89

Chapter 4. Excavations at Tol-e Spid

C.A. Petrie, A. Asgari Chaverdi and M. Seyedin

4.1. Description of Site and Surroundings The site of Tol-e Spid stands near the centre of the fertile Dasht-e Rostam-e Yek, which is possibly the largest plain in Mamasani (see Figure 1.2; Chapter 2.3). Today, what remains of the mound covers approximately 2 ha, much of which is quite low, rising only 3-4 m above the surrounding ground surface. In stark contrast, the highest point of the site rises abruptly to a height of 16 m above the plain, making Tol-e Spid the tallest preserved site on the Dasht-e Rostam-e Yek. The steepness of the sides of this eminence suggests that more of the mound must once have been preserved to such a height, and that the mound itself may have once been larger than it is today, (see Figures 4.1-4.2). A photo from 1933 shows that at that time, the mound was better preserved than today, but parts had already been damaged (see Figure 4.5a). A modern village, also called Tol-e Spid, now lies immediately to the north of the site. To avoid confusion, the site will hereafter be referred to as Tol-e Spid, and the village will be referred to as the village of Tol-e Spid. In addition to the buildings in the village, there are remnants of a number of concrete block and stone buildings on the northern side of the site, one of which is a complete house that has been abandoned relatively recently. The remains of a decaying mud-brick village also cover the upper parts of the mound, and according to local villagers, these mud-brick buildings were occupied until the 1970s, but might also have been abandoned following the period of local dissidence in 1962-1963 (see Chapter 2.2.1, n.34). It appears that some time after this abandonment, the site was deliberately damaged by bulldozers and ploughing, particularly on the eastern side. As a result of these site formation processes, it is particularly difficult to estimate how large Tol-e Spid was before the recent damage, and this makes it virtually impossible to estimate how large the site was in antiquity. However, although modern activity has in many respects devastated the archaeological deposits in the mound, it has left a 12 m standing section that rises above the low part of the mound, and exposes undisturbed deposits that would once have been towards its centre (see Figure 4.3). Before excavation was commenced in February 2003, the entire mounded area of the site and a great deal of the surrounding area was surveyed three-dimensionally using a Sokkia Set 5A Total Station and SDR 31 data logger. This survey saw the establishment of a site datum at the highest point on the mound, and the creation of a precise site grid aligned to magnetic north. In total, 929 data points were recorded, with their easting and northing coordinates and absolute heights being measured relative to the site datum, which was situated at 51˚29.068’E 30˚15.130’N at a height of 900 metres above sea level; as determined with the use of a handheld Garmin GPS 12

Personal Navigator®. This three-dimensional data was used to produce the contour plans and digital elevation models illustrated in Figures 4.2, 4.3 and 4.41. In February-March and June-July 2003 a preliminary sounding was excavated down the high exposed face of deposit and was continued 4 metres into the lower deposits (for location see Figure 4.4). This sounding revealed that within the 16 m of deposit at Tol-e Spid visible above the modern ground surface, there were at least 24 separate structural and/or occupational phases. It is notable that although this sounding penetrated almost to the level of the plain, virgin soil was not reached. This indicates that the occupation deposits may potentially continue below the surface of the plain, and if this is the case, it is likely that there has been alluviation in this area since the site was first occupied (see below). A number of antiquarians and explorers have made note of Tol-e Spid, including Ernst Herzfeld who visited the site on April 13th 1924, and Sir Aurel Stein who visited it in late 1935 (Herzfeld 1928; 1968; Harrison 1936; Stein 1940; see Chapter 1.2). When Stein journeyed through the Mamasani region, he camped next to Tol-e Spid, but only made a very cursory reference to the mound, particularly noting that its top was dominated by a small fort of Khurshid Khan, the chief local landowner (Stein 1940: 38). He did not however, suggest a possible age for its occupation (Stein 1940: 38)2. Before the ICAR/University of Sydney team commenced work in 2003, the only significant piece of information about the history of Tol-e Spid came from an inscribed brick that was discovered there in 1924 and copied by Herzfeld (see Chapter 1.2; Herzfeld n.d.: 168; Herzfeld 1928). This is a dedicatory inscription written in Elamite, which mentions the Elamite king Shilhak-Inshushinak and the Elamite goddess Kilahshupir (see Figure 4.5b - Herzfeld 1928: 82-85; 1935: 5-6; 1968: §146)3. The presence of the inscribed brick at Tol-e Spid suggests that Shilhak-Inshushinak most likely built a temple to Kilahshupir there (Herzfeld 1968: §141, 146), and this carries the implication that Mamasani was integrated into the administration of Elam during his reign. Tol-e Spid is situated approximately 15 kms to the north-northeast of Tol-e Nurabad as the crow flies, and about 20 kms to the east-southeast of Tappeh Sorna, the largest site in Dasht-e Rostam-e Do (see Plates 1 and 4; also Chapter 6.4). In its dominant position at the centre of the north-eastern end of Dasht-e Rostam-e Yek, Tol-e Spid is situated approximately 6 kms to the SE and in the direct line of sight of the Yagheh Sangar, which is the main pass between Dasht-e Rostam-e Yek and Dasht-e Rostam-e Do (see Chapter 2.1.4). Tol-e Spid lies about 1

