Chapter 4 Morphology

Chapter 5 SyntaxOutlineIntroduction 4. Sentence structure1. What is grammar? 5. Functions of tree structures2. Category 6. Embedded sentences 2.1 Lexical category 2.2 Subcategorization3. Phrases7. Transformation rules 7.1 Inversion rules 7.2 Wh-movement 3.1 Phrase structure rules 3.2 VP structure rules 3.3 PP structure rules 3.4 Other PS structure rules 3.5 Internal structure of phrases8. SummaryIntroduction (1/3)Syntax structure of sentences

inspired by Noam Chomsky

finite basic structures for infinite sentences in a languageconcerned withleading linguistic research in theoriestenetIssue explored Why can a child acquire a language in such a short time? usually mastering native language before 12 years oldIntroduction (2/3)twofold assumptionUniversal GrammarLAD (language acquisition device)in our brainIf that language is innate, it is not learned but acquired. There are a certain common properties among languages. Introduction (3/3)Utterances sentences

Different languages share a lot of common structures. NP (Noun phrase) + VP (Verb phrase) This chapter includes: (1) category (2) subcategory (3) phrase structure rules

basic unitesdifferent in appearanceE.g., composed of (4) sentence structure rules (5) transformation (inversion, Wh-movement, NP-movement)

1. What is grammar1. What is grammar? (1/9)

a nightmareTo most of the Taiwanese students has suffered fromtests and memorization of grammatical terms & structures pedagogical grammarEnglish grammarbe part of our linguistic knowledge or language intuitionin this chapterVery different1. What is grammar? (2/9) One who does not have any deficiency in language (e.g., articulator disorder or heavy retarded)

(1) speak her/his own native language (NL) (2) understand what he hears if s/he is spoken to in his own NL (3) judge what sentences are ungrammatical

be able to E.g., (1) a. The boy met the girl. b. The met boy the girl. (2) a. The girl met the boy. b. The girl the boy met. knowing that both are not good sentences might not be able to point out what makes them weird or unacceptable

stop from speaking ungrammatical sentencesQ: What is the nature of language faculty or language competence?1. What is grammar? (3/9) All the words are the same, but different in word order. English native speakersalthough language faulty language faulty

a. innovation of new sentences b. if you listen carefully what you are told

few sentences are repeated (Red) although topics might be Red & Red. the same finding as reading 1. What is grammar? (4/9)autonomycreativitywould find(to check quotation dictionaries)All sentences might be foreign to you, but you understand what they mean even if it is your first time reading Each grammar is independent,& to some extent is arbitrary. Autonomy

E.g., English V.S. Chinese sentences

1a & 2a a. Grammar is different in a certain respect. b. Each grammar is unique & autonomous.

(1) a. He studied in the classroom in the evening.b. Ta dushu zaijaoshi zhaiwanshang He study in the classroom in the evening(2) a. Wanshang ta zaijiaoshi dushub. In the evening he in the classroom studied.1. What is grammar? (5/9)translated word by word unacceptableacceptabletranslated implicationQ: What does it mean by unacceptable or ungrammatical? Are they are the same?(1) Grammatical but unacceptable E.g., a. Colorless green sleeps furiously. subject verb common

1. What is grammar? (6/9)modifyreasonable, e.g. pretty girl, colorful picturesstructure/grammarperfectunacceptable, for (a) (b) (c)but(a) no green without any color(b) Green never sleeps. (Only animate can do the action of sleeping)(c) Sleep can be sound but not furious, (e.g. He had a sound sleep last night.)adverbadjective(1) Grammatical but unacceptable E.g., b. He killed the dead umbrella.c. The excited pencil walked gigantically in the park.(2) Not entirely grammatical but acceptable & frequently usedE.g, a. Sally poured the glass with water.

Sally poured water into the glass. filled the glass with water.b. Been there, done it. = We have been there and we have done it.

1. What is grammar? (7/9)grammatically should besimplificationhas become an idiomatic usein pragmaticsforgottenConclusionGrammatical sentences acceptableAcceptable sentences grammatical

The target of this chapter is grammatical & acceptable sentences.

