Chapter 5. Culturally Competent Practice - Sage Publications

Chapter 5

CULTURALLY COMPETENT PRACTICE

ANNA R. MCPHATTER

Human service organizations are increasinglyclear that their success in large measuredepends on the extent to which they are in

tune with and appropriately respond to the internal andexternal environments of which they are a part. Sowersand Ellis (2001) indicate that diversity of local popula-tions is one of the major issues that will affect theinternal operations and external relations of humanservice organizations. The widening racially, ethnically,and culturally diverse population in the United Statespresents unique challenges to human service practi-tioners, agencies, and organizations as well as profes-sional educators in the human services.The U.S.CensusBureau (Bureau of the Census, 1995) projects that bythe year 2050, the white, non-Latino population willshrink from its current 72% to approximately 50% ofthe total population. The Latino population is expectedto double, from 11.3% to 22.5%, during this period,exceeding the percentage of African Americans, whocurrently make up 12.3% of the U.S. population.

The expanding diversity in the workforce has beenmet with a myriad of responses. Businesses and corpo-rations have responded to the increased multiculturalnature of the population by developing aggressivediversity strategies in the workplace. Human serviceorganizations have likewise made strides by acknowl-edging the implications of the widening multiculturallandscape. For example, for well over two decades,accreditation standards for social work education haverequired curriculum content on diversity and have

continued to monitor the extent to which social workschools and programs prepare students to practicewith culturally diverse client systems. Other disciplines,such as psychology, nursing, and counseling, also areaddressing the issues of diversity and multiculturalpractice through their education programs (AmericanPsychological Association, 1992; Kavanagh & Kennedy,1992; Sue, Arrendondo, & McDavis, 1992).

Practice specialties within social work, such aschild welfare, have made significant steps in furtheringthe vision of culturally competent practice (Dana,Behn, & Gonwa, 1992; Malik & Velazquez, 2002). TheChild Welfare League of America (Nash, 1999), in aneffort they called the Advancing Cultural Competencein Child Welfare Initiative, delineated the followingset of values, which makes explicit the importance ofculturally competent practice to the human serviceorganization fulfilling a mission.

♦ Cultural competence is for everyone.♦ Cultural competence is integral to best practice.♦ Cultural competence is an ongoing process.♦ Cultural competence is part of the overall organiza-

tional goal of excellence.♦ Culturally competent organizations must be customer

driven.♦ Cultural competence is a key factor to continued

financial survival.♦ Culturally competent organizations should foster

leadership throughout the organization.

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Midlevel managers and supervisors play a vital rolein developing culturally competent organizations andsubsequent culturally competent practice. They areessential role models who demonstrate at multiplelevels effective organizational change processes thatmove the organization and workers toward culturalcompetence goals. Supervisors must have essentialknowledge, personal and professional attributes, andskills to fulfill the role of transforming organizationsinto culturally effective entities.

This chapter is based on the premise that to suc-cessfully meet the challenges of a diverse labor forceand a diverse consumer base, human service organiza-tions need to place the goal of cultural competencehigh up on their organizational and practice agenda ofpriorities. Achieving cultural competence is all aboutlearning, and this achievement therefore representsone of the important ingredients of the vision of trans-forming human service organizations into learningorganizations. The following key elements of a learningorganization are directly related to the process of con-ceptualizing culturally competent supervision: (a) anorganization that is skilled at creating, acquiring,and transferring knowledge and at modifying itsbehavior to reflect new knowledge and insights; (b) anorganization that incorporates systems thinking, sharedvision, and team learning; (c) an organization inwhich organizational learning is viewed as a processof improving actions through better knowledge andunderstanding; and (d) an organization that engagesin “enlightened experimentation,” which involves asystem for sharing diverse ideas and creating incentivesfor experimentation.

This chapter is organized into the following majorcomponents: (a) an evolving definition of culturalcompetence, (b) a description of a culturally compe-tent organization, (c) a framework for achievingculturally competent supervision in human servicesorganizations, and (d) strategies for modeling cultur-ally competent supervision. A case vignette is alsoprovided at the end of the chapter to practice applyingthe concepts of culturally competent supervision.

DEFINING CULTURAL COMPETENCE

Cultural competence is defined by Cross (in Rounds,Weil, & Bishop, 1994) as “a set of congruent behaviors,attitudes, and policies that come together in a system,agency, or among professionals and enable that system,agency, or those professionals to work effectively in

cross-cultural situations” (pp. 5-6). Green (1995)asserts that competent practitioners are able to conducttheir “professional work in a way that is congruent withthe behavior and expectations that members of a dis-tinctive culture recognize as appropriate among them-selves” (p. 52). Weaver (1998) indicates that the humanservices provider must be knowledgeable about thegroup in question; must be able to be self-reflective,recognizing biases within self and the profession; andmust be able to integrate knowledge and self-reflectioninto practice. McPhatter (1997) describes culturalcompetence as the ability to transform knowledgeand cultural awareness into health or psychosocialinterventions that support and sustain healthy client-system functioning within the appropriate culturalcontext. McPhatter (1997) developed the followingcomponents as part of a cultural competence attain-ment model for achieving cultural competence.