90

km to the northwest of a sharp bend in the present course of the perennial Rud-i Fahlian, and is today surrounded by irrigable agricultural land (see Figure 4.6; also Chapter 2.1.4). A preliminary study of the geomorphology of the region was conducted in February 2004 and indicated that the Rud-i Fahlian is braided rather than meandering, and is thus not likely to have moved far from its present course for an extended period (Chapter 2.1.4). The distance between the modern river course and Tol-e Spid suggests that the river might not have been the primary water source for the ancient inhabitants of the site. About 2 km to the east-northeast of Tol-e Spid is the head of the Cheshme Gurab (see Chapter 2.1.4). The water discharged from this spring presently flows in a fixed course across the plain, past a small prehistoric mound known as Tol-e Band Barik (MS 37), before diverting sharply to the south and passing the large Sasanian and Islamic site of Tappeh Kushkak (MS 36 - 800m east of Tol-e Spid), and then snaking to the SE and emptying into the Rud-i Fahlian (see Chapter 2.1.4). For much of its course the Cheshme Gurab stream flows in the direction of Tol-e Spid (see Figures 4.6-4.8). However, rather than flow past the site, the stream diverts sharply to the south close to Tappeh Kushkak and does not flow past Tol-e Spid, but continues across the plain to flow into the Rud-i Fahlian (Figure 4.6-4.7). However, there are a number of factors indicating that this spring may have been the primary source of water for the inhabitants of Tol-e Spid. A large alluvial fan now covers much of the northern part of the Dasht-e Rostam-e Yek, and it is possible that the Cheshme Gurab stream has been diverted at some point by this fan. A concrete lined canal has been built in an attempt to secure the flow of water to the village of Tol-e Spid, and this canal follows the edge of the fan. Although it cannot be confirmed, it is possible that it has been concreted as a means of safeguarding against the growth of the fan as well as guaranteeing the

flow of water to the village. It is also not clear whether this canal follows the line of an ancient watercourse or is a more recent feature (see Chapter 2.1.4). However, the obvious evidence for the spreading of the fan and the presence of the modern canal can be combined to suggest that the Cheshme Gurab stream may once have flowed much closer to Tol-e Spid. However, until this can be demonstrated, it must also be acknowledged that there is a possibility that a simple irrigation canal was always used to bring water to the site. The point where the water from the Cheshme Gurab stream flows into the Rud-i Fahlian is close to two small sites situated on the plain, Se Tolun 1 and 2 (MS 41 and MS 42), and also to the Kurangun rock relief (see Chapter 1.4)4. Sited high on a cliff overlooking the Rud-e Fahlian, the relief faces away from Tol-e Spid, and is not visible from the site, which is located less than 3 km away. However, the flat terrace area above and behind the relief is covered with remnants of numerous structures made from well-laid dry stone (MS40, see Chapter 6.4; also Stein 1940: 38; Kleiss 1993: 358, Map 352), and although the precise function of these structures is not known, they have an unobstructed line of sight to Tol-e Spid (Figures 4.6 and 4.9). On the opposite side of the Rud-i Fahlian, approximately 4700 m to the southwest of Tol-e Spid are the remains of the Achaemenid structure known at Tappeh Servan or Jinjan (MS 46, see Chapter 6.4; also Herzfeld n.d.: 165-167; Stein 1940: 37; Atarashi and Horicuchi 1963). As with the structures above the Kurangun relief, there is a direct line of sight between Tappeh Servan and Tol-e Spid (see Figure 4.9). On the basis of the stratified remains exposed in the sounding, it appears that Tol-e Spid was occupied contemporaneously with the initial carving at Kurangun, and also with the construction of the structure at Tappeh Survan (see Chapter 4.7.2).

4.2. Stratigraphy, Phasing and Architecture of Tol-e Spid 4.2.1. Excavation Methodology Preliminary excavations were carried out at Tol-e Spid between January 30th and March 9th, and June 6th and July 5th 2003. The initial aim of this excavation was to expose a stratigraphically defined sequence of occupation at the site, and when this was combined with the results of the excavations at Tol-e Nurabad, it was hoped that this would provide a preliminary insight into the ceramic sequence and the occupational history of the Mamasani District as a whole. A small sounding trench was excavated down the face of the 12 m high standing section on the northeast face of the mound, with the uppermost point being approximately 1.3 m lower than the highest point on the mound. In its lowest reaches, this sounding also continued approximately 4 m into the deposits at the base of the standing section. Initially the sounding was 2x1 m in size, but as the excavation continued down, the slope

of the standing section meant that the trench expanded to 2x 2 and then 2x3 m in size. In order to ensure that the amount of deposit removed was minimised and to guarantee the safety of the excavators, the trench was stepped away from the southern section in two 1m increments and one 0.5m increment (see Figure 4.10). Excavation proceeded by the identification and removal of discretely stratified layers or “units”, whether they were originally produced by natural deposition processes or as a result of human action. A unit can be any type of stratified deposit, such as pit fill, a wall, foundation material, floor surface, bench, hearth, collapse, fill, and wash etcetera. During the excavation, each stratigraphic unit was referred to as a Locus, which was delimited, excavated separately, and allocated a sequential id number, in this case, from 3000 to 3166. Each locus was recorded on a separate data sheet, where the nature of the deposit was characterised through the selection of a relevant tick-box and a written description. The location