1. What is grammar? (8/9)not always HoweverReview1. What do you think is linguistic knowledge? Please try to answer this question on the basis of some examples.2. What is linguistic creativity? Please give at least two sentences to argue for it.3. What does autonomy mean in linguistics? Please give a good exampleto show what autonomy means to you.4. Please write down at least two grammatical but unacceptable sentences.5. What difference is there between pedagogical and linguistic grammar?1. What is grammar? (9/9)2. Categorya grouping so that each group of wordsmay occur in a certain position2.1 Lexical category2.2 Subcategorization Words or lexica a category

nounsnaming of persons, events, time, 2.1 Lexical category (1/2)with the same propertiesa. occurring in the nominative position b. used as an object in a sentenceE.g., The book is on the tablee.g., desk, cup, tiger, waterreferring toplaces, or materialsnominative or subjectcategoryabbreviatedexamples nounNdesk, pen, food, air, Tom verbVwalk, read, cry, smile, give, put adjectiveAbeautiful, calm, tall, low, thin prepositionPin, on, under, above adverbAdv.slowly, yesterday, where, furiously auxiliaryAux.can, ought to, might, will pronounProyou, him, they, she determinerDet.a, an, the, this, some, many, any, few conjunctionConj.and, but, neithernor, when2.1 Lexical category (2/2) indefinite quantifiers articlesfrequently used in syntactic structures Subcategorization (SUB) in lexical categories There are further subcategories. Children knowing

be part of the language faculty Children

putting all the categories & SUB in their mental lexicon E.g., verbs (Vs) & nouns (Ns) 2.2 Subcategorization (1/2) has been assumedwhen acquiring mother tonguesin the process of English acquisition Vs

transitive (vt.) intransitive (vi.) Nscountable (e.g., book, pen, table) uncountable (e.g., water, paper, air) In the mental lexicon of an English child, word inputs are listed below:V. = verb; NP = noun phrase; PP = preposition phrase(1) a. cry, V. ____ b. buy, V. _____ NP c. give, V. ____ NP, NP d. put, V. ____ NP, PP (location) 2.2 Subcategorization (2/2) a verb (vi.) independently a verb (vt.) that must + NP a dative verb that must + 2 NPsa verb that should + an NP & a PP (2) a. He put a book on the table. b. He put a book here. c. He put a book. d. He put on the table.bad sentencesgood sentencesno PP following put no NP following put Review1. Please sort out the following words according to their lexical categories.

2. What is subcategorization? Please write down the subcategorizatin of the following lexicon.2. CategoryinsertcancelbeautifulaboutexcitedhospitalitycouldwethosequicklybutbehindintoseveralsomesenddancekillsmiledeliverwaterpenJohnbeauty3. Phrases3.1 Phrase structure rules3.2 VP structure rules3.3 PP structure rules3.4 Other PS structure rules3.5 Internal structure of phrases Phrases

a phrase

more than 1 word

3. Phrases composed ofbased on grammatical use NP: noun phraseVP: verb phrasePP: preposition phrase AP: adjective phrase Adv.P: adverb phrase constructed by phrase structure rules Phrase structure rules (PS-rules) are written as follows: E.g., NP(1) a. NP (Det) Nb. NP (Det) (AP) Na NP = a Det (article) + a noun(Det) optional, Det may be skipped.

3.1 Phrase structure rules (1/5) ( ) indicatinggenerating (2) a. NP b. NP

N Det N water the book article tree diagrams

3.1 Phrase structure rules (2/5) (2) b. NP

Det N the book c. [NP [Det the][N book]]

node node node sister nodes (to each other)dominatingdaughter nodescan be writtendomain; mother node 3.1 Phrase structure rules (3/5) b. NP

Det N the book

(2) a. NP N waterlexical insertion(finding lexicon for each node)node node node node node Only an uncountable noun can be inserted. Any types of noun can be inserted,e.g. the water or the pen.(1) b. NP (Det) (AP) N

3.1 Phrase structure rules (4/5) A (3) a. NP b. NP1

AP N Det NP2 A AP N cold water the colorful book

based on the presence or absence of a Det NP1

Det NP2 AP N the colorful book

3.1 Phrase structure rules (5/5) Review: the relation of each node (3) b. NP1

Det NP2 AP N the colorful book

mother node Adominatingsister nodes (to each other)sister(to each other)Ais mother ofgrandmother nodehead3.2 VP structure rules (1/3) VP structure rules are written as follows:(1) a. VP V (PP) b. VP V NPc. VP V NP PP Tree diagrams

optional( ) indicatingimpliesThe verb is vi. (2) a. VP b. VP V V PP cry P NP Det N cry in the morningThe verb is vt. 3.2 VP structure rules (2/3) (1) b. VP V NP c. VP V NP PPTree diagrams

