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chapter 5
Learning
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What is Learning?Occurs whenever experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior
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Classical ConditioningA form of learning in which a response elicited by one stimulus becomes elicited by a previously neutral stimulus
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Classical ConditioningTermsUnconditioned
stimulus (US)Unconditioned
response (UR)Neutral stimulusConditioned stimulus
(CS)Conditioned response
(CR)
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Response Acquisition
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Classical Conditioning in HumansEarly research
J. B. Watson classically conditions “Little Albert” to fear white rats
Mary Cover Jones conditions “Peter” to not fear white rats
J. Wolpe adapted Jones’ procedure
“desensitization therapy”
Teaching relaxation in periods of fearful or anxious situations
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Classical Conditioning Is Selective
Why don’t we develop phobias of everything we pair with harm?
“Preparedness:”• Certain conditioned responses are acquired
very easily• A biological predisposition• “conditioned taste aversions”
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Thorndike’s “Puzzle Box”Found cats could undo a cage latch more quickly on successive trials.
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Elements of Operant ConditioningLearning to make or withhold a certain response because of its consequences
We make operant behaviors, and
Consequences follow
Consequences take one of two forms
Reinforcers
Punishers
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Establishing an Operantly Conditioned Response
Operant behaviors should be voluntary
Training can take time
Shaping
Reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior
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A Closer Look At Reinforcement
Positive reinforcer A pleasant event that follows an operant
response, increasing the likelihood that the response will recur
Negative reinforcerStrengthens a given response by removing
an aversive stimuli
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PunishmentPunisher
An unpleasant consequence that reduces the likelihood that we will repeat a behavior.
Not the same as negative reinforcement
To be effective, punishment needs to be
Swift, sufficient, and certain
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Drawbacks of PunishmentPunishment cannot “unteach” unwanted behaviors.
Punishment can backfire.
Punishment can teach aggression.
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Learned HelplessnessLearning a “giving-up” response
Classic learned helplessness study (Seligman)
Findings applied to humans
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Shaping Through BiofeedbackBiofeedback
Use of operant conditioning to control certain biological functions
Conditioning through biofeedback
Medical treatment
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Factors Shared by Classical and Operant Conditioning
In both forms of conditioning, a “contingency” existsOne relationship depends on another
Contingencies in classical conditioningContingency between CS and US
Contingencies in operant conditioningContingency between action and outcome
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Schedules of ReinforcementPartial reinforcement schedules
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ExtinctionLearned responses can weaken and disappear
In classical conditioning:• Occurs when CS-US pairing lapses
In operant conditioning:• Occurs when reinforcing is withheld
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Spontaneous RecoveryPreviously extinguished response reappears without retraining
In classical conditioning:• CS predicts US again
In operant conditioning:• Behavior produces old consequence again
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Response Acquisition and Extinction in Classical Conditioning
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Factors Involved In Extinguishing Operant Conditioning
Strength of the original learning
Pattern of reinforcement
Variety of settings in which original learning took place
Complexity of the behavior
Learning through punishment
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Stimulus ControlThe available stimuli exerts a control over conditioned responses.
Occurs for both classical and operant conditioning
Takes two forms:
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Discrimination
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Stimulus GeneralizationTendency to respond to cues similar to ones we have become conditioned to
Classical• Stimuli similar to CS will elicit CR
Operant• Supplying different response to stimulus
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Stimulus DiscriminationLearners can be trained not to generalize, but rather to make a conditioned response only to a single stimulus.
Classical• CR is specific to a certain CS-US pairing
Operant• Reinforcing only specific responses
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New Learning Based On Original Learning
Higher order conditioning
Conditioning based on previous learning
Primary reinforcer
A reinforcer that is rewarding in itself
Secondary reinforcer
A reinforcer that acquires its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer
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Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning
Passivity
Classical conditioning is passive;
Operant conditioning relies on the learner to actively participate in learning
Incentives
In operant conditioning reinforcers act as incentives for learning;
Classical conditioning does not provide incentives.
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Cognitive LearningMental processes that go on when we learn
Are not directly observable, but inferred
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Latent Learning
Learning happens even when not demonstrated
Stored internally
Tolman’s rats
Cognitive maps
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Insight & Learning SetsInsightLearning that occurs rapidly as a result of
understanding all the elements of a problem
Learning setsThe ability to become increasingly more
effective in solving problems as more problems are solved• i.e., “learning how to learn”
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Learning By ObservingWe can learn by observing a model, without firsthand experience by the observer
Observational learning
Selective in nature
Bandura’s doll study
