in the delivery of inter-school sport are erratic and this seriously inhibits the development of young sports talent.

• In the USA, the high school is perceived as a centre of sports excellence with sporting achievement as an important part of its mission. This approach, it could be argued, is better for the production of elite athletes.

Participation rates in sport in the USA and the UK Health, fitness and obesity levels in developed countries are the cause of growing concern. These concerns are global but it would appear that both UK and America are experiencing major problems.

Mass participation• Mass participation rates in the UK are, in

relative terms, higher than those in USA.• Mass participation in sports related physical

activity is not high in the USA.• On both sides of the Atlantic, activities

undertaken on an individual basis, for example swimming, keep fit, yoga, cycling and weight training show higher participation rates than team games.

UK USA

Statistics indicate that almost 20% of children under 16 in the UK are obese.

15% of American 6-19 year-olds are regarded as clinically obese.

Of all adults in the UK 38% are considered overweight whilst almost 25% have been diagnosed as obese.

In America, 40 million people are considered obese.

UK fitness levels have reached an all time low. In the total population, 75% of Americans are not reaching basic activity recommendations and 25% of people in this category are completely sedentary.

It would appear that the sedentary lifestyle adopted by the urban population in America during the 1950s, is now taking effect in the UK.

Table 9

• On the whole more men participate in the UK than women and this mirrors the trend in the USA.

Health and fitness• It is possible that participation rates in the

UK are higher than those in USA because of cultural differences.

• In the UK the ethos of taking part prevails whereas in the USA winning has overriding importance.

• The approach in the UK reflects thetraditions of amateur commitment and team involvement which appear to encourage participation.

• It is significant that swimming and fitness activities tend to be more popular with women.

• As in the USA, it was found that younger people in the UK are more likely to participate in activities and that involvement decreases with age. Participation is significantly reduced after the age of 45.

• Similarly, in the USA wealth is an important determinant in sports participation.

• It is significant that the only major game to feature in the top ten sports for participation in UK was Association Football. There are parallels here with USA because basketball was the only major game to be represented in the top ten participation sports.

• A ‘gym’ and ‘jogging’ culture has been evident in the USA since the 1950s and statistics indicate that engagement in fitness activities is increasing.

• There is a significant increase in gym membership in the UK.Firs

t pro

ofs draft o

nly

not for c

irculatio

n

2573


• In 1980 there were fewer than 200 gyms in the UK. In 2008 there were 6,000. The USA ‘gym culture’ has influenced this trend.

Both countries are aiming to promote mass participation in order to ensure lifelong involvement and healthy lifestyles.

• The tradition of the amateur club as it is understood in the UK does not exist in the USA.

• In the UK a person may elect to join an institutionalised sports club.

• In the USA, by contrast, the emphasis appears to be placed on the individual or groups of friends to form teams.

• These friendship groups can choose to compete in competitions and leagues.

• An example of this is in operation of the Midnight Basketball Leagues.

The strategies and organisations to promote mass participation that are identified and explained in table 10 below are displayed as facts as they relate to the specific country. These facts are not direct comparisons, hence the separation of the tables.

Strategy or organisationUK

Explanation Strategyor organisationUSA

Explanation

Sportsmatch This scheme involves the club or community facility organisations providing initial investment. The sum raised is then doubled by a grant.

Midnight Leagues

The organisation of sports on inner-city asphalt playgrounds during what may be described as unsociable hours. Basketball is the major game.

Special interest groups

Groups that tend not to participate in sport are targeted by Sport England.

Inter-mural sports

School sport that involves schools playing against other schools in organised sports competitions. High school sport has high status.

Sport England

This organization, along with other Home Country sports councils such as The Sports Council for Wales, promotes mass participation.

Intra-mural sports

Involves recreational sports that take place within the high school. At this level activities may involve leagues and are open to all students who form their own teams.

National Governing Bodies

These agencies receive central funding to encourage young people to take up sport. The Rugby Football Union, for example, employs local and regional development officers to promote participation.

