Chapter 5 Self-Understanding: How We Come to Understand Ourselves

Chapter 5Chapter 5Chapter 5Chapter 5

Self-Understanding: Self-Understanding:

How We Come to How We Come to Understand OurselvesUnderstand Ourselves

Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

I. The Nature of the Self

The Nature of the SelfThe Nature of the Self

• William James defined a basic duality of the self: it is both the known, “Me,” or self-concept (our knowledge of who we are), and the knower, “I.” or self-awareness (the act of thinking about ourselves).


• Tests of human infants suggest that self-recognition develops at about two years of age.


• Other developmental studies show that the concept of self evolves from being concrete and focused on observable characteristics to being more abstract and focused on psychological characteristics during the course of childhood and adolescence.


• The Functions of the Self

Researchers have pointed to three important functions served by the self. The self has an organizational function, an emotional function, and an executive function.


• Cultural Differences in the Definition of the Self.

In many Western cultures, people have an independent view of the self, while in many Asian and other non-Western cultures, people have an interdependent view of the self.


• Gender Differences in the Definition of Self

There does appear to be a difference in the way women and men define themselves in the United States, with women having more of an interdependent sense of self than men.


• Despite cultural differences, people are similar in having some basic self-motives: self-assessment, self-verification, and self-enhancement.


II. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection

Knowing Ourselves Through IntrospectionKnowing Ourselves Through Introspection

• Intuitively, we recognize that introspection, the process of looking inward and examining one’s own thoughts, feelings, and motives, is one basis of self-knowledge.


• Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory

According to self-awareness theory, when we do focus on ourselves, we compare our current behavior against internal standards and values.



When we become aware of a discrepancy, we attempt to reduce it by changing our behavior to match.



Baumeister (1991) has postulated that, because self-awareness can be unpleasant, we will be motivated to “escape the self” by engaging in destructive practices or spiritual practices.



Self-awareness will be pleasant when we meet or exceed our standards and the state can motivate us to do so.


• Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Know

Many of our mental processes occur outside of awareness -- we are aware of the final result of our thoughts, but not of the process by which we got there.



Introspection may not lead us to the true causes of our feelings and behavior, but we’ll manage to convince ourselves it did.



Diary studies have shown that, although people have strong causal theories about factors that influence their moods, these theories are generally wrong.


• The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons

There may be a downside to introspecting about reasons when making decisions -- namely, we may come up with inaccurate reasons.


• The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons

We may convince ourselves that these incorrect reasons are correct, thereby changing our attitudes about how we feel to match our reasons -- an effect known as reasons-generated attitude change.


III. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our

Own Behavior

Knowing Ourselves Through Observations Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behaviorof Our Own Behavior

• Inferring Who We Are From How We Behave: Self-Perception Theory

According to Bem’s self-perception theory, we find out how we feel by observing what we do.


• Inferring Who We Are From How We Behave: Self-Perception Theory

We are likely to infer our feelings from our behavior when our initial feelings are weak or unclear. And, we use our behavior to tell us about ourselves when we decide that we freely chose the behavior.


• Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting; extrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures.


• Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation

When we are rewarded for engaging in an intrinsically motivating activity, we may underestimate the extent to which our behavior was caused by intrinsic motivation. This is known as the overjustification effect.


• Intrinsic versus Extrinsic MotivationRecent research reveals that there are conditions under which the overjustification effect can be avoided:If initial interest in the task is low, as opposed to high; if the reward is performance-contingent (based on quality) rather than task-contingent (based simply on performance); and by reminding people that they can do tasks for intrinsic reasons even if they are also extrinsically rewarded for engaging in them.


• Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

The two-factor theory of emotion states that emotion results from first perceiving physiological arousal and then finding an explanation or label for that arousal.


• Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal

Studies have demonstrated that misattribution of arousal can occur. When this happens, we attribute our arousal to the wrong source and we experience mistaken or exaggerated emotions.


• Interpreting the Social World: Cognitive Appraisal Theories of Emotion.

Cognitive appraisal theories of emotion hold that emotions result from people’s interpretations of events, even in the absence of any physiological arousal. The appraisals of the implications of the event and of the cause of the event are especially important.


IV. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Other

People

Knowing Ourselves Through Observations Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Other Peopleof Other People

• What others tell us about ourselves is a very important source of self-knowledge.

Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Other PeopleOther People

• Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others

According to social comparison theory, when our goal is to find out information about ourselves, we are likely to engage in upward social comparison; but when our goal is to feel good about ourselves, we are likely to engage in downward social comparison.


• Impression Management: All the World’s A Stage

Through self-presentation we attempt to present who we are, or who we want people to believe we are, to other people.



Impression management occurs when we consciously or unconsciously orchestrate a carefully designed presentation of self to fit a particular goal or need in a social interaction.

Impression ManagementImpression Management


Ingratiation is the process whereby people flatter, praise, and try to make themselves likable to a person who has higher status.

Impression ManagementImpression Management


Self-handicapping is creating obstacles for ourselves so that if we do poorly on a task, we can blame circumstances and not our abilities.

Study QuestionsStudy Questions

What is a self-concept and how does it change from childhood to adulthood?


What are the functions of the self? How successful are people’s attempts at self-control? What factors influence self-control?


How do self-concepts differ in Western cultures compared to Eastern cultures?


How do self-concepts differ in according to gender?


What is similar about self-concepts across cultures and gender?


How often do people rely on introspection for self-knowledge?


According to self-awareness theory, what are the consequences of becoming self-aware? What are strategies people use to become less self-aware?


When is self-knowledge difficult to obtain? Why do causal theories fall short of explaining why we feel or did something? Why can it be a problem to introspect about the causes of our feelings? What is reasons-generated attitude change?


According to self-perception theory, what besides introspection is a source of self-knowledge? When are we most likely to seek out this source of self-knowledge?


What is the overjustification effect? What type of motivation is adversely affected by the overjustification effect? Which type of reward is less likely to lead to the overjustification effect?


According to the two-factor theory of emotion, how do we understand our emotional states? What is the significance of the main findings of the Schacter and Singer (1962) experiment? What is misattribution of arousal?


What is the main difference between the two-factor theory of emotion and cognitive appraisal theories of emotion?


Why do we engage in social comparison? What are the consequences of making upward and downward social comparisons? What are motives underlying each type of comparison?


How is impression management different from self-presentation?

How do we manage our impressions?


Why do people self-handicap?

What are two ways that we self-handicap?

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Chapter 5 Self-Understanding: How We Come to Understand Ourselves