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Chapter 5Informal Fallacies

Comments for Instructors

Bring in current examples of fallacies from advertisements, newspapers, and magazine articles to use in class to illustrate the different types of fallacy.

Introduce the fallacies in the earlier chapters, whenever possible, so students are familiar with their names and the concept of a logical fallacy when they start this chapter.

Relate the fallacies to the cognitive and perceptual errors in thinking discussed in Chapter 4.

To illustrate the fallacy of accent in a verbal exchange, ask students to stand by saying, “I would like all of you to stand.” The accent on the word “would” suggests that it is a desired but not necessarily direct outcome to your request. Then ask the question again, emphasizing the word “all” instead. Discuss as a class the different reactions to the different ways of saying the same statement. [Page 139]

For a review of the “one of us/one of them” error in people’s thinking, refer students to Chapter 4.

See if your institution, perhaps through the multicultural center or the office of student affairs, offers seminars or workshops on recognizing and overcoming stereotypes. Either invite the speaker to your class or encourage students to attend one of the workshops. Invite them to write a paper, for extra credit, relating the issue of stereotypes to fallacious thinking, especially the fallacy of hasty generalization. [Pages 148–149]

Tips for Answering Exercises and Discussion Questions

Exercise 5-1, page 137

1. Think of a time when you fell for an “argument” that was emotionally persuasive but that you later realized was based on poor reasoning. Why were you initially persuaded by the argument?

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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Students’ answers will vary. Not all emotion interferes with clear reasoning. Make a list, on the board or an overhead, of the emotions students say contributed to their poor decisions. Relate these emotions to the discussion in Chapter 2 of those emotions that enhance critical thinking (such as empathy and moral indignation) and those emotions that can hinder critical thinking (such as fear, anxiety, and anger).

2. Referring back to your example in question 1, discuss how improving your critical-thinking skills will make you less likely to fall for similar arguments that are based on fallacies and faulty reasoning.

Students’ answers will vary. Strategies for avoiding fallacies might include familiarity with the different fallacies, developing one’s analytical skills, and asking questions and collecting information.

Analyzing Images, “Making Poor Choices,” page 139

1. What fallacy is the student committing in this cartoon? Discuss how failing to recognize this fallacy might lead the student to make poor choices.

The student is committing the fallacy of amphiboly, since the grammar in the letter makes it unclear what the implications of “last notice” are. Ask students how the letter could be clearer. For example, the sentence could continue with “before we take steps to attach your bank account or use a collection agency to collect what you owe.”

2. Imagine that you are the parents in the picture. Discuss what you might say to your son to call his attention to his faulty thinking

Students’ answers will vary. The parents could ask their son what he thinks the letter means and then discuss other ways to interpret the letter.

Exercise 5-2, pages 140-141

1. Identify the fallacy of ambiguity, if any, in each of the following arguments:

a. My parents used to get into arguments all the time, and they ended up getting divorced. Critical thinking teaches people how to make arguments. Therefore, if you want a happy marriage, don’t sign up for a course in critical thinking.

This is an example of equivocation regarding the term “arguments.”


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b. Atoms are invisible to the naked eye. Therefore, I must be invisible since I am made up of atoms.

This is a fallacy of composition.

c. I hear that Dr. Carr is a really good teacher; therefore, it’s probably a good idea for me to sign up for his course in physiology since I’m interested in the subject.

There is no fallacy.

d. Americans are among the most obese people in the world. Clyde is an American. Therefore, Clyde is one of the most obese people in the world.

This is a fallacy of division.

e. Police officer: “Why do you rob banks?”Willie Sutton: “[Because] that’s where they keep the money.”

This is a fallacy of accent—Sutton is putting the emphasis on the word “banks” rather than “rob.”

f. The football team at State University is best in its league. Therefore, every member of the football team is one of the best football players in the league.


g. I have no regrets for what I did. God told me to kill your children. Psalms 137 clearly says, “Happy is he who shall seize your children and dash them against the rock.”