Little League Takes responsibility for the organisation of junior sports that take place in the community.

Local initiatives

These initiatives are also important community sport providers, for example in the Greater Manchester area ‘Sport For All’ centres organises basketball, netball badminton and 5-a-side football for all abilities and age groups.

The Amateur Athletic Union

Takes responsibility for the organisation of sports leagues and competitions. They also administer the National Youth Fitness Programme as a part of the Presidents Challenge.

Table 10

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

74

Comparative studies

Pathways to professional sport in the UK and USAThe major comparison between the conventional pathways to professional sport in the UK and USA are identified in table 11 below.

UK USA

Sports identified as case studies, for example Association Football, cricket, rugby union and rugby league tend to have governing body schemes to develop talent.

The major pathway into professional sport in the USA is through the education system.

Individual clubs have development teams and academies to identify and generate potential professional players.

The exception to this pathway defined by the education system is baseball. Baseball tends to have development links associated with the professional clubs.

Olympic performers are developed through the sports institutes of the UK and supported by ‘UK Sport’.

Olympic performers are also developed through the education system. There is not an American equivalent of UK Sport.

A performance funding package of £300 million was requested by ‘UK Sport’ to maximise achievement in the 2012 Olympic Games. Finance is provided by the Government via the National Lottery.

The USA government provides only a small amount of financial support for Olympic excellence.

Table 11

UK Sport• UK Sport is the organisation with the overall

responsibility for producing sporting excellence in the UK.

• The ambition of UK Sport is to achieve fourth place in the 2012 Olympic Games medal table.

• UK Sport has a clear philosophy that Olympic and Paralympic sport can no longer be trusted to enthusiastic and talented amateurs.

• UK Sport ensures that athletic performance, coaching and organisation structure have a professional focus.

Sports Institutes in the UK• ‘Sports Institutes in the UK’ are a network of

centres that are dedicated to providing support to elite athletes.

• The Sports Institutes have instigated the successes of Team UK in Olympic and Paralympic competition, but not all sports find it necessary to take advantage of the institutes.

• Non-Olympic sports, such as cricket, have their own governing body pathways leading towards professional status.

There are four devolved Home Country Sports Institutes:

• The English Institute of Sport (EIS)• The Scottish Institute of Sport (SIS)• The Welsh Institute of Sport• The Sports Institute of Northern Ireland (SINI).

UK Sport is responsible for the strategic direction of the institute network with a mission to support elite athletes. The supportive services provided by the institutes are:

• sport-specific coaching programmes• physical conditioning programmes• sport science and sports medicine• physiotherapy• nutrition advice• performance analysis and planning• vocational, educational and lifestyle advice.

Pathways to professional sport in the USA• The high school performer is given a

scholarship grant (a financial package) from the College (University).

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

2575


Little League Participation

Selection into High School Team

High School Sport

Scholarship selection

College sport

Pro-draft system

Professional sport

• Scholarships are available in most major sports and under Title IX legislation women are funded equally to men.

• College sport provides the progressive steps into professional and international sport.

• The ‘Big Four’ American sports are also successful commercial businesses at collegiate level and make vast profits from sponsors and media interest.

• Talented and well trained players, often fresh from high school, provide a high standard of sports entertainment to spectators who pay high admission prices

• Three major athletic associations administer collegiate sport. The largest and oldest of these is the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).

Controversy has always been associated with the sports scholarship system:

• It has been apparent over the years that college administrators have enrolled students who are excellent sports performers but academically under-qualified for degree courses.

Fig 6.4 Pathways to professional sport in the USA

• Leniency in recruitment enables a college to compete in sport and remain at the highest levels to sustain commercial viability.

• The NCAA has stated that 20% of football and basketball players enter university on ‘special admit’ programmes.