(3) a. VP V NP Det N buy a book b. VP V NP PP Det N P NP Det N put the book on the deskheadhead3.2 VP structure rules (3/3) (4) VP V NP Det N cry the book ungrammaticallexical insertion V. ___ NP subcategorization be unlikely generated cry, V. ___ (PP) No NP is allowed. A PP structure rule is written below:(1) PP P NP Tree diagrams(2) a. PP b. PP P NP P NP Det N Det N in the room of the value

3.3 PP structure rules headheadAfter getting the basic knowledge of NP, VP, & PP, other PS rules are quite obvious, for which reason we would like to skip other PS rules here.

3.4 Other PS structure rules 3.5 Internal structure of phrases (1/5) There is a head node for each phrase structure (PS). (1) a. NP N b. VP V c. PP P d. AP A X (as a variable) = V, N, P, or A (2) XP X

3.5 Internal structure of phrases (2/5) a. NP N b. VP V c. PP Pd. AP A Specifier (Spec) XP Spec X a modifier +used in linguisticsE.g., (1) very beautiful, (2) to slowly speak (to speak slowly) (3) a beautiful lady.

Tree diagram: XP Spec X3.5 Internal structure of phrases (3/5) VP V NP vi. XP X C (E.g., X = A, P, N; C = PP, NP, PP)a. AP A PPb. PP P NPc. NP N PPobjectcomplementHe is fond of reading.I am satisfied with his achievements.He lives in Taipei.

I believe his capability of doing that job.3.5 Internal structure of phrases (4/5) XP X C XP Spec X C

X-bar theory

further revised asTree diagram: XP Spec X C (Complement) X Spec X X

X CXP = VP, PP, NP, AP (X-double bar)maximal projectionX-baran independent unit3.5 Internal structure of phrases (5/5) X-bar theory

X Spec X X X Ccannot be independentusually occurringE.g., a Taiwan tea party b. N Det N N N N N a Taiwan tea party a. N Det N N N N N a Taiwan tea party an NPReview 1. What are PS-rules? Please draw a tree diagram for the phrase a magic kiss. 2. Please draw tree diagrams according to the given PS rules.

3. Phrases (1/2)

Review3. Please draw a tree diagram for each phrase below.a. buy a piece of chocolate for Johnb. cry sadly in the park near my housec. to the beautiful garden in the schoold. a very tall gentleman with white hair

3. Phrases (2/2)4. Sentence structureWith the general backgrounds of phrase structure rules and how different phrase structures are generated, it will be not so difficult to get the idea of sentence generation. The rule for sentence structure: (1) S NP VP (1) rule + PS-rules PS-rules for sentence generation:(2) a. S NP VP b. NP Det Nc. VP V NP

4. Sentence structure (1/3) (3) S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The boy bought that book4. Sentence structure (2/3) More examples in the following:(4) a. Mary mailed a book to Harris. b. John put a flower on the table. S S N V NP VP V P V N P V N P N Det N P N Det N Det N Mary mailed a book to Harris John put a flower on the tableReviewPlease write down PS-rules responsible for the following sentencesand draw a tree diagram for each sentence.

4. Sentence structure (3/3)a. buy a piece of chocolate for Johnb. cry sadly in the park near my housec. to the beautiful garden in the schoold. a very tall gentleman with white hair 5. Functions of tree structureQ: Why should we use tree diagrams for syntactic structure?A: Ambiguous sentences can be made clear by way of tree structures.5. Functions of tree structures (1/3) E.g., The man saw the girl in the garden. (There are 2 possible meanings.) a. S b. S NP VP NP VPDet N V NP Det N VP PP Det NP V NP P NP N PP Det N Det N P NP Det NThe man saw the girl in the garden The man saw the girl in the garden

with a telescopeE.g., The man saw the girl in the garden. Bracket label can save the space:a. [[[Det The N man] NP [V saw [[Det the N girl] NP [P in [Det the N garden] NP] PP]NP]VP]Sb. [[[Det The N man] NP [V saw [Det the N girl] NP [P in [Det the N garden] NP] PP]]VP]S

5. Functions of tree structures (2/3) Review1. What are ambiguous sentences? How can ambiguous sentences beclarified in meaning? 2. Please draw tree diagrams for the following sentences:a. I sent a letter to John. c. The chicken is ready to eat.b. He danced happily.3. Each of the following sentences is ambiguous. Please use tree diagrams for the distinction of meaning. a. He looked at the girl with glasses.b. He met the polite woman and man.c. Visiting professors might be boring.5. Functions of tree structures (3/3)6. Embedded sentences embedded sentences (ESs)

a. a sentence put into another one, like relative clauses.b. used to be called subordinate clausesc. usually led by conjunctions like that, which, or what.

