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Chapter 40 - Key Concepts
The functions of animal tissues and organs are correlated with their structures.
Bioenergetics is fundamental to all animal functions.
An animal’s size and shape affect its interactions with the external environment.
Homeostatic mechanisms regulate an animal’s internal environment.
Points to Know:
What is a tissue? What are the four main tissues in animals? What is the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of an
endotherm? What is the standard metabolic rate (SMR) of
an ectotherm? How do different body plans allow contact
with the environment?
Points to Know:
What is negative feedback? What is positive feedback?
Chapter 41 - Main Concepts
Diets and feeding mechanisms vary extensively among animals.
Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination are the four main stages of food processing.
Digestion occurs in food vacuoles, gastrovascular cavities, and alimentary canals.
Main Concepts
A tour of the mammalian digestive system. Vertebrate digestive systems exhibit many
evolutionary adaptations associated with diet.
An adequate diet provides fuel, carbon skeletons for biosynthesis and essential nutrients.
Points to Know:
What are herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and suspensioin-feeders?
Trace the movement of food through a mammalian digestive system giving all organs, their function and relevant enzymes. (ex. pepsin, pancreatic juices etc.)
How are symbiotic bacteria and protozoa important to digestion?
Points to Know:
How is food used as “fuel”? How is food used for biosynthesis? What are the essential nutrients? What are some of the water-soluble vitamins? What are some of the fat-soluble vitamins? What are the mineral requirements of
humans?
Chapter 42 - Main Concepts
Transport systems functionally connect body cells with the organs of exchange
Most invertebrates have a gastrovascular cavity or a circulatory system for internal transport
Diverse adaptations of a cardiovascular system have evolved in vertebrates.
Main Concepts
Rhythmic pumping of the mammalian heart drives blood through pulmonary and systemic circuits.
The lymphatic system returns fluid to the blood and aids in body defense.
Blood is a connective tissue with cells suspended in plasma.
Main Concepts
Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the United States and many other developed nations.
Gas exchange supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and disposes of carbon dioxide.
Gills are respiratory adaptations of most aquatic animals.
Main Concepts
Tracheae are respiratory adaptations of insects.
Lungs are the respiratory adaptations of most terrestrial vertebrates.
Points to Know:
What is a closed or open circulatory system? What are veins, arteries and capillaries? What are the chambers and valves of a
vertebrate heart? What is the pathway of blood as it travels
through the body? What are the components of blood?
Points to Know:
What is the relationship between the respiratory medium and the respiratory surface?
What is countercurrent exchange? How is oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged
in the lungs? What are the oxygen dissociation curves for
hemoglobin? What is myoglobin?
Chapter 43 - Main Concepts
Nonspecific mechanisms provide general barriers to infection.
Clonal selection of lymphocytes is the cellular basis for immunological specificity and diversity.
Memory cells function in secondary immune responses.
Main Concepts:
Molecular markers on cell surfaces function in self/other recognition.
In the humoral response, B cells defend against pathogens in body fluids by generating specific antibodies.
In the cell-mediated response, T cells defend against intracellular pathogens.
Main Concepts:
Complement proteins participate in both nonspecific and specific defenses.
The immune system’s capacity to distinguish self from other is critical in transfusions and organ transplants.
Abnormal immune function leads to disease states.
Invertebrates have a rudimentary immune system.
Points to Know:
How do the skin and mucous membranes project the body?
What is an antigen and an antibody? What is humoral immunity and cell-
mediated immunity? What is the structure of an antibody? How do complement proteins work?
Points to Know:
What is the Rh factor and why can it be a problem in pregnancy?
How does HIV cause AIDS?
Chapter 44 - Main Concepts
Cells require a balance between water uptake and loss.
Osmoregulation depends on transport epithelia.
Tubular systems function in osmoregulation and excretion in many invertebrates.
The kidneys of vertebrates are compact organs with many excretory tubules.
Main Concepts:
The kidney’s transport epithelia regulate the composition of blood.
The water-conserving ability of the kidney is a key terrestrial adaptation.
An animal’s nitrogenous wastes are correlated with its phylogeny and habitat.