This is a fallacy of accent.

h. The sign on the deli door says “No Animals Allowed.” I guess we’ll have to find another place for lunch, since we’re humans and humans are clearly animals.

This is an example of equivocation on the term “animals.”

i. You are a bad person because you are a bad student.

This is an example of equivocation on the relative term “bad.”


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j. Our town hall says it is giving out parking permits to fish at Warden’s Pond. But that’s ridiculous. Why would a fish need a parking permit?

This is an example of amphiboly—it’s unclear if the term “fish” is being used as a verb or a noun.

k. The people of Liechtenstein have the highest personal income of any people in any nation in the world. Therefore, Liechtenstein is the richest nation in the world.


l. God created man in his own image. But you’re a woman. Therefore, you aren’t created in God’s image.

This is an example of equivocation on the term “man.”

m. Stanford is academically one of the best universities in the United States. Therefore, Claude, who is a student at Stanford, is academically one of the best students in the country.


n. “Too many doctors are getting out of business. Too many OB-GYNs aren’t able to practice their love with women all across the country.” George W. Bush addressing a group of people about the effects of frivolous lawsuits, September 2004.

This is an example of amphiboly—does Bush mean the doctors’ love of their profession or love of women?

o. The black rhino is heading toward extinction. So the black rhinos at the Cincinnati Zoo must be heading toward extinction.


p. The Declaration of Independence states that all men are created equal. But that’s certainly not the case. Studies show that people are born unequal in intelligence and athletic ability.

This is an example of equivocation on the term “equal.”


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2. Look for examples of fallacies of ambiguity in the media, including news coverage, magazine articles, and advertisements. Identify each fallacy and discuss what purpose the writer is hoping to achieve (deliberately or unconsciously) by using this fallacy.

Students’ answers will vary. Considering the number of incidents that seem to rock national opinion one way or the other, students may choose to quote from a variety of issues that have gained national infamy.

Critical Thinking in Action, “The Perils of Verbal Attacks in Personal Relationships,” page 142

1. Do you agree with Gray about men’s and women’s communication styles? Is this type of miscommunication also common in relationships between people of the same sex? Support your answer using specific examples.

Students’ answers will vary. Students need to bear in mind the sensitivities of the opposite sex in order to answer this question. Therefore, instructors could expect a complete agreement, a complete disagreement, or both in terms of the number of student respondents.

2. Think of a time in a relationship when you said something to a person who got upset and you didn’t understand why. Now think of a time when you got upset because someone casually dismissed your concerns and you were left feeling hurt. Create strategies that will make you less likely to use or fall for verbal attacks such as these and more likely to respond to them in a constructive, rational manner.

Students’ answers will vary. Strategies might include the following: being aware of the ad hominem fallacy so people are more likely to recognize it for what it is (poor reasoning); not buying into the fallacy by becoming defensive; not responding in kind; and pointing out that the attack is not relevant to the argument at hand and instead bringing the argument back on track.

Analyzing Images, “Darwin’s Descent from the Apes,” page 144

1. How successful is this cartoon in shaping your feelings or those of others about the subject of the cartoon? Did Huxley also use the ad hominem argument in his reply? Evaluate Huxley’s answer. If he committed a fallacy, describe the fallacy and consider whether there was a better way of responding without resorting to fallacies or the use of rhetoric.


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Students’ answers will vary. Huxley’s response may be considered ad hominem and was intended to deflect the ad hominem attack on the part of his opponent. In doing so, it got the argument off track. Huxley’s response also used the rhetorical device of sarcasm to create disapproval toward his opponent. Instead of retorting with a fallacy and sarcasm, Huxley could have ignored Wilberforce’s attack and brought the argument back on track by using the scientific findings of Darwin to support his position.

2. Given that people tend to be taken in by the ad hominem fallacy, discuss whether the media has a responsibility to refrain from publishing cartoons that attack someone’s character when the real issue is the person’s position on a particular issue.