91

and extent of each locus was also drawn in plan, and absolute levels were taken so that it could be defined in three-dimensional space. The same procedure was also followed when architectural elements or other features were found. The small size of the sounding sometimes meant that individual deposits were excavated in a number of different parts, which were each allocated their own locus number, but which could be combined later. The stratigraphic relationships between each locus were also recorded, and the relationships for all of the deposits in the sounding are illustrated using a standard Harris matrix (see Figure 4.11; after Harris 1979). This sounding was excavated relatively rapidly, using pick, shovel and trowel. Deposits were not routinely sieved, but the excavated soil from each was examined by hand with a trowel, and all cultural material was collected before the matrix was discarded. Any cultural artefacts, animal bone or carbonised material recovered from a locus was placed in a clean plastic bag together with a separately bagged label marked with the date, site name, the trench number, the sequential locus number and a description of the type of object. This creates a permanent connection between the artefacts and the locus they were excavated from, serves to locate the artefact in three-dimensional space, and ensures that each artefact has a specific provenience. Considerable quantities of carbonised wood were recovered from most loci during the excavations. Readily visible pieces were removed using a clean trowel and placed into a new zip-lock plastic bag. When deposits containing an abundance of carbonised material were encountered, a sample of approximately 12 litres of soil was collected and the contents were floated. In some instances, this produced datable quantities of burnt seeds. A selection of 14 carbon samples has been submitted for radiocarbon dating, and the results are discussed below (see Chapter 4.6). When the depth of the trench neared the height of the excavators, the deposits visible in each vertical section of the sounding were drawn at a scale of 1:20, and this drawing was progressively added to as the excavations proceeded. At the completion of the excavations, each section was scanned, and rendered digitally using Coreldraw (see Figure 4.10). 4.2.2. Stratigraphic Phasing At the completion of the excavation and field recording, groups of individual loci that were judged to relate to a specific structural feature or period of occupation were attributed to an individual Phase. These were numbered from the top of the sounding down, so the uppermost was numbered TS Phase 1, and the lowest TS Phase 24. While these phases are essentially subjective constructs, the nature of preservation at Tol-e Spid is particularly good, and almost all of the phases represent superimposed building levels. Those that do not have structural remains are comprised of a succession of laminated surfaces or strata of deliberate fill. The separate

loci that constitute a phase defined by a building level will typically have been deposited during the period when the structure was being used, but also include the deposits related to its destruction and abandonment. During excavation, each of these building levels was photographed and planned (Figures 4.12–4.49). The remains of 24 structural and/or occupational phases were exposed within the sounding. Unlike the sounding at Tol-e Nurabad, the Tol-e Spid sounding did not reach virgin soil, and due to time constraints, excavation was halted less than 50 cm above the absolute level of the surrounding plain. The exact depth of the cultural deposits below this point has not yet been determined. Although the lowest phase (TS Phase 24) was not fully investigated, the deposits were far from sterile and contained cultural material akin to the Lapui material recovered from the four subsequent structural phases (TS Phases 20-23). Furthermore, a number of phases contained fragments of what appears to be residual ceramic material resembling the sand-tempered Bakun and the vegetal-tempered Neolithic wares that have been identified in the lower phases at Tol-e Nurabad (TN Phases A18-A13 and TN Phases A27-A19 respectively). As such, it is entirely possible that Phase 24 at Tol-e Spid does not represent the earliest occupation at the site and that there is a considerable amount of cultural material below this level. Only continued excavations will establish the precise depth of the cultural deposits. Each locus excavated at Tol-e Spid is presented in stratigraphic order in Table 4.1. The loci attributed to a specific phase have been ordered to reflect the sequence of deposition, with the most recently deposited locus being given the Roman numeral I. A description of the Type of Deposit has also been included, and the loci labelled in bold have had samples submitted for radiocarbon dating. The relationships between each locus are presented in a Harris matrix format in Figure 4.11. Like Table 4.1, the matrix is particularly long, and it has been broken into four sections for ease of presentation. The phase numbers have been indicated to the right of each section of the matrix. The standing sections of the Tol-e Spid sounding have been illustrated in Figure 4.10. The left-most section is that on the eastern side of the trench, and the others are sequentially the south, west and north sections. The individual locus numbers have not been shown, but the interface between each phase has been shown as a bold line, and each phase has been numbered.

92

Table 4.1: Tol-e Spid Sounding Stratigraphic Phasing Phase Locus Type of Deposit Period 1 I 3000 Topsoil ? II 3001 Topsoil “

2 I 3002 3004 Wash/Fill Post Ach II 3003 3006 Clay collapse “ III 3005 Clay collapse “ IV 3007 Collapse/Occupation “

3 I 3008 Clay wash Post Ach II 3009 Burnt collapse “ III 3010 Occupation “ IV 3012 Clay wash/fill “ V 3011 Mudbrick Structure “ VI 3013 Mudbrick Structure “

4a I 3014 Clay wash/fill Post Ach II 3015 3017 3016 Occupation “

4b I 3018 Collapse/fill “ II 3019, 3020 Collapse/Occupation “ III 3026 Chineh Structure “ IV 3027 3025 2023 Mudbrick Structure “