♦ Enlightened consciousness: A deeply self-reflectiveprocess that challenges entrenched values and beliefsystems about cultural differences and how oneperceives self in relation to culturally diverse others.

♦ Grounded knowledge base: Acknowledges the legiti-macy of nontraditional modes of inquiry and educa-tion; embraces a consistent process of criticalanalysis of mainstream theories and constructs forappropriateness to guide cross-cultural practice.

♦ Cumulative skill proficiency: Application of cognitiveand affective learning that enhances one’s ability toeffectively enter the world of culturally differentclients and communities. Cross-cultural communica-tion skills, multidimensional assessment, micro andmacro intervention skills, and evaluation skills areessential dimensions of the cumulative skill profi-ciency mandate.

Cultural competence, whether viewed from a client-centered or organizational perspective, ultimatelymust address the extent to which client or consumerneeds and, subsequently, organizational mandates aremet for the targeted population. Cultural competenceis developed and put into practice within the context ofthe agency or organization. The culturally competentsupervisor must be knowledgeable about and have aclear vision of the culturally competent organization toeffectively carry out his or her role toward that goal.Although not exhaustive, the following aspects of aculturally competent organization represent essentialcomponents without which only minimal progress canbe expected.

48–•–PART II / INTERACTIONAL NATURE OF SUPERVISION


COMPONENTS OF CULTURALLY

COMPETENT ORGANIZATIONS

Achieving cultural competence is a dynamic,protracted, and developmental change process thatrequires genuine commitment on the part of chiefexecutive staff, midlevel managers, direct serviceworkers, and support staff. A culturally competentorganization is one that is actively pursuing identifi-able and measurable outcomes reflected in the follow-ing goals:

♦ Employment of a racially, culturally, ethnicallydiverse work force that appropriately reflects thediverse makeup of the organization’s consumer orclient population

♦ Operation within a well-developed strategic plan forachieving culturally competent practice and serviceprovision with accountable managers assigned toimplement the plan

♦ The mission, goals, objectives, policies, and proce-dures of the organization reflect a commitment toproviding culturally effective services

♦ The organization demonstrates a commitment toallocating the fiscal and human resources neededto reach the goal of a culturally competent workforce and service provision

♦ Identification of diverse communities and activecollaboration with them in mutually defining andsolving problems

♦ Provision of a sustainable structure (training, consul-tation, technical assistance) for facilitating interpro-fessional attainment of cultural competence goals

♦ Ongoing evaluation of the organization’s efforts toachieve culturally competent practice and service

♦ Incorporation of ongoing assessment of culturalcompetence goals in employee performance evalua-tions as well as in agency’s overall service evaluations

♦ Assurance that all employees are knowledgeableabout and equally committed to cultural competencegoals

It is important to acknowledge that cultural compe-tence is not a finite endpoint at which one eventuallyarrives but an evolving ideal state designed to signifi-cantly enhance the ability of the organization tosuccessfully carry out its mission.

Culturally competent supervision is most likely to beachieved by organizations that view learning, growth,and change as a central feature of the organization’s

culture. The nature of cross-cultural practice demandsa flexible organizational climate that can anticipateand respond to the complexities of interpersonaldynamics. An environment of openness, support,and risk taking promotes creative, solution-focusedgoal attainment. Managers, supervisors, and workersmust believe that organizational norms and structuressupport the development and implementation ofculturally legitimate practice and service. When diver-sity issues are initially addressed, it is typical forhuman service organizations to be stymied by anorganizational culture that is resistant to change. Majorchanges are best introduced within a culture thatpromotes creative planning and problem solving“outside of the box.”

ATTRIBUTES OF THE CULTURALLY

COMPETENT SUPERVISOR

Although professional education within the field ofhuman services (i.e., social work, counseling, healthcare) introduces students to information on diversepopulations and variably endeavors to increase cul-tural sensitivity, competence in this practice arenaremains elusive. Helping the organization to manage adiverse workforce and a diverse client population effec-tively requires an organizational culture that is openand supportive to experimentation and an ongoingchange process. Supervisors as middle managersare uniquely positioned to model the ideals andprinciples critical to achieving culturally competentpractice. They must have an expansive knowledgebase that is responsive to organizational and manage-ment workforce issues as well as client system inter-ventions. Moreover, they must be skilled at balancingmultiple roles associated with human service manage-ment and clinical supervision simultaneously. Cross-cultural communication and cross-cultural conflictresolution are essential skills that enhance the super-visor’s ability to move practitioners and the organiza-tion toward cultural competence goals. The followingare some of the key attributes of culturally competentsupervision.