This question addresses the need to balance the benefits of freedom of the press against the harms caused by the freedom of the press. If students are interested in pursuing this question in more detail, instructors can introduce them to utilitarianism and the utilitarian calculus.

Analyzing Images, “You’ve Come a Long Way, Baby,” page 147

1. Discuss the use of fallacies in this ad. Make a note of your initial reaction to the above ad. To what extent did you fall prey to the fallacies in this ad and why? Analyze why this ad was successful in getting some young women to take up smoking.

This ad commits the fallacy of popular appeal by implying that if one smokes Virginia Slims, one will become slim and liberated like the woman in the picture. While some students might admit that they fell for the fallacy in this ad, most people will say they are not taken in by it. Relate their reactions to the discussion of self-serving biases. Also note how differently the men and the women in the class respond to this image. Discuss why and how some fallacious ads are meant to target specific audiences.

2. If you smoke or know someone who does, what reasons do you or the other person give in support of continuing to smoke? Examine or analyze these reasons for possible fallacies.

Students’ answers will vary. What may have started off as an attempt to look cool may have turned into an addiction. There are a variety of reasons that people use to justify smoking. Some of these reasons are as follows: smoking makes one look important, smoking is a style statement, smoking relieves stress, not being bothered about death caused due to smoking, and so on. The fallacies of these reasons can then be debated in class.

Exercise 5-3, pages 151-152Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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1. Identify any fallacies of relevance in the following arguments. Some of the arguments may not contain fallacies.

a. The legal drinking age in America should be lowered to 18. After all, it’s legal for you to fight and die for your country when you’re 18.

This is a red herring—the person has changed the topic to that of age and military conscription.

b. No one has any conclusive proof that Iran has a viable nuclear weapons program. Therefore, I think we can safely assume that Iran does not have nuclear weapons.

This is an appeal to ignorance.

c. Polygamy should be illegal. If polygamy is legalized in the United States, then little girls will be forced to marry older men and that is just wrong.

This is a red herring—forcing girls to marry is a different issue and unrelated to whether a marriage is monogamous or polygamous.

d. Feminists argue for equality of men and women. That means men and women sharing the same bathrooms and locker rooms and having half of the players on professional football teams be women. But that’s ridiculous. Therefore, we should reject feminism.

This is a straw man.

e. According to the news report, Jodi Arias stabbed her ex-boyfriend Travis Alexander 27 times and slit his throat while he was in the shower. Still, I don’t think she shouldn’t be found guilty of murder. Apparently the poor woman was a victim of domestic violence.

This is an appeal to pity—the fact that Jodi Arias may have been abused by her boyfriend is irrelevant to whether or not she was guilty or innocent of murdering him.

f. Of course Renaud is going to argue in favor of giving amnesty to illegal immigrants living in the United States. His mother came here from Haiti as an illegal immigrant twenty-five years ago.


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This is an example of personal attack (circumstantial).

g. After reading the introduction to this chapter, it’s obvious to me that all religious groups on campus are destructive and should be banned. After all, look what happened to Shannon.

This is a fallacy of hasty generalization.

h. I don’t see why you are so concerned with global warming and switching all your light bulbs to those new energy-efficient ones. Terrorism is a much bigger threat than global warming.

This is a red herring.

i. Using animals in research isn’t all that bad. Why, I just read that “if each pet cat in the United States ate only two mice, chipmunks, or baby birds each year, the number of animals slaughtered by pets would greatly exceed the number of animals used by research.”


j. I think you’ll agree with me that we do not want the press to find out that we’re using child labor at our factory in India. You certainly wouldn’t want to lose your job over this, if you get my drift.

This statement is based on appeal to force.

k. Gun control is small potatoes when compared with the dangers posed by the widespread use of drones.

This is an example of irrelevant conclusion—the person is changing the topic from gun control to the use of drones.

l. You should switch from MySpace to Facebook. Facebook is the best social network because more people use it than any other social networking site.