5 I 3024 (3019) Collapse Post Ach II 3028 Collapse/Occupation “ III 3030 3031 3032 Mudbrick Structures “

6 I 3021 3033 Disturbed Occupation Post Ach II 3022 Disturbed Occupation “ III 3029 3034 Disturbed Occupation “

7 I 3035 Collapse Post Ach II 3036 Brick Collapse “ III 3037 Mottled Collapse “ IV 3039 Structure “ V 3042 Mudbrick Structure “

8 I 3043 3038 Mottled Collapse Post Ach II 3044 3040 Collapse/Ash “ III 3041 Mottled Collapse “ IV 3047 Disturbed chineh

Structure “

9 I 3045 3049 3048 Mottled Brick Collapse Post Ach II 3046 Collapse/Ash “

10 I 3050 Mottled Collapse Post Ach II 3051 3053 Occupation “ III 3052 Occupation “ IV 3054 Mudbrick Structure “ V 3057 Mudbrick Structure “

11 I 3055 3056 3058 Collapse/Occupation Achaemenid II 3059 Collapse/Occupation “ III 3060 Pebble Pavement “

12 I 3061 Collapse/Wash Achaemenid II 3063 3062 Collapse “ III 3064 Occupation Feature “ IV 3066 3065 Collapse/Occupation “ V 3067 Collapse “ VI 3071 Mudbrick Collapse “ VII 3072 Collapse “ VIII 3070 3069 Mudbrick Structures “

Phase Locus Type of Deposit Period

13a I 3068 Dense Collapse/Fill Late 2nd mill II 3073 Dense Collapse/Fill “ II 3074 Occupation Surface (?) “

13b I 3075 Pit Fill “ II 3078 Pit Cut “

13c I 3076 Pebble/Clay Fill “ 13d I 3080 Pit Fill “

II 3081 Pit Cut “ 14 I 3077 Dense Collapse/Fill Late 2nd mill

II 3079 Dense Collapse/Fill “ III 3082 Dense Collapse/Fill “ IV 3083 Dense Collapse/Ash Fill “ V 3084 Dense Collapse/Pebbles “

15a I 3085 Collapse/Ash Qaleh/ 15b I 3086 Stone Pit Fill Kaftari

II 3087 Pit Cut “ 15c I 3088 Mottled Collapse “

II 3090 3089 Brick Collapse “ III 3091 Occupation (?) “ IV 3092 Under-floor fill “ V 3093 Pebble Under-floor Fill “

16a I 3094 Ephemeral Occupation Kaftari 16b I 3095 Collapse “

II 3096 Collapse/Occupation “ III 3097 River Stone Structure “

17a I 3098 Fire Pit Fill Kaftari II 3099 Fire Pit Cut “ III 3100 Occupation (?) “ IV 3101 Ash/Occupation “

17b I 3102 Ephemeral Surfaces “ II 3103 Burnt Collapse “ III 3104 Burnt Occupation “ IV 3105 Burnt Occupation “

17c I 3106 Dense Brick Collapse “ II 3107 Crumbly Brick Collapse “ III 3108 Dense Brick Surface “ IV 3109 Ashy Occupation “ V 3110 Occupation (?) “

17d I 3111 Brick Collapse “ II 3112 Brick/Ash Collapse “ III 3113 Collapse/Fill “

18a I 3114 3115 3116 Collapse/Occupation (?) Banesh II 3117 Brick Collapse “ III 3119 Brick Collapse “ IV 3120 Brick Collapse “

18b I 3118 3123 Occupation (?) “ II 3121 Occupation (?) “ III 3122 Occupation (?) “ IV 3124 3126 Collapse “ V 3125 Collapse “ VI 3127 River Stone Structure “

93

Phase Locus Type of Deposit Period 19 I 3128 3129 Mottled Collapse Banesh/

II 3130 Mottled Collapse Lapui III 3131 Occupation “ IV 3132 Occupation Surface “ V 3133 Occupation/Fill “ VI 3134 River Stone Structure “

20a I 3135 3136 Occupation Lapui II 3137 Mudbrick Structure Rebuild

20b I 3138 3139 Occupation II 3140 Occupation Surface III 3141 Mudbrick Structure Rebuild

20c I 3142 Occupation Surfaces II 3144 3145 Plaster and Ash Surfaces III 3143 Structural Mortar IV 3146 Mudbrick Structure

Phase Locus Type of Deposit Period 21 I 3147 Pebble and Clay Fill Lapui

II 3148 Ash and Clay Fill III 3149 Ash Occupation

Surfaces

IV 3150 Ash Occupation Surfaces

V 3151 Chineh Structure 22 I 3152 Clay Fill (?) Lapui

II 3153 Clay/Ash Surface III 3154 Clay/Ash Surface IV 3155 River Stone Structure

23 I 3156 Brick Collapse Lapui II 3157 3162 Clay Collapse III 3159 Feature (Hearth) IV 3160 Occupation Surface V 3161 Pebble Pavement VI 3158 Mudbrick Structure VII 3163 River Stone Foundation VIII 3164 River Stone Foundation

24 I 3165 Clay Collapse Lapui II 3166 Mottled Collapse

4.2.3. Stratigraphic Phase Descriptions The absolute elevation of the highest point at Tol-e Spid, the top of the sounding, the lowest point reached in the sounding, and the surrounding plain are shown in Table 4.2. Table 4.2: Absolute Heights of Tol-e Spid and Sounding