♦ Capacity to achieve clarity about the supervisor’s ownvalues and belief systems, including (a) an under-standing of the socialization process that formed thebasis of their views about those who are culturally dif-ferent from themselves, (b) spent considerable time

Chapter 5 / Culturally Competent Practice–•–49


reflecting on their own ethnic group identification,(c) grappled with the superiority-inferiority dicho-tomy reflected in the broader society as well as inthe organizational culture, and (d) come to an under-standing of the benefits or costs of being in eitherposition (superior or inferior).

♦ Knowledge about the strengths of diversity and abilityto identify aspects of diverse cultures that presentchallenges for clinical practice and service provision.

♦ Comfort with cultural differences whether they arereflected in gender, race, age, ability, ethnicity, sexualorientation, political ideology, geographical region, orother areas.

♦ Commitment to an environment of equality, justice,and a sense of fairness, principles not compromisedby whatever employee’s race, ethnicity, gender,lifestyle, or other diversity may be.

♦ A nature that seeks, plans, and welcomes learningopportunities without pressure, guilt, or fear byenhancing the learning of others about diversity andmulticultural issues and practice.

♦ Commitment to develop a culturally competent organi-zation that includes culturally competent practiceand culturally competent service provision.

CORE KNOWLEDGE BASE OF THE

CULTURALLY COMPETENT SUPERVISOR

Human service supervision, in its generic form,demands an extensive knowledge base that includesnot only mastery in the field of practice but an under-standing of principles, models, and techniques ofmanagement and supervision within the human ser-vices field. Managing a culturally diverse workforcerequires additional skill due to the complexities inher-ent in multicultural differences. Although most educa-tion and training programs introduce students tocontent on diverse populations, rarely is this informa-tion sufficient to meet the standard of culturally effec-tive practice. Continued education and training are amust and begin with an honest appraisal of knowledgegaps and skill deficits. Oftentimes, human serviceprofessionals, especially supervisors, are reluctantto acknowledge voids in their knowledge base.Knowledge deficits reframed as opportunities forgrowth serve as useful examples for both supervisorsand supervisees; both can use them to begin their ownknowledge-building process. The supervisor needs tomodel for workers the process of identifying knowl-edge gaps and different ways to address them.

The culturally competent supervisor willinglychallenges widely accepted theoretical and practiceconstructs and critically analyzes practice interven-tions. It is commonplace in human service practice touse theoretical and practice models and methods thatare patently ineffective with culturally diverse clientpopulations simply because “we were trained to do so.”Challenging the status quo in an organization that isresistant to change requires knowledge of diplomacy,conflict resolution, problem solving, and considerablerisk taking. Practice with diverse clients and commu-nities at times demands exploration of cultural norms,values, beliefs, traditions, and lifestyles beyond empir-ically tested hypotheses regarding a given culture.

For culturally competent supervisors to becomeknowledgeable over time about the client populationserved by their human service agency, many differentareas of inquiry need to be explored. The knowledgebase for cultural competence includes many of thefollowing: (a) the culture, history, traditions andcustoms, preferred language or primary dialect, valueorientation, religious and spiritual orientation, art,music, and healing beliefs of the client population;(b) long-standing social problems that disproportion-ately affect minority group members and that have aprofound effect on minority communities as well as onservice provision (e.g., poverty, health risk factors,interpersonal and community violence, drug traffick-ing, disparate immigration policies)—this knowledgearea includes the etiology of these social problems, thedynamics that sustain them, and best practices andstrategies for responding to them; (c) the agency’shistory of relationships and interactions with thediverse communities it serves, including the percep-tions held by client populations about the agency thatcan significantly affect service provision and clinicalinterventions; (d) intimate familiarity with the com-munities and neighborhoods where client populationslive and work, including community resources, neigh-borhood needs assessments built on sociodemo-graphic profiles, and critically important formal andinformal community resources (e.g., religious institu-tions, fraternal organizations, social and civic clubs,and neighborhood associations) that provide a richnetwork of support for practice interventions.

Troubled racial and ethnic relations in this countryhave a long and well-established history, and the cul-turally competent supervisor is well informed aboutthese realities; she or he understands the dynamicsof oppression in its variable forms. Sexism; racism;classism; ageism; and the dynamics of skin color,



immigrant status, language, and dialects are real issueswith which the supervisor must be intimately familiar.These issues are often at the center of dynamic interac-tions between and among workers as well as betweenand among workers and clients.