This is an appeal to popularity fallacy.


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m. Granted, you may be a vegetarian, but you certainly can’t argue against the killing of animals. After all, you do wear leather shoes and use products that were tested on lab animals.


n. I’d think twice about hiring Lucy to work the cash register in the student union cafeteria. She was fired from her last job in the bookstore for stealing, and just last week she was caught leaving the library with someone else’s backpack.

There is no fallacy—the fact that Lucy was caught stealing in her last job is relevant to the decision of whether or not to hire her for a job that involves handling money.

o. Of course Troy voted for Obama; after all Troy is African American.

This is an example of personal attack (circumstantial). It could also be a fallacy of hasty generalization.

p. You shouldn’t be so concerned about street drugs. More people are killed with prescription drugs than with street drugs such as heroin and cocaine.


q. In 2010 Senator Patricia Murphy opposed the Senate health care bill on the grounds that the majority of Americans did not like the bill. Senate majority leader Harry Reid responded to her concern by arguing that she should vote for the Senate health care bill since a Kaiser Family Foundation Poll found that 57 percent of Americans “would be disappointed if Congress did not pass health care reform.”

Murphy commits the fallacy of popular appeal, while Reid’s response contains the fallacy of red herring because he changes the topic to the more general issue of health-care reform.

r. You wouldn’t catch me visiting rural areas of British Columbia. People who live there are vicious. Why, just look at Robert Pickton, who murdered and dismembered some 27 women on his pig farm in British Columbia.

This is a fallacy of hasty generalization.


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s. Please don’t count yesterday’s absence against me, Professor Lee. The hot water wasn’t working in our dorm and I wasn’t able to take a shower.

This is an appeal to pity.

t. “Soldiers at Fort Carson, Colorado, have been told that if they don’t re-up [re-enlist] to 2007 they will be shipped out pronto for Iraq.”

This statement is based on appeal to force.

u. I heard on the Jay Leno show that Michelle Obama buys her clothes at J. Crew. I love Michelle Obama; she’s so cool. I’m going to buy my clothes at J. Crew too!

This is an appeal to popularity fallacy.

v. Please don’t count yesterday’s absence against me, Professor Curto. I was struck by a car while coming home from a party and spent the day in the emergency room.

There is no fallacy—getting struck by a car and hospitalized is a relevant reason why the student was not able to come to class.

w. “[There is little] likelihood that machines, even if they reach a requisite level of complexity, will possess human attributes like consciousness and emotion. A being devoid of emotion would not feel betrayed if we kill it, nor would we regard it as a moral agent. The computer geeks in AI labs who think of themselves as nothing more than complex computer programs and want to download themselves into a computer should worry, since no one would care if they were turned off for good.”

This is an example of personal attack (abusive).

x. Why are you focusing so much on Americans as the culprits in greenhouse gas emissions? Canadians’ energy use has increased by 25 percent in the past decade and they now use more energy per capita than do Americans. The Canadians also dropped their commitment to the Kyoto Protocol on reducing global warming.

This is a red herring—the person is changing the topic from American energy use to Canadian energy use; also, even though Canadians’ energy use has increased, America’s greenhouse gas emissions level is still many times higher than that of Canada.


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y. The Vatican, which is run by a celibate male leadership, has no moral right to take a stand on abortion.


z. “Every time you go online you’re vulnerable to hackers, viruses, and cyber-thieves. Stay safe with Symantec’s Norton Internet Security. It’s comprehensive protection for you and your computer.”

There is no fallacy—we should worry about our computer safety.

2. Discuss a time when you committed the fallacy of hasty generalization by stereotyping a particular group of people. What is the basis of this stereotype, and how is it reinforced in our language? Discuss also ways in which our language stereotypes you.

Students’ answers will vary. This exercise can be used as a writing or journal exercise. Hasty generalizations have been used in every culture; therefore, finding examples from our everyday lives will pose no problem. Students can then present their views to the class.