Location of Measurement Absolute Height (m asl)Highest point on Tol-e Spid 900.00 m

Top of Sounding 898.80 m Lowest Level Reached in Sounding 884.60 m

Level of Surrounding Plain 884.00 m

The extent and nature of each structural or occupation phase exposed in the Tol-e Spid sounding is described below. This includes a note of the extent and the absolute heights of the top and bottom for each phase, a description of the elements that make up the phase, and a brief note of the type of cultural material that the phase contains. The plans and photographs that illustrate a number of these structural phases are shown in Figures 4.12 – 4.49. It was noted above that the Phases have been numbered from 1 to 24, with the uppermost and most recent phase being TS Phase 1. In the following descriptions, and from this point on, the Phases will be presented in reverse numerical order, and as such, they are presented in chronological order from earliest to latest, with the aim being to highlight the nature of change through time. This format will also be followed in all of the subsequent discussions. Where there is a radiocarbon determination available for a particular phase, it has been mentioned, and a complete synthetic discussion of the significance of these determinations will appear in Chapter 4.6.

TS Phase 24 Extent: 1 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 884.60 (Bottom) to 884.70 (Top). Description: This non-structural Lapui period phase is comprised of collapse/fill material and occupation debris, which underlies the lowest excavated structural level. It is comprised of soft light grey clay containing yellow patches and charcoal fragments (Locus 3165, 3166). Excavation was halted before this phase could be fully investigated. Culture Period: Lapui - suggested by the presence of grit-tempered ceramics with a burnished surface. TS Phase 23 (Figure 4.12) Extent: 1 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 884.70 (Bottom) to 885.05 (Top). Description: The first structural Lapui period phase is comprised of two mudbrick walls that join in the SE corner of the sounding to form the corner of a structure/room, together with the associated occupation surfaces and post occupation collapse/fill. One wall runs northwest-southeast from the north baulk and is preserved to 2 courses (H c. 25 cm), and the other runs northeast-southwest into the south baulk and is preserved to 6 courses (H c. 60 cm) (excavated together as Locus 3158). Both are constructed of yellow mudbricks (c.38x38x10 cm) with grey mortar. The northern wall is built above a stone foundation, comprised of river pebbles that range between 5x5 and 20x20 cm in size (L. 3163, 3164). The enclosed area to the western side of the walls has a dark grey to brown compact clay floor surface (L.3160) that has been laid above a sub-floor foundation of pebbles set in light-dark grey clay (L.3161). Traces of a hearth are visible on top of the floor surface at the point where the southern wall meets the south baulk (L.3159). The compact clay floor and hearth are overlain by dark

94

brown/grey degraded mudbrick collapse containing charcoal and ash (L. 3157), with a concentration of burnt clay above the hearth. The area to the outside of the room does not appear to be an occupation surface, and was filled with grey clay collapse (L.3162). The uppermost deposit of this phase is comprised of grey degraded mudbrick with yellow patches and charcoal (L.3156). Culture Period: Lapui - suggested by the presence of grit-tempered ceramics with a burnished surface. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3164 (OZI139) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 3980-3710 BC, which is stratigraphically consistent with the radiocarbon dates from later phases. TS Phase 22 (Figure 4.13) Extent: 1 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 885.05 (Bottom) to 885.40 (Top). Description: The second structural Lapui period phase is comprised of occupation deposits associated with a mudbrick and stone wall running northeast-southwest in the southeast corner of the sounding. The wall is composed of river pebbles between 10x20 and 15x20 cm in size topped by mudbricks that were only visible in the east section, and is preserved to a height of 40 cm (L.3155), although it has been disturbed by the overlying structures. The associated occupation surface is dark brown to grey clay with patches of charcoal and ash (L.3154). The overlying fill deposit was very soft light brown/dark grey clay containing ash and pottery fragments smashed onto the underlying surface (L.3152, 3153). Culture Period: Lapui - suggested by the presence of grit-tempered ceramics with a burnished surface. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3153 (WK13980) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 3940-3650 BC, which is stratigraphically consistent with the radiocarbon dates from earlier and later phases. TS Phase 21 (Figure 4.14) Extent: 1 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 885.40 (Bottom) to 886.20 (Top). Description: The third structural Lapui period phase is comprised of a poorly defined mud/clay wall, running N-S at the eastern end of the sounding and associated surfaces and fill. Although it appears to have been preserved to a height of 70 cm, no mudbricks were visible and in the north section it appears to slump to the east, indicating that it might be heavily degraded (L.3151). The associated clay and ash occupation deposits to the west (L.3149, 3150) appear to slope away from the wall. These deposits are overlain by layers of light brown and grey brown clay fill containing patches of charcoal (L.3147, 3148). Culture Period: Lapui - suggested by the presence of grit-tempered ceramics with a burnished surface. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3150 (OZI140) has a 2σ calibrated range of c.3770-3630 BC, which is stratigraphically consistent with the radiocarbon dates from earlier and later phases. TS Phase 21 appears to be broadly contemporaneous with TN Phase A13.