Managing or supervising a diverse workforce alsorequires knowledge and skill in conflict managementand resolution. Cultural differences in work style andbehavior present challenges for the supervisor. Forexample, informal and at times energetic verbalexchanges among African American and Latinoworkers may be perceived as “unprofessional” withinan agency with an austere office protocol. When con-fronted with culturally dissonant situations, thesupervisor must have a clear understanding aboutthe context in which such events erupt and be able tofacilitate their resolution in a way that strengthensinterprofessional relationships.

CORE SKILLS FOR THE CULTURALLY

COMPETENT SUPERVISOR

The essential skills of human service supervision havebeen described in other chapters. There is an addi-tional set of core skills needed to effectively engagewith a diverse workforce. Chief among these skills iseffective cross-cultural communication. The businessof human services is inherently communicative, andthe ability of the supervisee to carry out his or herwork largely depends on the ability of the supervisor tocommunicate the organization’s mission, goals, andmethod of operating. The many barriers that exist incommunication across cultures include different lan-guages, verbal and nonverbal styles, emotional tonesand inflections that affect intended meaning, and thepotential for failed cross-cultural communication orreal growth. The skilled supervisor needs to under-stand the cultural context that influences the develop-ment of the skills needed for effective cross-culturalcommunication.

It is not at all uncommon for a simple glance, slur,or tone, whether intentional or otherwise, to escalateinto friction and an untenable work environment.A seemingly insignificant incident can successfullybe addressed if the supervisor is able to correctlyinterpret the cultural context and assist workers inunderstanding and resolving such nuances expedi-tiously. Cross-cultural communication skills includeclarity about differing styles (i.e., tone, intensity, level,

nonverbal messages), but it is also essential to acceptdiffering styles of communication without negativevaluation of them.

The supervisor must be aware of negative stereo-types, behavior, and verbal epithets directed at aparticular cultural group that generally solicit animmediate negative reaction. For example, people ofcolor often are bilingual and use languages inter-changeably depending on the social context in whichthey find themselves. Again, witnessing AfricanAmerican coworkers engaged in colloquial banteringor “teasing” is often viewed as “inappropriate” behaviorwithin organizations with strictly formal communica-tion norms. African Americans in turn often interpretas unfriendly an environment in which coworkers areunable to engage in informal interactions. In addition,they view coworkers who adhere to the more formaltone as arrogant and impersonal. Neither position maybe accurate, but the skilled supervisor is able to guidethe communication process toward an accurate assess-ment of meaning and intent, resulting in more positiveinterprofessional relationships.

All human service supervisors need conflict man-agement and resolution skills. These skills are used inalmost every dimension of the supervision role. Inorganizations that have not successfully addressedissues of diversity, the supervisor will often be facedwith situations that demand skill in identifyingcross-cultural conflict. Supervisors must be able toproblem solve and to initiate strategies that sustainpositive change. A culturally diverse workforce andclient population require a substantial change inmindset, policies, and ways of functioning from thoseapproaches that may have operated in agencies servinga homogeneous population. Business as usual willinevitably frustrate workers and clients alike andultimately prevent the organization from effectivelyachieving its goals. The ability to manage conflict andresolve tensions at multiple levels of the organizationis a core expectation of the culturally competentsupervisor.

Helping the organization to understand and com-mit to cultural competence can be a real challengefor organizations resistant to change even in the face ofpressure to do so. Negotiating with upper level man-agers and key decision makers and helping clinical ordirect service staff understand the change process willtest even the most skilled and experienced supervisor.The supervisor must also be skilled at approachingclinical staff not yet aware of the need to explore alter-native and more culturally appropriate interventions



when these are unfamiliar to them. Tact and delicatediplomacy are required when encouraging workers tomove outside their “comfort zone” so that an organiza-tional culture may be created that is open to learning,change, and growth. These overtures may be quicklyinterpreted by workers as superiors oversteppingboundaries and pushing a hidden agenda. Supervisorswith a comprehensive grasp of the organizational,interprofessional, and individual change process areusually able to assess their supervisees’ levels of moti-vation and initiate strategies that are congruent withthe staff ’s capacity for change.

MODELING CULTURALLY COMPETENT SUPERVISION

Human service organizations need to actively engagein sustained and systematic activities that lead toculturally competent service. Without these activities,the implicit message sent is that cultural competenceis not a priority. All constituents of the organizationpay the price for this lack of commitment, includingthe organization itself. Supervisors, as middle man-agers, can play a vital role as change agents within theorganization by using their considerable influence inconvincing chief executive officers and key decisionmakers to understand the organizational value of aculturally competent workforce.