3. Find an editorial cartoon that contains the fallacy of personal attack. What do you think is the intent of the cartoonist? What effect does the cartoon have on your view of the subject of the cartoon? Discuss steps you might take to counter the effect of the fallacy of hasty generalization and our tendency to see the world in terms of “one of us/one of them” (see pages 148–149).

Students’ answers will vary. This exercise can be used as a writing or journal exercise. Students may go online and check sources such as the French magazine Charlie Hebdo which has, in the past, been targeted for precisely the same reasons.

4. Which fallacy of relevance are you most likely to fall for? Give a specific example. Which fallacy of relevance are you most likely to use? Give a specific example. What steps can you take to make yourself less vulnerable to these fallacies?

Students’ answers will vary. This exercise can be used as a writing or journal exercise.

Analyzing Images, Scene from Star Wars Episode II,” page 158

1. This movie is based on the assumption that mass-produced clones will be evil and destructive. What evidence, if any, is there to support this conclusion? Make a list of possible premises that people might use to support this conclusion.


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Students’ answers will vary. Most of the premises people give to support this conclusion are from fiction. Ask students if there is any real-life evidence to support a conclusion.

2. Critically evaluate your argument in question 1. Identify and discuss any fallacies in this argument.

Students’ answers will vary. Arguments cannot use cases from fiction unless the fictional cases are backed up by real-life evidence. Refer students back to a discussion on artificial intelligence. Fallacies include the naturalistic fallacy.

Exercise 5-4, pages 160-161

1. Identify the fallacies involving unwarranted assumptions in the following arguments— not all of which contain fallacies!

a. Prosecutor to defendant: Did you hide the drugs in your car?

This is a loaded question.

b. Cocaine should be legalized. Cocaine, which comes from the coca plant, is all natural and therefore much safer than all these processed foods people are putting into their bodies.

This is a naturalistic fallacy.

c. My parents don’t have a lot of money. If I don’t get into Harvard with at least a partial scholarship I won’t be able to go to college at all.

This is a false dilemma.

d. Panhandler to person on street: “Can you spare a dime?”

This is a loaded question—you may have a dime to spare, but you may not want to give it to a panhandler.

e. If we allow terrorists to be tried in our civil courts instead of military tribunals, next thing you know they’ll be demanding all sorts of rights given to American prisoners like free health care and a free education. If we allow this, soon terrorists from poorer


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countries will be flocking to our country and attacking us just so they can enjoy the higher standard of living in our prison system.

This is an example of slippery slope.

f. Clarissa has decided to drop out of college because she gained 17 pounds during her first year at college and is worried about getting diabetes. It’s clear that too much education is bad for your health.

This is an example of questionable cause.

g. My lawyer says that it looks as if I have whiplash from that automobile accident. I’m going to sue the insurance company of the person who hit my car.

This is an example of appeal to inappropriate authority.

h. According to the meteorologists on the Weather Channel, we might have 5 to 6 feet of flooding from heavy rain and rising river waters in the next 24 hours. I think we should pack our valuables and get out of town.

There is no fallacy—meteorologists are authorities on weather-related conditions.

i. Do you support restricting abortion rights, thereby increasing the chances of death for thousands of women desperate enough to seek illegal abortions?

This is a loaded question—it assumes that restricting abortion will lead to an increase in deaths among women.

j. Splenda can’t be all that bad for children. After all, it’s made from all-natural sugar.

This is a naturalistic fallacy.

k. Conscription is wrong because people should not be compelled by the government to serve in the military.

This is an example of the fallacy of begging the question.

l. Democracy is the best form of government because rule of the majority is always preferable.


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m. Boyfriend to girlfriend: So what do you want to do tonight—watch the football game on TV or grab a beer at Joe’s Bar and Billiards?

This is an example of a false dilemma.

n. We should not take away people’s rights to own a gun. According to a 2015 CNN/ORC poll over half of Americans oppose stricter gun control laws.