TS Phase 20 (Figures 4.15-4.16) Extent: 1 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 886.20 (Bottom) to 887.33 (Top). Description: The fourth structural Lapui period phase is comprised of a well-preserved mudbrick wall running northwest-southeast across the centre of the sounding and the associated occupation deposits. The wall was constructed using bricks and mortar in a number of different colours. At different levels, the wall changes its alignment slightly and is abutted by a series of associated floor surfaces and fill deposits. The change in the alignment of the wall may be the result of subsidence, but the change in the colour of the bricks may indicate that there were up to two rebuilds. While it is entirely possible that the wall was constructed in one operation and that the series of floors indicate that it was in use for some time, in this discussion, each apparent rebuild will be discussed separately. Sub-Phase 20c: the earliest phase of this wall is made of light brown and grey bricks (c.35-45x35x5 cm) with grey ash and clay or yellow clay mortar (1-1.5 cm thick), to a height of c.36 cm (L.3143, 3146). Both sides were faced with 1-1.5 cm of light brown clay. The deposits on either side of the wall are distinct, suggesting that the wall separates two different rooms. The grey brown clay fill with ash on the eastern side (L.3145) did not have clear floor levels but contained quantities of bone and smashed ceramic fragments. At the same level on the western side were a series of fill layers and ephemeral surfaces topped by a white clay/plaster surface that was moist and difficult to trace, and overlay a layer of small river-stones in mid-brown clay (L.3142, 3144). Above the white clay floor, a series of thin grey, light brown and white surfaces were visible with patches of burnt brown clay (L.3142). Sub-Phase 20b: the middle phase rebuild of this wall is made from orange and dark brown mudbricks (c.35-45x35x5 cm) with yellow mortar (1-1.5 cm thick) to a height of c.30 cm (L.3141). Both sides of the wall were faced with 1-1.5 cm of light brown/yellow clay, and an area of this facing on the western face shows clear signs of burning. It also appears that a thin layer of light brown/yellow clay was added to re-render the wall after the burning. Abutting the wall on the eastern side was a preserved mid brown to grey clay surface, topped by smashed ceramic vessels and overlain by mottled brown/grey fill (L.3139, 3140). The deposits on the western side of the wall were mottled yellow-light brown fill with clear signs of burning adjacent to the burnt area of the wall facing (L.3138). Sub-Phase 20a: the uppermost phase rebuild of this wall is made of irregularly sized dark brown mudbricks (c.30-50x35x5 cm) with yellow mortar (1-1.5 cm thick) to a height of c.34 cm (L.3137). Both sides of the wall were faced with 1-1.5 cm of light brown/yellow clay. Abutting the wall on the eastern side is a grey brown clay fill with a concentration of ash in the SE corner of the sounding (L.3136). The fill deposits abutting the wall to the E were grey clay containing flecks of charcoal (L.3135). Phase 20 is the earliest structural phase to have been affected by an earthquake split that runs N-S across the sounding close to the E baulk, and partially follows the line of the east face of the Phase 20 wall. This crack is clearly visible in the section, and affects the deposits of Phases 20-18. During the excavation, it was noted that this crack

95

was filled with well-levigated clay, suggesting that at some point after the disturbance, rain washed clay seeped into the crack and filled it. Culture Period: Lapui - suggested by the presence of red-slipped and grit-tempered ceramics with burnished surface. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3142 (WK13979) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 3710-3380 BC, which is later than the date from TS Phase 22, although the date ranges overlap considerably. TS Phase 20 appears to be broadly contemporaneous with TN Phase A12. TS Phase 19 (Figures 4.17-4.19) Extent: 1 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 887.33 (Bottom) to 888.20 (Top). Description: This structural Lapui/Early Banesh transitional period phase is comprised of primary occupation deposits overlying a disturbed river-stone structure running northeast-southwest across the central part of the sounding. The southwest end of the wall was particularly well built, from large and small river-stones ranging from 5x5 cm to 20x40 cm in size, and preserved to a height of c.30 cm, but the central part of the wall shows clear signs of disturbance (L.3134). The associated fill overlying the wall was brown clay with patches of burning and ash (L.3133), suggesting that it may have been used as an occupation surface. Overlying this was a mottled light buff/brown clay layer containing charcoal fragments (L.3132), which was topped by a thin ash layer (L.3131). Remnants of two smashed ceramic vessels were recovered from on top of this ash surface (L.3130 – see Figure 4.19), indicating that it may have been an occupation surface. The fill overlying this surface was predominantly mottled yellow/light brown/orange clay with patches that are considerably softer than others (L.3128, 3129)5. Culture Period: This appears to be a transitional Lapui/Banesh period phase, suggested by the appearance of red-slip, polished, burnished grit-tempered, and vegetal-tempered ceramics, including one fragment of a bevelled-rim bowl. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3132 (WK13981) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 3760-3520 BC, which has a considerable overlap with the range for the date from TS Phase 20. TS Phase 19 appears to be broadly contemporaneous with TN Phase A11. TS Phase 18 (Figures 4.20-4.22) Extent: 1.5 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 888.20 (Bottom) to 889.20 (Top). Description: The first structural Banesh period phase is comprised of two sub-phases. Sub-Phase 18b: a river-stone structure running northeast-southwest in the northwest of the sounding, with associated occupation and fill deposits. The wall was comprised of river-stones ranging from 20x30 to 30x40 cm in size and preserved to a height of c.30 cm (L.3127). There was potentially some disturbance to this wall, as it appears to end before it reaches the north baulk. The associated fill deposits were comprised of light to mid brown clay with mottled patches of grey and yellow (L.3124, 3125, 3126). A dense, dark brown clay fill containing abundant Banesh ceramics overlay these mottled layers (L.3118, 3121,