Modeling cultural competence can take manydifferent forms as the supervisor carries out organiza-tional mandates and tasks. These can be viewedthrough the lens of the organization as a broaderentity, interprofessionally, or in individual super-visory roles. The following strategies for modelingculturally competent practice are based on buildingculturally competent practice within the context ofa culturally competent human service agency.

Understanding the Change Process

Strategic planning is an excellent tool for helping anorganization incorporate culturally competent practiceusing organizational, interprofessional, and individualchange processes. Understanding a continuum ofchange for either the organization or the staff can beuseful for locating the starting point of the changeprocess. Prochaska, DiClemente, and Norcross (1992),in studying theories of change, developed the followingfive-stage model, which is applicable to the process ofbecoming culturally competent.

Stage 1: Precontemplation

This is a stage in which the individual or organiza-tion lacks awareness of a problem or need for change.Approaching individual staff or the agency as a wholerequires the supervisor to engage in an educationprocess that focuses on raising awareness of the issuesof cultural diversity, how these affect the organization’sability to fulfill its mission, and the role individualworkers play in addressing the issues.

Stage 2: Contemplation

At this stage, individuals or organizations are awarethat a problem or need exists and may be giving seriousconsideration to a response but have not yet made acommitment to do so. Ongoing education and open dia-logue in an environment of safety are essential at thisstage. Helping the organization and staff understand thecosts and benefits of a culturally competent organiza-tion and workforce are appropriate foci in this stage.

Stage 3: Preparation

This is the stage at which clear intentions to changeare expressed and plans are developed to initiatechange. The supervisor participates in developing thedirection, structure, and process of the cultural com-petence activities that will be undertaken.

Stage 4: Action

At this stage, commitment to the change processmoves into observable activities. These include multi-ple initiatives such as education, training, consultation,community building, and other activities.

Stage 5: Maintenance

At this stage, actions and behavioral indicators ofchange are integrated into practice modalities andorganizational policies and procedures. The supervisorengages in culturally competent practice, encouragesand supports others to do so, and holds direct servicestaff, as well as administrators, accountable in achiev-ing ongoing culturally effective practice.

The change model provides a useful tool for accu-rately assessing and implementing culturally com-petent practice and service. Assisting staff andadministrators with an understanding about thenature of change in both clinical and organizationalprocesses is helpful in eliminating inappropriate orpremature expectations. Accurately assessing whether



the organization or client system is in precontemplationor at the action stage of change helps to define andsharpen intervention methods that lead to goalaccomplishment.

Modeling Openness and Safety

The culturally competent supervisor can fosterthe creation of a safe environment in which sharing,mutuality, respect,and collective problem identificationand resolution are the norm. The supervisor can usesensitive gender or racial issues to model receptivity todivergent views and solutions. A structure is developedfor ongoing opportunities to address diversity issuesand culturally competent practice. The followingvignette illustrates how the supervisor may intervene ina manner that models and reinforces openness andsafety in the face of difficult issues.

Responses that model openness and an environmentof safety include the following.

a. Mr.White expresses appreciation to Ms. Brown forfeeling comfortable enough to share this sensitiveissue.

b. Mr. White solicits Ms. Brown’s views and per-ceptions on the issues raised.

c. Mr.White tries to determine if Ms. Brown is awarethat other workers share these or similar viewsor have experienced the incidents describedby clients.

d. Mr. White places the issue on the agenda for thenext scheduled staff meeting but also considers

scheduling a special meeting to specificallyaddress the issues identified.

e. With staff, Mr. White explores divergent views,perceptions, and opinions without judging the“rightness or wrongness” of these.

f. Staff brainstorm solutions that include theinvolvement of clients in further clarifying issuesand resolutions.

g. Mr. White ensures that an ongoing process is inplace for resolving issues.

h. The staff agree to establish a work or task groupto assess the physical environment and social toneof the organization (e.g., diverse and bilingualsecurity, clerical, and professional staff; multi-cultural art, music, colors, magazines; need fortraining at all levels of agency).

i. Staff, along with Mr. White, publicly supportMs. Brown for raising the issue.

Managing Sensitive Issues

The culturally competent supervisors are able andwilling to confront traditionally ignored or tabooissues. They do not avoid difficult diversity issuesrelated to overt or covert racism, sexism, or homopho-bia. Ignoring or denying emerging issues can send amessage to staff that the supervisor is either uncom-fortable in addressing these issues or does not viewthem as important. Neither message reflects culturallycompetent supervision. Individual or interprofessionalconflict must be handled in a forthright, responsible,and nondefensive manner. The following vignette is anexample in which the supervisor must demonstrateskill in conflict management and problem resolution.


