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Chapter 4:Sensation & Perception
“All knowledge has its origins in our perceptions.” – Leonardo Da Vinci
VisionHearingSmellTasteTouch
Definitions Sensation process of detecting, converting, and
transmitting raw sensory information from the external and internal environments to the brain (transduction)
Perception process of selecting, organizing and
interpreting sensory information enables us to recognize meaningful objects
and events
Sense organs: eyes, ears,
nose, tongue, skin,
& internal body organs
Happens in the brain!
ProcessingBottom-Up (parts to whole) Information processing beginning “at
the bottom” with raw sensory data that are sent “up” to the brain for higher level analysis
Data driven processing that moves from the parts to the whole
Top-Down (whole to parts) Information processing starting “at
the top” with higher level cognitive processes (such as expectations and knowledge) and then “working down”
Conceptually driven processing that moves from the whole to the parts
Ex: you have ingredients and must put them
together to make
something edible
Ex: you have ingredients
and a recipe & picture of a
completed cake and you must recreate
the cake
Top-Down Processing example
Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.
Top down/ bottom up
Guitar player or old people
Fruit or face
Sensation- ThresholdsAbsolute Threshold minimum stimulation needed to
detect a particular stimulus usually defined as the stimulus
needed for detection 50% of the time
Difference Threshold minimum difference between two
stimuli that a subject can detect 50% of the time
just noticeable difference (JND) increases with magnitude
Ex: listen to headphones and indicate the earliest you hear a
tone
Ex: listen to headphones and indicate
when you hear a
change in volume of
soundEasier to tell the difference between 100 & 101Hz than 1000 & 1001Hz
Sensation- Thresholds
When stimuli are detectable less than 50% of the time (below one’s absolute threshold) they are “subliminal”.
0
25
50
75
100
Low Absolutethreshold
Medium
Intensity of stimulus
Percentageof correctdetections
Subliminal stimuli
Sensation- ThresholdsWeber’s Law- to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant proportion light intensity- 8% weight- 2% tone frequency- 0.3%
Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity with constant stimulation
- receptors higher up in sensory system get tired and fire less frequently
Apply it! Come up
with 3 examples
Sensation- Thresholds
Signal Detection Theory predicts how and when we detect the presence of
a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)
assumes that there is no single absolute threshold High expectations- false positives Low expectations- false negatives detection depends partly on person’s
-experience -motivation-expectations -level of fatigue
Vision: Physical Properties of Waves
Short wavelength=high frequency(bluish colors, high-pitched sounds)
Long wavelength=low frequency(reddish colors, low-pitched sounds)
Great amplitude(bright colors, loud sounds)
Small amplitude(dull colors, soft sounds)
Perception of light and soundTransduction: conversion of one form of energy to anotherWavelength: Hue (color) and pitchAmplitude: brightness and loudnessPurity of wavelength: saturation of color and timbre for sound
Vision: Spectrum of
Electromagnetic Energy
Vision: Parts of the EyeCornea: transparent covering on the front of the eye Fovea: central point of focus on the back of the eyePupil: adjustable opening in the center of the eyeIris: a ring of muscle the forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil openingLens: transparent structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina
Accommodation: change in shape of lens focus near objects Retina Layers of neurons on inner surface of eye light sensitive contains rods and cones beginning of visual information processingBlind Spot: area of retina where optic nerve leaves back of
eye
Vision: Parts of the Eye
Retina’s Reaction to Light Receptors
Cones near center of retina
(fovea) fine detail and color vision daylight or well-lit
conditions
Receptors in the Human Eye
Cones RodsNumber
Location in retina
Sensitivity in dim light
Color sensitive? Yes
Low
Center
6 million
No
High
Periphery
120 million
Rods• Located in periphery of retina • detect black, white and gray• twilight or low light
Pathways from the Eyes to the Visual Cortex
Vision Acuity: the sharpness of vision Nearsightedness
nearby objects seen more clearly lens focuses image of distant objects in front of
retina Farsightedness
faraway objects seen more clearly lens focuses near objects behind retina
Farsighted Nearsighted Normal Vision Vision Vision
Color-Deficient Vision
People who suffer red-green blindness have trouble perceiving the number within the design
Visual Information ProcessingTrichromatic (three color) Theory Young and Helmholtz The eye contains three different types