3122, 3123). Sub-Phase 18a: a series of occupation/fill layers that overlie the dense, dark brown clay at the top of Phase 18b. The lowest was dense, light brown clay with buff patches, sloping to the E (L.3117, 3119, 3120), which appears to have been degraded mudbrick. Above this fill layer was a surface with a visible line of clay separating different colours of clay deposit. To the E and west the deposit was predominantly dense dark brown clay (L.3114, 3116), but there was an area to the north where the deposit was buff/light brown clay (L.3115). This occupation/fill layer contained fragments and near complete examples of typical Banesh type vessels (see Figure 4.20), along with a significant quantity of red-slipped ceramic types. Of Phases 18, 19 and 20, it was Phase 18 that was perhaps the most disturbed by the subsidence, resulting in the deposits on at the east end of the sounding being displaced 5-15 cm lower than those at the west end. As noted previously, this crack was visible as a line of well-levigated clay, which may have washed in at some point after the disturbance. With this line visible, it was possible to excavate the displaced levels separately, in order to prevent contamination. Culture Period: Banesh – suggested by the presence of diagnostic grit and vegetal-tempered together with red-slip polished and burnished ceramics. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3117 (Wk13982) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 3370-3080 BC, which is later than the sample from TS Phase 19, and thus stratigraphically consistent. TS Phase 18 appears to be broadly contemporaneous with TN Phases A10-A7. TS Phase 17 (Figures 4.23-4.24) Extent: 1.3-1.8 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 889.20 (Bottom) to 890.90 (Top). Description: Most of the deposits from this non-structural Kaftari period phase do not have any associated structural features, so it is not easy to establish the exact nature of the sub-phases. The divisions have been made on the basis of stratigraphic changes in deposit density and type. Sub-Phase 17d: Layers of degraded orange/brown mudbrick collapse/fill with patches of burnt orange and buff brick-like material and lenses of soft grey ash with a depth of 0.54 m (L.3111, 3112, 3113). Sub-Phase 17c: Layers of hard packed mid-dark brown clay or degraded mudbrick (L.3106, 3107, 3108) interleaved by lenses of mid-brown to grey ashy clay with a depth of 0.62 m (L.3109, 3110). Sub-Phase 17b: A layer of burnt red/brown clay (L.3105) overlain by layers of soft buff/light brown mottled clay (L.3104) and red/brown to dark brown clay with buff patches and obvious signs of burning (L.3103), and a depth of 0.34 m. These layers appears to have been the remains of ephemeral surfaces, and do not appear to have been related to any architecture. The uppermost deposits in this sub-phase included a series of grey and green/grey lenses (L.3102). While it is not precisely clear, this appears to have been used as a surface during the subsequent sub-phase. Sub-Phase 17a: a fired clay and pebble lined fireplace/hearth (L.3098) with an associated concentration of ash (L.3101) that may have either been a fireplace or the remains of material discarded from the fire installation. The pit for the hearth (L.3099) had been

96

cut into a mottled mid-brown clay deposit with ash and patches of orange mudbrick (L.3100), which may have been an ephemeral surface associated with the use of the pit. Culture Period: Kaftari – suggested by the presence of vegetal and grit-tempered ceramics with brown painted decoration. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3112 (OZI141) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 1770-1510 BC, which is in excess of 1000 years later than the sample from TS Phase 18, suggesting that there was a long gap in occupation between these two phases. However, a radiocarbon date from Locus 3108 (Wk13983) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 2140-1880 BC, which is significantly earlier than the date from the stratigraphically earlier Locus 3112 (see Chapter 4.6). TS Phase 16 (Figures 4.25-4.26) Extent: 1.4-1.8 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 890.90 (Bottom) to 891.80 (Top). Description: This structural Kaftari period phase is comprised of two sub-phases. Sub-Phase 16b: large river-stone wall running west-east along and within the south baulk of the sounding. Although this wall has been damaged at the eastern end, it was well constructed; being built from large river-stones between 10x15 cm and 55x35 cm in size, with smaller pebbles packed tightly as interstices, and is preserved in parts to 55 cm in height (L.3097). The associated fill deposits with this wall were comprised of thin lenses of burnt organic material within soft light brown clay (L.3095, 3096). This fill was presumably deposited after the eastern end of the wall was disturbed. Sub-Phase 16a: a soft mid brown clay deposit with mottled patches (L.3094) overlay the fill associated with the Phase 16b river-stone wall. This deposit is potentially the result of some ephemeral occupation. Culture Period: Kaftari - suggested by the presence of vegetal and grit-tempered ceramics with brown painted decoration. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3096 (OZI142) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 1870-1530 BC, which is virtually identical to the stratigraphically earlier date from TS Phase 17 (L.3112) (see Chapter 4.6). TS Phase 16 appears to be broadly contemporaneous with TN Phases A5-A3. TS Phase 15 (Figures 4.27-4.28) Extent: 2.4 x 2 m & 1.2-1.6 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 891.80 (Bottom) to 892.20 (Top). Description: This Kaftari period phase is comprised of three sub-phases, which have been differentiated on the basis of stratigraphic changes in deposit density and type. Sub-Phase 15c: mudbrick wall with river-stone foundation running north-south along the eastern baulk of the sounding. The bricks in this wall are barely visible, but grey and yellow outlines were visible in the compacted clay layers (L.3091, 3089) directly above a one course river-stone foundation made from stones 10x10 to 20x30 cm in size (L.3093). The associated occupation/fill deposit is soft grey/brown clay with mottled patches and ash (L.3091) above a fill layer of mid-brown clay with small pebbles (L.3092). Above this