This is an example of the fallacy of popular appeal.

o. Animals can’t reason, since reason is one of the things that separate humans from the beasts.


p. Yesterday I carried an umbrella to class and it didn’t rain. Today I left it home and it rained. I’d better carry my umbrella if I don’t want it to rain.


q. Every time the presidential elections have been on November 6th, the Republicans have won. The elections are on November 6th this year. So a Republican will win the election.


r. New York City has proposed banning the sale of sugary drinks that are larger than 16 ounces. This would be a disaster. I mean, where’s it going to stop? Next thing you know they’ll be regulating everything in our life that we enjoy.


s. Do you believe women should be drafted into the military?

This is a loaded question—a person may believe in gender equality and at the same time be opposed to the draft for both men and women.


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t. Embryonic stem-cell research should be banned. It is a gateway to all other kinds of genetic engineering in humans and will lead to the exploitation of poor women as fetus farms.


u. If we don’t cut back on energy use and our carbon emissions, global warming is going to continue getting worse and some coastal cities and towns may become uninhabitable because of the rising ocean level.

There is no fallacy—this is not a fallacy, since the prediction of coastal flooding is based on scientific evidence.

v. My professor is leaving for a trip to Antarctica the same day that final grades are due for our class. Since this is my senior year at college, I cannot afford to get an incomplete in this class because I plan on graduating in a month. My final paper is worth 40 percent of my grade, so I can either choose to hand in the final paper before my professor leaves for Antarctica or to fail the course and therefore not graduate until next year. I don’t see any other way out.

This is an example of a false dilemma.

w. In Rhode Island the dropout rate at institutions of higher education is highest at the Community College of Rhode Island (CCRI). Brown University and the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD) have the lowest dropout rates. Since CCRI has the lowest tuition and Brown and RISD have the highest tuition in the state, we should raise the tuition at CCRI if we want to lower the dropout rate there.


2. When you or your college team engages in a game or sporting event, to what extent do you attribute the win or loss to what is in actuality a questionable cause? Looking back at the cognitive errors we studied in Chapter 4, discuss which of the different kinds of errors contribute to our tendency to use or fall for this fallacy.

Students’ answers will vary. Students may suggest that losses are blamed on the actions of the most susceptible member of the team. Such fallacies are commonplace, and the answers that students provide can be debated in class.


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3. Find two advertisements containing fallacies involving two different unwarranted assumptions. Cut out or photocopy the advertisements. For each ad, write one page explaining what fallacy it contains and the target audience of the fallacious ad. Discuss how effective you think each ad is and why.

Students’ answers will vary. There are countless contemporary ads containing huge numbers of bogus claims and fallacies being featured in visual and print media. Students may choose any of these and present their reasons to the rest of the class.

4. Which fallacy involving an unwarranted assumption are you most likely to fall for? Give a specific example. Which fallacy involving an unwarranted assumption are you most likely to use? Give a specific example. What steps can you take to make yourself less vulnerable to these fallacies?

Students’ answers will vary. This question can be answered in the form of a one-page essay.

Exercise 5-5, page 162

1. Discuss ways in which being aware of and avoiding fallacies can improve your personal life.

Students’ answers will vary. Students may choose from one of the nine ways mentioned in the chapter, or they might simply suggest a few methods they implement in their personal lives.

2. Discuss how lack of self-knowledge and self-confidence makes you or others you know more vulnerable to fallacious reasoning. Use specific examples to illustrate your answer.

Students’ answers will vary. Lack of self-knowledge or self-confidence may lead an individual to believe less in themselves and more in those around them. The people around individuals who lack self-knowledge or self-confidence may not be the best judges of day-to-day situations and may influence the individuals who lack self-knowledge or self-confidence to resort to fallacious or regressive thinking.

3. Working in small groups, select one or two of the following issues or one of the issues already raised in this chapter. Identify which fallacy the argument might contain. Discuss how you would go about collecting evidence to determine whether the argument is fallacious.