Green Meadows is a community-basedhuman service agency in which the profes-sional clinical staff is predominantly female.Each key administrator, however, is male.There is a long-standing history of conflictabout this “glass ceiling.” Female staffmembers have expressed a concern thatthey do the bulk of the work and that when-ever there is an opportunity for promotionto the administrative level, males are pro-moted even though women staff are equallyqualified. Female staff are especially angeredthat they often are required to train malestaff who are promoted over them.

Cheryl Brown is a case manager in theGateway Community Service Agency. Duringher weekly supervision session with BobWhite, she shared a concern that had beenraised by her African American and Latinofamilies. The clients indicated that they feeluncomfortable coming to the agency tomeet with the counselors. They expressedtheir feeling that the security staff memberswere abrasive and oftentimes rude, that theclerical staff members were hostile and con-descending, and that they did not believethe counselors understood or cared aboutthem or their problems.


The culturally competent supervisor:

a. Evaluates the legitimacy of the claims by conductingan objective assessment of promotion trends andwork assignments.

b. Develops structure that provides opportunity forwomen staff to express their concerns withoutfear of intimidation or retaliation.

c. Engages staff in a process of “clearing the air”about the concerns raised; this oftentimesrequires several opportunities that would allowstaff to express and process views and feelings.The supervisor may separate the problem-solvingsession from the ventilation sessions and avoidthe tendency to prematurely and superficially“fix” the problem. It is critical that norms beestablished that permit all staff to be heard. It isequally important to avoid efforts that trivializefeelings or to offer alternative explanations to thespeaker’s perception. Oftentimes, perceptions ofevents by multicultural staff are responded to withattempts to obfuscate the issue by making it per-sonal or by diverting the focus from the most crit-ical issue. Statements such as “that happens toeverybody” or “you’re making more out of it thanis really there” are responses that should beavoided. Remember, the goal is to provide anopportunity to express views and feelings that arelinked to cultural differences. The supervisorneeds to model acceptance of divergent percep-tions and demonstrate respect for and the legiti-macy of each staff member’s views.

d. Develops committee or task group that monitorsand targets solutions to the issues of sexism andgender discrimination.

e. Addresses concerns with key decision makers andseeks commitment to respond in a tangible way.The supervisor follows up with administrators toavoid the tendency in organizations to raiseimportant issues and then allow them to fester,mistakenly believing that they will disappear.

Promoting Culturally Competent Training

The culturally competent supervisor assesses thetraining needs of staff related to culturally competentpractice, develops short- and long-term plans forprofessional development, and creates an internalstructure that supports education and training (mean-ing that it is possible for staff to attend trainingwithout the burden of being overwhelmed with work

responsibilities that accrue in the worker’s absence).Much of the resistance to training in cultural compe-tence comes from workers feeling that they cannotafford the time to participate in training. The super-visor must address this issue by setting up a structurethat relieves the worker of the responsibility of day-to-day work while training is taking place. In addition, thesupervisor must do all of the following.

♦ Approach training as an integral component of theorganization’s strategic plan for achieving culturalcompetence goals.

♦ Require staff to complete individual assessment oftheir own professional development needs by identi-fying knowledge and skill gaps, including recom-mended plans for meeting their needs.

♦ Complete an assessment of training needs anddetermine whether training expertise exists withinthe agency or whether expertise should be obtainedoutside the agency. The supervisor should thought-fully use the expertise of diverse staff but take carenot to impose on staff or pressure them to be so used.Multicultural staff members often are asked to be“spokespersons” or representatives for their racial orethnic group, and at times they will harbor greatresentment for this.

♦ Monitor individual workers’ training goals andengage in an ongoing assessment with the workerabout whether goals are being met in a timelyfashion.

♦ Integrate new learning on cultural competenceinto individual and group supervision and organiza-tional goals. The supervisor should ask workersto demonstrate through simulations, discussion, andcase presentations how the new learning enhancestheir ability to provide culturally competent services.

♦ Prepare a budget for cultural competence train-ing needs and solicit commitment from keyadministrators.

♦ Use consultants, external experts, and appropriatecommunity cultural guides, for example, an experton immigration issues regarding newly immigratedfamilies.

♦ Include chief executive officers and key administra-tors in training on cultural competence. One of themost frequent complaints about cultural competencetraining in human service agencies is that upper levelmanagers and administrators do not participate inthe training. Staff correctly perceive this practice asa lukewarm commitment to the goal of culturallycompetent service provision.