COMP (Complementizer) a. an ESS-bar (S) S COMP S 1. Embedded sentences (1/4)inserted undersignified withPS-rule(3) a. S NP VPb. NP Det Nc. VP V Sd. S COMP Se. VP V NP (1) + (2) = (3)(1) a. S NP VP (2) S COMP S b. NP Det Nc. VP V NP 6. Embedded sentences (2/4) S NP VPDet N V S COMP VP NP VP Det N V NP Det NThe boy said that his friend bought that book (3) a. S NP VPb. NP Det Nc. VP V Sd. S COMP Se. VP V NPE.g., a. The boy said that his friend bought that book.b. The woman said that the boy said that his friend bought that book.c. The girl said that the woman said that the boy said that his friend bought that book.

6. Embedded sentences (3/4) recursivegeneratinginfinite sentences if applied continuouslybecause of our memory spanAn ES follows a transitive verb.Review1. What are embedded sentences? What are the specific properties ofembedded sentences? 2. Please draw tree diagrams for the following sentences:a. Mary claimed that she would marry John.b. I dont believe that he has told me the truth.c. The man that we met last night is Johns father.d. He told me a story about John.e. Bill said that he would help you with the homework.6. Embedded sentences (4/4)7.1 Inversion rules7.2 Wh-movement7. Transformation rulesare responsible for sentence variations(1) a. He will leave tomorrow. b. Will he leave tomorrow?

(1b) is a very good sentence & used quite often. How can we account for this phenomenon?

7.1 Inversion rules (1/2) according to PS rules (S NP VP)grammaticalAux (auxiliary verbs) + NP + VPcannot be generated by any PS rules HoweverGenerative Grammar Framework of Generative Grammar: Transformation rules (1) a. He will leave tomorrow. b. Will he leave tomorrow? Inversion rule:NP (Aux) V Aux NP V 1 2 3 3 1 2 7.1 Inversion rules (2/2) Deep structureSurface structureisisbecause of no TRsworks togethera statement an interrogative sentence The rule of Wh-movement: Wh-words (when, what, who, where, which, & how) in the sentences

the beginning of a sentenceE.g., (1) Which car did he put in the garage?(2) He put which car in the garage.He put which car in the garage. 7.2 Wh-movement (1/2) moved toDeep structure(Which car) (1) Which car did he put in the garage?(2) He put which car in the garage. S COMP Aux S NP VP N VP PP V NP P NP Det N Det N He (did) put which car in the garage 7.2 Wh-movement (2/2) applying 2 transformation rulesWh-movementInversionWhy should there be transformational rules?a. not entirely answered yet b. might be due in part to the creativity of languages

a. Not everything can be moved in a sentence. b. Some constraints are there to keep something stable in a sentence. 7. Transformation rules (1/3) HoweverE.g.,(1) a. I would like to buy that book for him.b. For him I would like to buy that book.c. That book I would like to buy for him.The Subject (NP) always precedes the V (VP) if anything in a sentence can be moved out no chance in communication some constraints: to stop movement from happening 7. Transformation rules (2/3) one thing in commonsoWhat?without any answer so far Review1. What is a transformation? 2. What is the inversion rule? In which circumstances, Inversion Rule has to be applied? 3. What is Wh-movement? Please try to illustrate your answer with examples. 7. Transformation rules (3/3)8. SummaryThis chapter to explore what underlies our linguistic knowledgeTo know a languageto possess the grammar of that languagea. produce all the possible grammatical sentences b. stop any ungrammatical sentences from being spoken out 8. Summary (1/2) goalbe able to Framework of syntax

There are PS rules different types of sentences

Lexicon is inserted PS + subcategorizations of each word

8. Summary (2/2) Deep structureSurface structure Transformation rules in based on X-bar theorygeneratingbased oncan be appliedresulting in