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a. Boys don’t do as well in school as girls because almost all the teachers in elementary schools are women.

This is an example of the questionable cause fallacy. Students need to determine if there is a causal relationship between the gender of a teacher and how well boys and girls perform in a class, especially since the number of male teachers was low years ago when boys were doing better. There is also an ambiguous term: “as well as.” This term needs an operational (precising) definition.

b. The beheading of infidels in Iraq, such as Western journalists, was sanctioned by Islam’s holiest text, the Qur’an, which urges Muslims to resist Western occupation by stating, “Slay them . . . and drive them out of the places whence they drove you.”

This is probably a fallacy of accent. Most Muslims do not interpret the Qur’an as sanctioning the beheading of noncombatants. Students will need to do more research on the interpretation of this passage.

c. “The big financiers have been the pampered pets for too long, and the mainstream figures who say ‘depression . . . depression . . . depression’ have been Chicken Littleing for too long; Wall Street won’t change its ways without a bloodbath, and it’s time they finally got one.” (Argument against giving government bailouts to struggling financial institutions.

This is an ad hominem fallacy. The passage is intended to create a negative feeling toward big financial institutions.

d. “We now face a wave of education reforms based on the belief that school choice, test-driven accountability, and the resulting competition will dramatically improve student achievement. . . . [T]here is empirical evidence, and it shows clearly that choice, competition, and accountability as education reform levers are not working. But with confidence bordering on recklessness, the Obama administration is plunging ahead, pushing an aggressive program of school reform—codified in its signature Race to the Top program that relies on the power of incentives and competition. This approach may well make schools worse, not better.”

There is probably no fallacy. However, we would first need to check out the credibility of the empirical evidence to make sure there is no fallacy of false cause.


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e. I don’t think an ice cream social is appropriate for our next meeting since several of the students who will be attending are Japanese Americans, and from what I know, most of them don’t eat ice cream.

There is no fallacy. It is not the fallacy of hasty generalization, although students may initially think it is. Ninety percent of Japanese Americans are lactose-intolerant and cannot eat dairy products without unpleasant gastrointestinal consequences.

f. Some people think prostitution should be legalized in the United States. However, if we legalize prostitution, sexually transmitted diseases like AIDS will run rampant and everyone will start to die out.

This is an example of a slippery slope. This has not happened in other countries that have legalized prostitution.

g. Lawyers for the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) want the words under God removed from the Pledge of Allegiance. The Supreme Court should not support the ACLU’s request. The ACLU is clearly antireligion and would like to see every trace of religion and faith in God removed from American life.

This is a straw man. The person making the argument is misrepresenting the position of the ACLU.

h. Support for stem-cell research by celebrities such as Michael J. Fox and Ronald Reagan Jr. has been in part responsible for the swing in public opinion in favor of the research.

This is possibly an example of inappropriate appeal to authority. Although each of these celebrities has done extensive research on the literature on stem cell research, one needs to determine if their research may have been based on confirmation bias or if it was unbiased, complete, and based on reputable sources.

i. Prayer works. Our church group prayed for Maxine after her operation, and she recovered from her surgery faster than the person in the bed beside her who had the same operation.

This is possibly an example of questionable cause. Some studies have found that prayer has a significant effect on healing. Others have found prayer has no effect. Ask students to research this question before deciding whether it contains a fallacy.


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4. Select two of the strategies for avoiding fallacies and discuss as a class or write a short essay describing ways in which these strategies can help you become a better critical thinker. Discuss how the strategies that you plan to use to make yourself less vulnerable to using or falling for fallacies might make it easier for you to achieve your life goals.

Students’ answers will vary. Students may choose from two of the nine strategies listed in the chapter or suggest strategies of their own.