Pathways to professional sport in the UK and USAIt is good that ‘special admit’ programmes allow more people to enter university in the USA. It could be argued that these programmes are difficult to justify as they appear to be an exclusive vehicle for outstanding sports people with low academic ability to access a University education. If the latter is true the USA system may not be serving the best interests of the individual.

• Problems in College sport arise when coaches and directors, in their bid for success, exert excessive control over students.

• When this ‘win at all cost’ ethos arises, sport loses its educational value.

• It has also been an issue that when media rights are in question, the academic progress of the student athlete is considered secondary to financial profit.

• Athletic directors, coaches, trainers, publicity directors and support staff make a good living from collegiate sport. Some Athletic Directors and Coaches earn in excess of $500,000 per year and this salary can be further enhanced through sponsorship and TV contracts.

• The student athlete does not get paid.It is a contravention of association rules that a player receives any financial benefits.

• Far from being a ‘free ride’, a scholarship is in reality a binding contract to play sport for the college teams.

• A student athlete may have to commit to as many as 50 hours of sport per week under a scholarship agreement.

Students remain compliant with this system for the following reasons:

• It is exciting to play in the top flight in front of large crowds. The College Rose Bowl attracts 90,000 spectators.

• There is kudos and social status for the athlete at a major university.

• Most athletes have been conditioned from early high school through the domination

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

76

Comparative studies

of sports leadership. They willingly accept the tough minded, disciplined approach and are dependent on the ethos of team conformity.

• The self-esteem of the athlete grows in direct proportion to athletic prowess.

• College athletes become single minded in their ambition to be successful. This conforming approach is termed ‘pragmatic role acceptance’

• The Pro-draft system focuses on selecting the best college players

It would appear that the institutes of sport in the UK make a genuine attempt to help talented athletes to reach their potential and that the best interests of the athlete are central to this mission. Conversely, there is evidence to suggest that the student athlete at the USA university is subject

to exploitation. It is alleged that student athletes are little more than unpaid labourers in a multi-million university sports industry.

Equality and discrimination in UK and USAIt has been seen previously that opportunity, provision and esteem influence mass participation and the pursuit of sporting excellence both in UK and USA.

Need to know more? For more information on equality and discrimination see Chapter 6, pages 139-141, in the OCR A2 PE Student Book.

Be aware of the following key factors as they apply to discrimination of ethic people in USA sport.

Key Factor Explanation

Centrality Centrality refers to positions with decision-making responsibilities, for example the pitcher in baseball and the quarter back in grid iron football. These positions are often the preserve of white mainstream players

Stacking Stacking, in relation to sport (not as it relates to the organisation of USA society), refers to the selection of players belonging to ethnic minority groups into peripheral positions. These positions often require considerable athleticism but minimal strategic influence.

Tokenism Tokenism is the practice which is less common today, of hiring only a small group of people from an ethnic minority groups to give the impression of a non-discriminatory equal opportunities policy. For example, many USA sports teams felt the need to include one ethnic member in the team just to keep the media happy.

White Flight White players have withdrawn from basketball. The game is increasingly perceived as belonging to African Americans.

Glass Ceiling This term indicates a division between two layers of society. The people beneath the glass can see their ambition and the position which they wish to occupy. The glass symbolises a barrier which cannot be broken.

Table 12

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

2577


Case study of the ‘Big Four’ American sports

Baseball

Origins of the game •Boysplayedearlyformsofbaseballknownasgoalballorroundersregularlyduringthe colonial period.

•Itbecamethegameofthecityinthenineteenth-centuryandwasplayedmainlyby the youth of the working classes. Very few schools and colleges elected to play baseball as adults tended to disapprove of the game.

Nature of the game •Baseballisagameofimpactcomprisinghardstrikingandlotsofenergeticfielding. This results in bursts of action and limitless quick sprinting. There is very little dead time in the game.

•Baseballwaspreferredtocricket,whichbycontrastlackstherequiredsensationalism to satisfy the fast pace of American life.

•Therearenodrawngamesandthisisreflectiveofazero-sumethos.