Using Community Resources

Knowledge about and involvement with culturallydiverse communities is essential to providing cultur-ally effective human services. The culturally competentsupervisor provides leadership and serves as animportant link with upper level administrators andstaff in developing key networks with communities.Racial, ethnic, and cultural minority groups ingeneral place a great deal of value on neighborhoodand community affiliations. The historic importanceof religious institutions, neighborhood associations,and social and civic clubs is readily obvious whenone spends time getting to know families and thecommunities in which they live. Provision of culturallycompetent services falls considerably short whenthis is attempted without a thorough understandingand response to broader community needs. Super-visors can effectively model the building of equalpartnerships with key community members andorganizations.

These partnerships can significantly inform thedelivery of culturally competent services as they relateto family behaviors and community norms. For exam-ple, in the field of child welfare, child-rearing practicesare clearly influenced by cultural norms and may bemisunderstood if not seen in their cultural context.The supervisor may engage in a number of actions thatmodel effective strategies for building community tieswith the agency. Some of these include the following.

♦ Solicitation of feedback from the client populationregarding identified community leaders and socialsupport networks.

♦ Use of staff in identifying and compiling a commu-nity resource bank.

♦ Community meetings that are scheduled at accessibletimes and locations and that acquaint the commu-nity with the agency’s mission, services, and staff aswell as soliciting concerns, needs, suggestions, andrecommendations.

♦ Establishment of a community advocate or ombud-sperson who is easily accessible and able to providequick responses to requests for assistance. One of themost often-cited complaints from communities ofcolor is the difficulty of making contact when a needarises and getting a credible response. An agency’sability to provide this service will go a long way inconvincing distrustful community members thatthe agency is genuinely attempting to respond totheir needs.

♦ Identification of community needs and solutions thataddress major and ancillary issues, (e.g., housing, jobtraining, Temporary Assistance for Needy Familieseligibility, substance abuse treatment, child and ado-lescent behavior problems, domestic violence, intra-and intercultural conflicts). Human service agenciesthat do not comprehensively address such issueslimit service effectiveness. As a result, diverse clientsare left in a quandary as to how to access vital ser-vices. The culturally competent supervisor is knowl-edgeable about these issues and the resources neededto meet them and is able to assist the agency and staffin broadening their sphere of concern about theissues’ impact on multicultural clients.

Infusing Culturally CompetentConcepts Into Current Practice Models

In many human service agencies, clinical super-vision is the primary focus of the supervisor. Thisfunction may occupy the bulk of the supervisor’s time.The supervisor sets the tone and provides guideddirection for practitioners as they increase their abilityto competently serve culturally diverse clients. Thesupervisor models this role by meeting the followingchallenges.

Facilitating a Comprehensive and Ongoing Explorationof Theoretical and Practice Models and Interventionsfor Their Relevance to Culturally Diverse ClientPopulations. The supervisor needs to create a learningenvironment in which staff members are encouragedto challenge assumptions and approaches that severelyconflict with or compromise the values, norms, tradi-tions, and customs of culturally diverse clients. Forexample, a theoretical approach that defines a belief ina higher power as an “irrational” solution to problemspresents challenges to clients whose belief in a higherpower is central both to their culture and to a sense ofself. The supervisor needs to be willing to pose hardquestions and engage in a reflective process about thepredominant service model adopted by the agencywhen such models are incongruent with the corecultural values, norms, and behavior of the clients.This analysis needs to include a process for determin-ing the effectiveness of the predominant interventionapproaches, including the client’s perceptions abouttheir usefulness. Therapeutic approaches that areintimidating to clients can be counterproductive andlead to various forms of resistance. Unfortunately,practitioners respond to this resistance by blaming



clients or describing them as “resistant” or “notamenable to services.”

Utilization of Culturally Diverse Staff as Team Membersto Test the Accuracy of Assessment and InterventionModalities. In agencies where this is not currentlypossible, the supervisor needs to seek out externalconsultants who can provide the expertise needed toassist staff with culturally appropriate assessment andclinical intervention. Diversity practice consultants canbe effectively used to develop the knowledge and skillsof supervisors who can then transfer new learning toother staff.

In Agencies Where There Is a Critical Mass of DiverseClients, Service Teams Must Be Put Into Place ThatAllow for Consistently Scheduled Reviews That AddressCultural Differences in Service Interventions. Theseteams provide a valuable support mechanism forworkers who have not yet developed sufficient comfortwith cultural diversity. Over time, teams will becomemore skilled at developing effective interventionstrategies that can be further integrated into the prac-tice repertoire of the practitioner. The service teambecomes an important avenue for further “socializa-tion” of clinical staff so that they desire to meet thecultural competence goals of the organization. Whensupervisors acknowledge the collective and collabora-tive nature of becoming culturally competent, thishelps to minimize supervisees’ feelings of fear andisolation. Multicultural staff ’s openness to learningsends a powerful message about the supervisor’s com-mitment to a shared process in which all membersare valued.