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on Gun Control

LaPierre, “National Rifle Association Press Release (Dec. 21, 2012), pages 165-166

1. Why does LaPierre oppose making schools gun-free zones?

Students’ answers will vary. Some of them may say that by making schools gun-free people are telling insane killers that schools are the safest place to create the greatest mayhem with minimum risk.

2. What is LaPierre’s view regarding violence in the media and video games?

Students’ answers will vary. LaPierre feels that the violent, callous media act as silent co-conspirators that not only subject children to thousands of acts of violence but also demonize legitimate gun owners.

3. What does LaPierre mean when he says: “The only thing that stops a bad guy with a gun is a good guy with a gun”?

Students’ answers will vary. Some of them may say that the only way to stop monsters from killing children is to have a plan of protection by arming the good guys, such as the police and the secret service to protect children.

4. On what grounds does LaPierre argue that we should have armed guards in our schools?

Students’ answers will vary. Some may say that qualified armed security guards in school might have saved the innocent children who were killed at Sandy Hook Elementary School.

“Testimony by Mark Kelly, Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Bun Violence on Jan. 30, 2013, pages 166-167.”


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1. What does Kelly mean when he says that “behind every victim [of gun violence] lays a matrix of failure and inadequacy in our families, in our communities, in our values, in our society”?

Students could suggest that there are about 100,000 victims of gun violence every year because it is too easy for dangerous people to get guns. Students’ answers could also include the following observations and statements made by Kelly, in which he hints at three things that could be done to prevent gun-related violence that have not been taken seriously. Fix the background checks. Remove the limitations on collecting data and conducting scientific research on gun

violence. There has to be a careful and civil conversation about the lethality of fire arms

America permits to be legally bought and sold in the country.

2. What is Kelly’s view regarding the Second Amendment?

Students’ answers will vary. Kelly believes in the Second Amendment and the right of Americans to own guns for protection, collection, and recreation. However, this right requires responsibility and does not extend to dangerous people and terrorists.

3. Why does Kelly think background checks are important?

Kelly notes that most of the people who go on killing sprees are mentally unstable or terrorists and should not have been given a gun permit in the first place. Background checks will identify dangerous people who should not have guns.

4. What compromise does Kelly propose we make in our gun ownership laws?

Kelly suggests a better background check system.

Think and Discuss, page 167

1. Make a list of the arguments LaPierre uses in support of armed guards in schools. List the arguments Kelly uses in support of stricter gun control laws. Critically analyze both arguments for fallacies. Which person makes the most compelling argument and why?

The following arguments are used by LaPierre. We have armed security guards in banks, airports, court houses, and sports stadiums. The purpose of these security guards is to keep


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people safe. There have been several shootings in schools. Therefore, the protection of armed security guards should be extended to our schools.The following arguments are used by Kelly. The Second Amendment confers on Americans the right to own a firearm for protection, collection, and recreation. Responsible people have a right to own guns. The Second Amendment does not grant dangerous people a right to own guns. Therefore, there should be gun background checks that assure that guns stay out of the hands of dangerous people.

2. Critically analyze LaPierre’s argument that schools should have armed guards. In addition to looking for fallacies, check to make sure that his premises are true. Are there any important premises that are missing from his argument? Discuss how Kelly would most likely respond to LaPierre’s position.

Students should research the effectiveness of armed guards in banks, airports, court houses, and sports stadiums. Do they make these places safer? Has LaPierre considered other ways of making schools more secure? What about the effects on school children of having armed guards around? Kelly would prefer stricter background checks for gun owners so dangerous people do not own guns in the first place.

3. Marko Kloos, an ex-Marine, argues in his article “Why the Gun Is Civilization” that “human beings only have two ways to deal with one another: reason and force.” He proposes that in a society where not everyone is reasonable guns may be necessary as a means to protect ourselves. Do you agree? Discuss also how both LaPierre and Kelly might each response to Kloos’s argument.

Students’ answers will vary. LaPierre would probably agree with Kloos. Kelly would look for other ways to keep potentially violent people from acquiring guns.


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