of cones capable of responding to various wavelengths of light red green blue
Visual Information Processing
Opponent-Process Theory: opposing retinal processes enable color vision
“ON” “OFF”red greengreen red blue yellow yellow blue black whitewhite black
The 2 Theories
Visual Perception: Gestalt- the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts
Gestalt Principles (gestalt = an organized whole. We tend to integrate pieces of info. into meaningful wholes)
Proximity Simplicity (law of good
form) Connectedness Closure Continuity Similarity Phi Phenom
xDepth Perception: The Visual Cliff
Binocular Cues: clues about distance using two eyes Retinal Disparity: the fact that the right and left eyes see
slightly different views of the object Convergence: the degree to which the two eyes must
converge to focus on the object
Monocular Cues: clues about distance based on the image in either eye Linear Perspective: parallel lines converge in the distance Relative Size: if two objects are the same, the larger one is
seen as closer Interposition: the nearer object overlaps the object farther in
the distance Texture Gradient: textures are coarser the closer they are Light and shadow Height in plane
Pictorial depth cues
Audition (Hearing) Audition
the sense of hearing Frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
Pitch a tone’s highness or lowness depends on frequency
The StimulusVibrations of sound waves Amplitude: loudness Wavelength: pitch Purity: timbre
Audition: The EarOuter Ear (pinna) Auditory Canal Eardrum
Middle Ear hammer anvil stirrup
Inner Ear oval window cochlea basilar membrane hair cells (cilia)
Audition: Pitch Perception
Place Theory (high pitch) the theory that links the
pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated
Frequency Theory (low pitch) the theory that the rate of
nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
Touch
Numerous types of receptors lie in varying depths in the skin Four Basic Skin Senses Hot Cold Pressure Pain
Audition: Loss
Conduction Hearing Loss hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical
system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Nerve Hearing Loss hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s
receptor cells or to the auditory nerve
1time
10times
100times
1000times
32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048 4096 8192 16384
Frequency of tone in waves per second
Low Pitch High
Amplitude required forperception relative to 20-29 year-old group
Older peopletend to hearlow
frequencieswell but sufferhearing loss forhigh
frequencies
TasteTaste Sensations sweet sour salty bitter
Sensory Interaction the principle that
one sense may influence another
as when the smell of food influences its taste
The Stimuli: chemical substances that are solubleThe Anatomy: taste buds act as the receptors for taste (about every two weeks)Perception of taste & flavor Numerous factors can
impact the flavor of food (Ex: temperature of the food, texture, prior condition of the mouth, health state of the organism, smell)
The Tongu
e
Smell
Smell (Olfaction)
The Stimuli: chemical substances that are soluble The Anatomy: receptors are olfactory cilia which lie on the roof of the nasal passage and sinus Sense DOES NOT get filtered by thalamus Taste and smell interact to produce flavor
How We Locate Sounds
Localization of Sound Sound is heard in the
nearest ear first Sound is heard
loudest in the nearest ear
Perceptual Constancies: Size,Shape,Brightness, Color
Visual Perception: ConstanciesPerceptual Constancies: the ability to experience a constant perception even when what is reflected on the retina changes
Color: an object will be perceived as the same color even if the color reflected on the retina changes (ex: when an object is placed in the shade)
Size: an object will be perceived as the same size even if the size reflected on the retina changes (ex: dog running toward you is not seen as growing in size)
Shape: an object will be perceived as the same shape even if the shape reflected on the retina changes (ex: door opening toward you is still perceived as rectangular)
Visual Information Processing
Feature Detectors neurons in the visual
cortex respond to specific features
shape angle movement
Stimulus
Cell’s responses
Parallel Processing simultaneous processing of several dimensions
through multiple pathways color motion form depth
Touch
Skin Sensations pressure
only skin sensation with identifiable receptors
hot cold pain
Pain
Gate-Control Theory Theory that the spinal cord contains a
neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
Body Position and Movement
Kinesthesis the system for sensing the position
and movement of individual body parts
Vestibular Sense the sense of body movement and
body’s position relative to gravity including the sense of balance Semicircular canals in ears
Parapsychology
Paranormal- beyond normal telepathy, ESP, out of body experience…