Sport as an industry •ThescaleofMajorLeagueBaseball(MLB)asatwenty-first-centurybusinessisimmense. The MLB is organised as a business cartel.

•EightymillionpeopleattendWorldSeriesmatchesaveraging32,000pergame.Thecommercial status of the game is reflected in the commercial value of the New York Yankees baseball club which is in access of $1 billion.

The relationship between sport, sponsorship and the media (‘Golden Triangle’)

•Baseballhasbeenknownasthe‘nationalpastime’foroverahundredyearsandisby far the most popular game in the USA.

•BaseballwasthefirstUSAsporttoattractmediaattentionandlucrativesponsorship deals.

•Therelationshipbetweenthesportmediaandsponsorshipwasgreatlyintensifiedby the ‘Roone Revolution’ of sport broadcasting in the early 1960s.

•The‘WorldSeries’isthemajorBaseballcompetition.

•ThetitleWorldSeriesisamarketingterm.Itismisleadingbecausetheonlycontestants are American teams.

Gridiron Football

Origins of the game •AmericangridironfootballwasadaptedfromEnglishrugbyfootball,whichtowardthe end of the nineteenth-century had a structured club system having been founded in the UK public schools.

•TheoriginofAmericanfootballliesintheIvyLeagueCollegesnotablyPrinceton,Colombia, Harvard and Yale.

Nature of the game •Americangridironfootballisahigh-impactcollisiongame.Therulesencouragephysical confrontation and play tends to be aggressive.

•Theprotectionofthehelmetandpaddingtendtodehumanisetheplayersandencourage physical contact.

•Theactionissensationalandintense.Theinclusionof‘timeout’periodsandtactical substitutions increases the intensity.

•Therearenodrawngamesandthisisreflectiveofazero-sumethos

continued

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

78

Comparative studies

Gridiron Football continued

Sport as an industry •TheNationalFootballLeague(NFL)isorganisedasaprofit-makingindustryandoperates as a business cartel.

•AsabusinessenterprisetheNFLismorelucrativethanthePremiershipFootballLeague in the UK. For example, the team value of the Dallas Cowboys who are one of the prominent football teams is $1. 1 billion and they were bought in 1989 for $150 million.


•Therelianceofgridirononthemediaandsponsorshipisexemplifiedinthe‘Superbowl’.This is the show piece event of American football in the twenty-first-century.

•Withviewingfiguresof130million,theeventcommandsthehighesttelevisionaudience in America. In addition to the spectacle of play, popular singers and musicians perform during pre-game and half-time ceremonies.

•Televisioncommercialbreaksarenumerousandthirtysecondsofadvertisingtimecosts $2.5 million.

Basketball

Origins of the game •Basketballwasinventedin1891byJamesNaismithattheprivateSpringfieldYMCA Training School and was instantly successful in high schools and colleges.

•Basketballwasrootedinwhiteeducationalinstitutions,forexampleschoolsandcolleges.

Nature of the game •Basketballisafastgameinwhichplaycanmovequicklyfromdefencetooffence.

•Actionisintenseandthisismadepossiblebythesmallnumberofplayersinvolvedon a relatively small playing area.

•Theinclusionof‘timeout’periodsandtacticalsubstitutionsincreasestheintensity.

•Sensationisevidentinquickpassingmovementsandshooting.

•Scoringisfrequent

•Therearenodrawngamesandthisisreflectiveofazero-sumethos

Sport as an industry •Basketballteamsmakeup13%offranchisedsportinAmerica.Thecombinedrevenue of the thirty National Basketball Association (NBA) teams is approximately $3.5 billion and rising quickly.

•TheNBAisorganisedasabusinesscartel.

•TheChicagoBullsbusinesswasboughtin1985for$16millionbutnowhasateamvalue of $500 million with annual revenue of approximately $140 million.


•Likeall‘BigFour’sportsbasketballhasadaptedtobecomepartofthesportsentertainment industry.