Thermoregulation maintains body temperature within a range conducive to metabolism.
Main Concepts:
Ectotherms derive body heat mainly from their surroundings and endotherms derive it mainly from metabolism.
Thermoregulation involves physiological and behavioral adjustments.
Regulatory systems interact in the maintenance of homeostasis.
Points to Know:
How does osmoregulation in marine and fresh-water fish compare?
What are protonephridria and metanephridria?
What are Malpighian tubules? What are the parts of a nephron and how
does it filter blood?
Points to Know:
What materials are filtered by the kidney and what materials are not?
What are examples of animals that excrete ammonia, urea, and uric acid?
What are endotherms and ectotherms? How do countercurrent heat exchangers work? What are some feedback mechanisms in
thermoregulation?
Chapter 45 - Main Concepts
Hormone binding to specific receptors triggers signaling mechanisms at the cellular level.
Many chemical signals are relayed and amplified by second messengers and protein kinases.
Invertebrate control systems often integrate endocrine and nervous system functions.
Main Concepts:
The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many functions of the vertebrate endocrine system.
The vertebrate endocrine system coordinates homeostasis and regulates growth, development, and reproduction.
The endocrine system and the nervous system are structurally, chemically and functionally related.
Points to Know:
What are hormones? How do steroid hormones cause gene
expression? What are some hormones produced in the
hypothalamus and pituitary glands and what do they do?
Points to Know:
How does the body regulate glucose levels through insulin and glucagon.
What is the “fight or flight” syndrome? How are the endocrine and nervous systems
structurally, chemically and functionally related?
Chapter 46 - Main Concepts
Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom.
In sexual reproduction, gametes unite in the external environment or within the female.
Human reproduction involves intricate anatomy and complex behavior
Spermatogensis and oogensis both involve meiosis, but differ in 3 significant ways.
Main Concepts:
A complex interplay of hormones regulates reproduction.
Embryonic and fetal development occur during pregnancy in humans and other placental mammals.
Contraception prevents pregnancy. New technologies offer help for reproductive
problems.
Points to Know:
What are the types of asexual reproduction and under what conditions is it an advantage?
Which animals have external fertilization and which have internal?
How do spermatogenesis and oogenesis differ in humans?
Points to Know:
How do hormones control the female menstrual cycle?
What hormones are involved in pregnancy? How do the various methods of
contrception prevent pregnancy?
Chapter 47 - Main Concepts
Fertilization activates the egg and brings together the sperm and egg nuclei.
Cleavage partitions the zygote into many smaller cells.
The organs of the body form from the three embryonic germ layers.
Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and adhesion.
Main Concepts
Inductive signals drive differentiation and pattern formation in vertebrates.
Points to Know:
How eggs prevent polyspermy. The three tissues or embryonic germ layers
that organs will develop from. An example of organizer regions in
vertebrate limb development.
Chapter 48 - Main Concepts
The nervous system is composed of neurons and supporting cells.
Membrane potentials arise from differences in ion concentrations between a cell’s contents and the extracellular fluid.
Chemical or electrical communication between cells occurs at synapses.
Main Concepts
The vertebrate brain develops from three anterior bulges of the spinal cord.
The cerebellum controls movement and balance.
The cerebrum contains the most sophisticated integrating centers.
Points to Know:
How nerve signals are generated and transmitted.
How nerve signals jump across a synapse. How the human nervous system is
organized. What are the parts of the brain and what do
they control?
Chapter 49 - Main Concepts
Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the nervous system.
Sensory receptors are categorized by the type of energy they transduce.
The light-absorbing pigment rhodopsin operates via signal transduction.
Main Concepts
The mammalian hearing organ is within the inner ear.
Most invertebrates have gravity sensors and are sound sensitive.
Perceptions of taste and smell are usually interrelated.
Muscles move skeletal parts by contracting.
Main Concepts
Calcium ions and regulatory proteins control muscle contraction.
Interactions between myosin and actin underlie muscle contractions.
Points to Know:
What are the main sense receptors in humans and how do they work?
How do muscles contract? What are the various muscle types and
where are they found in the body?
