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Consumer LearningConsumer Learningand Memoryand Memory
Chapter 5
Consumer Learning
and Memory
Why Marketers are Concerned about How Consumers Learn Marketers want to “teach” consumers about
their products product attributes where to buy them how to use and dispose of them
They want to know how effective they have been in communicating with the consumer directly, through advertisements Indirectly, through product appearance,
packaging, price and distribution channels
What is Learning?
Generally, learning is a process by which changes occur in the content or organization of an individual’s long-term memory
From a marketing standpoint, learning can be thought of as the process by which individuals acquire the purchase and consumption knowledge and experience that they apply to future related behavior
Range of Learning Situations
Learning occurs at various levels of consumer involvement
Low-level involvement: consumers have little or no motivation to process the information
High-involvement learning: consumers are highly motivated to process the information
Learning Theories
There are many theories about how people learn
They fall into two general categories:
1. Behavioral learning theories
2. Cognitive theories
Behavioral Learning Theories Are also referred to as stimulus-response theories
because based on premise that observable responses to specific external stimuli signal learning has taken place
When a person responds in a predictable way to a known stimulus, he or she is said to have learned
There are two behavioral theories with relevance to marketing:
1. Classical conditioning
2. Instrumental/operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning
The theory that conditioned learning results when a stimulus that is paired with a stimulus that elicits a known response serves to produce the same response when used alone
Classical Conditioning
Schematic Presentation of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Elicits
Comes to Elicit
The use of a well-known, admired individual to advertise a product can condition consumers to have positive feelings about the product
“Cause marketing”
Strategic Applications of Classical Conditioning Three basic concepts derive from classical
conditioning
1. Repetition
2. Stimulus generalization
3. Stimulus discrimination
Increases the strength of the association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (learning)
It is used by advertisers when scheduling media exposure for an advertising campaign
Too much repetition can lead to advertising wearout
Consumers may become annoyed with repetitive ads and develop a negative image of the product as a result
1. Repetition
2. Stimulus Generalization
Learning relies not only on repetition, but on peoples’ ability to generalize--that is, respond in the same way to slightly different stimuli
Explains why some manufacturers try to make their generic/store brands similar in appearance to name brands
Marketers use this principle to take advantage of a well-known and trusted brand in a number of ways
1. Product line extensions
2. Product form extension
3. Product category extension Referred to as the halo effect
3. Stimulus Discrimination
Opposite of stimulus generalization Results in the selection of a specific stimulus
from among similar stimuli Forms the basis for marketers’ positioning
strategy Permits marketers to differentiate their
product from competitors’ (through, e.g. different features, colors, ingredients, etc.)
Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning B.F. Skinner Learning occurs through trial and error Habits are formed as a result of rewards for
certain behaviors Consumers who try different brands, models,
styles until they find the one that “fits” are engaged in instrumental learning
Operant Conditioning
Specific Behavior
Reinforcementor Punishment
Increased or DecreasedProbability of Response
Schematic Presentation of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement A reward given to acknowledge a desired
behavior and increase the probability it will be repeated
1. Positive reinforcement Events that strengthen the likelihood of a specific
response
2. Negative reinforcement A negative outcome that also serves to
encourage a specific behavior Fear appeals
Punishment
Punishment discourages behavior as opposed to encouraging behavior to avoid a negative result
Extinction
When a learned response is no longer reinforced, it diminishes to the point of extinction—i.e., there is no longer a link between the stimulus and the expected reward
Strategic Applications of Instrumental Conditioning Customer Satisfaction In order to keep its customers, a marketer or
business must maximize positive reinforcement
This can be done through the product itself Can also be done with other elements of the
purchase situation
Reinforcement Schedules The pattern in which reinforcements are
given Marketers have found that while product
quality needs to remain high to satisfy consumers, non-product positive reinforcement does not have to be offered every time
Three types of reinforcement schedules:
1. Continuous/total (every time)
2. Systematic/fixed ratio (every “nth” time)
3. Random/variable ratio
TimeTimeB
ehav
ior
Mai
nten
ance
Beh
avio
r M
aint
enan
ceReinforcement Schedules & Forgetting
Forgetting occurs more quicklyForgetting occurs gradually over time
and the residual effects of learning persist
Continuous Reinforcement Intermittent Reinforcement
Cognitive Learning Theory
Learning based on mental activity (i.e. thinking and problem-solving)
Unlike simpler organisms, we learn not only by trial and error, but by searching for information evaluating the information, and making a decision about what is best for us
Marketing Implications of Cognitive Learning Theory Primary implication is to emphasize the
importance of providing information to consumers
Providing information can be a promotional strategy as well
Cognitive Associative Learning Also called Neo-Pavlovian theory Learning involves not only the acquisition of
new reflexes; it is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world
Under this theory, consumers are viewed as information seekers who use logical and perceptual relations among events, along with their own preconceptions, to form a sophisticated representation of the world
Implications for Marketers
Marketers draw on both cognitive and operant conditioning theories
Providing information about a product (e.g., eggs are OK to eat) draws on cognitive theory
Providing rewards (e.g., frequent flyer miles, coupons, etc.) draws on classical conditioning theory
Vicarious (Observational) Learning The process through which individuals learn
behavior by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of such behavior
Role models tend to be people consumers admire because of traits such as appearance, accomplishment, skill, or social class
Another alternative form of observational learning involves representation of negative consequences of not using the advertised product
Brand Loyalty
A consumer’s consistent preference for and purchase of a specific brand
1. In high-involvement purchases (e.g., a car) it reduces risk and facilitates selection
2. In low-involvement purchases (e.g., tissues) it saves time and effort
Brand loyalty generally results from consistent positive experiences with a company and/or its products
There has been a recent decline in brand loyalty
1. Boredom or dissatisfaction with the products
2. Variety-seeking
3. Increased concern with price To counter these actions, marketers have
adopted a number of programs (e.g., frequent flyer) that reward brand loyalty