•Itisfast,excitingandeasytounderstand.Ithasthereforeconsiderablemediaappeal.

•Commercialadvertisingfitseasilyintothemanybreaks.Sponsorshipisthereforeattracted to this spectacle.

•Likebaseball,basketballisagameoftheinner-city.Thepopularityofthegamehas been further increased by the creation of ‘Midnight Leagues’. In addition to the NBA Midnight Leagues have spectator appeal and are therefore beginning to attract media attention and commercial interest.

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

2579


Ice hockey

Origins of the game •Icehockeywasadaptedfrom‘icehurly’byBritishsoldiersservinginCanadain1850.

•TheruleswereunifiedbyMcGillUniversityinMontreal.

•ThegamewasadoptedbytheUSAin1893.

•IcehockeyinitscontemporaryformhasoriginsinthecollegiatesystemandtheNCAA inaugurated an ice hockey national tournament for universities in 1948.

Nature of the game •Icehockeyisahigh-impactcollisiongame.Therulesencouragephysicalconfrontation and play tends to be aggressive.

•Theicerinkencourageshighspeedsandtheconfinedplayingareasincreasesphysical contact.

•Theprotectionofthehelmetandpaddingtendtodehumanisetheplayersandencourage aggressive play.

•Thenatureofthehockeystickalsoencouragesaggressionandviolentplay.

•Theactionissensationalandintense.Theinclusionof‘timeout’periodsandtactical substitutions increases the intensity.

•Scoringisfrequenttherearenodrawngamesandthisisreflectiveofazero-sumethos.

Sport as an industry •Icehockeyjoinedthe‘BigThree’inthelate1960’swhenthe‘franchisemarket’enabled the major Canadian teams to relocate to America.

•Furtherpopularitywasstimulatedbythe1980GoldmedalOlympicsuccess.

•DuetotheoperationofsportsfranchisestwentyofthetwentysixNationalHockeyLeague (NHL) teams that exist today are located in USA. The remaining six have venues in Canada.

•CanadianplayersintheNHLare‘contractedin’andoutnumberAmericanplayers.

•TheCarolinaHurricaneswerethe2008holdersoftheStanleyCup,theoldestprofessional trophy in America.

•Theclubwasboughtin1994for$48millionandhasateamvalueof$144million.The total attendance for all NHL matches is approximately 20 million people.


•Althoughicehockeywasthelastsporttojointhe‘BigFour’ithasdevelopedconsiderable spectator and media appeal.

•Thegameisthereforeattractivetocommercialsponsorship.

•ThecommercialoperationofIceHockeyissimilartobaseball,gridironandbasketball.

Table 13

Need to know more? For more information on the Big Four American sports see Chapter 6, pages 143-146, in the OCR A2 PE Student Book.

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

80

Comparative studies

true or false?

1. ((10 questions to come))

The UK followed the lead of the USA by 1. making professional sport into a commercial business. By referring to economy, media and cultural determinants, explain why the commercialisation of professional sport took longer to develop in the UK than USA. (6 marks)

Discuss one case study sport from each of 2. the UK and USA. Your discussion should include the cultural influences that impact on the sports, the nature of the games and the commercial developments that have taking place in both sports. (20 marks)

((One 4–6 mark question to come))See page 000 for answers.

EXAM PRACTICECHECK

If you are satisfied with your knowledge and understanding, tick off the sections that you have revised so far. If you are not satisfied then revisit those sections and refer to the pages in the Need to know more? features.Describe the cultural context of sport in the

USA and the UK.Describe PE and school sport in the USA and

the UK.Discuss mass participation in sport in the USA

and the UK. Discuss sport and the pursuit of excellence in

the USA and the UKConsider how to critically evaluate the

influence of the cultural context on all of the above.

First p

roofs

draft only

not for c

irculatio

n

Documents

Chapter 6 Comparative study of the USA and the UK · • the cultural context of sport in the USA and the UK ... commercialism in the late twentieth-century. ... Through local government