In Individual Supervision Sessions, the SupervisorCreates an Environment of Safety in Which thePractitioner Is Able to Express Openly Any Issue,Concern, Fear, or Lack of Expertise Relative toMulticultural Clients. Individual supervision may bethe context for exploring deeply held views and stereo-types that, if manifested, become problematic for workwith clients. The supervisor can discuss these issues inconfidence, using a nonjudgmental approach thatfocuses on assisting staff members in their efforts towork through issues in a manner that leads towardculturally effective practice. The supervisor needs toknow that a culturally competent practitioner is notonly knowledgeable about and skilled with culturallydiverse clients but that the practitioner also demon-strates an ongoing self-reflective process about his or

her own perceptions and beliefs about racial andethnic differences. It is the role of the supervisor toengage and assist workers with this work and to be anobjective and supportive sounding board as workersexplore the relationship between different culturalworldviews and their own belief systems. Most prac-titioners are unaccustomed to exposing aspects ofthemselves to supervisors that may be interpreted byothers as racist or sexist or homophobic. Nonetheless,if these issues cannot be addressed with the supervisorwithout fear of negative consequences, the work ofculturally competent practice is thwarted. The cul-turally competent supervisor needs to incorporatethis type of supervision within the context of thedevelopmental efforts needed to assist staff in becom-ing culturally proficient.

CONCLUSION

The human service organizations that are mostsuccessful in achieving their mission are those thatadopt the key elements of the learning organization.Openness to new knowledge, an awareness of howthe external environment affects the organization,and the flexibility to respond to these influences areessential organizational tools. Human services super-vision is a specialized practice arena that is uniquelypoised to operationalize the elements of the learningorganization. Modeling is an effective method forapplying supervision knowledge, values, and skills.

Cultural competence is as critical to human ser-vices supervision as any of the other core competen-cies introduced in this book. Cultural competence is aprotracted endeavor that must be undertaken at alllevels of the human service organization. The super-visor can play a major role in helping upper levelmanagers to understand relevant cultural competenceissues and how to achieve the organization’s culturalcompetence goals. At the same time, the supervisormodels culturally competent practice by incor-porating the activities heretofore delineated into heror his day-to-day work. Facilitating the developmentof culturally relevant knowledge and skills for super-visees establishes the context for the work individualpractitioners must do to further the goal of culturalcompetence.

This chapter began with an evolving definition ofcultural competence, described critical elements ofculturally competent organizations, presented aframework for achieving culturally competent



supervision, and delineated a number of specificstrategies that the human services supervisor mayuse to model culturally competent supervision. The

reader is encouraged to use the case vignettes as anopportunity to further explore practice issues inherentin culturally competent human service.


Barbara Reynolds was hired 3 months ago as Director of Clinical Services at the PatuxentMulti-Service Agency. The agency provides individual, family, and group counseling services. It alsohas a diversion program for youth, an adult protective services program, and home-based servicesfor the elderly. The agency serves a diverse urban client population: Approximately 40% of theclients are African American, 30% Latino, 25% white, and a very small percentage are recentlyrelocated Vietnamese families. The agency is 25 years old, and although in the beginning it pre-dominantly served an upper income white population, it now serves a predominantly minorityclient population.

The CEO, Deputy Director, Director of Adult Services, and Director of Community Services are ofEuropean American dissent. Ms. Reynolds and two of the ten counseling staff members are AfricanAmerican, and one of the counselors is Latino. In a staff meeting to discuss the declining clientpopulation at the agency, an African American counselor indicated that she did not believe theagency effectively served their diverse client population. Other counselors agreed and added thatthe therapeutic approach that they were trained and encouraged to use was largely ineffective inmeeting the needs of their minority clients. The counselors felt that their efforts to raise these issueswith the upper level managers and former clinical supervisor had been futile. Several of thecounseling staff expressed a need for additional training to better understand the culture of theirclients, although several others did not feel this was necessary.

1. What are the primary concerns of the supervisor in thisagency?

2 What should her response be to the feedback shereceived in the staff meeting?

3. What strategies are essential to modeling culturallycompetent practice in this agency?

4. How would you resolve the differences in perceptionamong the staff about the effectiveness of the serviceprovided to multicultural clients?

5. How might the supervisor address these issues withupper level management within the organization?

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS


disabilities. Families in Society: The Journal ofContemporary Human Services, 75, 5-7.

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Chapter 5. Culturally Competent Practice - Sage Publications