were layers of mid-brown clay that appear to be degraded brick, separated by lenses of ash and dark brown clay (L.3088, 3090). The total depth of sub-phase 15c is 0.64 m. Sub-Phase 15b: a small stone filled pit cut into the upper layers of the underlying deposit, depth 0.10 m (L.3086, 3087). Sub-Phase 15a: the uppermost fill layers of this phase were comprised of dense and compacted mid-brown degraded mudbrick and clay, which slopes from the south to the north across the sounding, depth 0.10 m (L.3085). Culture Period: Late Kaftari/Qaleh – suggested by the presence of vegetal and grit-tempered ceramics with brown painted decoration. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3092 (Wk13984) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 1890-1600 BC, which is considerably later than the stratigraphically later sample from TS Phase 17 (L.3108). Its range is also virtually identical to that for the stratigraphically earlier sample from TS Phase 17 (L.3112) (see Chapter 4.6). Its stratigraphic positioning and ceramic material suggests that TS Phase 15 represents the latest part of the Kaftari period or even the Qaleh Period. TS Phase 15 appears to be broadly contemporaneous with TN Phases A2-A1. TS Phase 14 Extent: 2 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 892.20 (Bottom) to 893.45 (Top). Description: This non-structural Middle Elamite/Qaleh period phase is comprised of a thick (c.1.12 m) layer of intentional mid-dark brown clay and degraded mudbrick fill. In section, the deposits of TS Phase 14 appear to be mostly homogenous, but during excavation it was noted that thin lenses of ash (L.3083) separated some of the layers of fill (L.3077, 3079, 3082, 3084). This being said, the homogeneity of the fill suggests that it was deposited in one ‘event’. The fill contained an abundance of pottery fragments but almost no bone. The ceramic fragments appear to include a mix of Bakun, Lapui, Banesh, Kaftari and Middle Elamite types. Due to the fact that there are no clear occupation deposits, the mixed nature of the pottery from this phase suggests that it is comprised of material that was excavated from areas of the site where earlier deposits were present. The latest ceramic material present appears to be Middle Elamite, so it is possible that this phase is an intentional filling episode that took place in the late 2nd millennium BC. Culture Period: 2nd millennium BC – suggested by the presence of some Middle Elamite ceramic forms. TS Phase 16 appears to be broadly contemporaneous with TN Phase B9. TS Phase 13 (Figures 4.29-4.30) Extent: 2.4 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 893.45 (Bottom) to 893.70 (Top). Description: This non-structural phase is comprised of four sub-phases. Sub-Phase 13d: a series of ash filled pits, which were clearly visible in the western section and have a depth of 40 cm, but which only extend 5 cm into the sounding (L.3075, 3078, 3080, 3081). These pits were all cut into the underlying deposits of TS Phase 14. Although they contained no cultural material, there

97

appears to have been some re-cutting of the pit lines, suggesting that they were in use for some time. Sub-Phase 13c: fill layers of river pebbles in yellow/light brown chalky clay (L.3076), sloping from south-north across the sounding, with a depth of 0.24 m. As with the fill layers of TS Phase 14, this fill layer contains an abundant but slightly mixed assemblage of ceramic types, including Bakun, Lapui, Banesh, Kaftari and Middle Elamite forms. The mixed nature of the pottery from this phase suggests that it includes material that was excavated from areas of the site where earlier deposits were present. Similar to TS Phase 14, the latest ceramic material present in Sub-Phase 13c is Middle Elamite, so it is possible that it represents an intentional filling episode in the late 2nd millennium BC or early 1st millennium BC. Sub-Phase 13b: a pit cut through the fill layers of Sub-Phase 13c and into those of TS Phase 14, to a minimum depth 0.64 m. It contained small amounts of pottery that do not date after the late 2nd or early 1st millennium BC. Sub-Phase 13a: an occupation surface with overlying fill deposits, depth 0.24 m. There are no preserved structural elements, but a thin compact yellow surface containing no ceramic material was present in the southeast area of the sounding (L.3074). This layer did not extended far from the south or east baulks suggesting that it may have been disturbed in the past. The overlying fill in the east part of the sounding was very dense but crumbly dark brown clay that had the consistency of degraded mudbrick (L.3068, 3073). Culture Period: Late 2nd-Early 1st Millennium BC – suggested by the range of unpainted vegetal-tempered ceramics. TS Phase 13 appears to be broadly contemporaneous with TN Phases B9-B8. TS Phase 12 (Figures 4.31-4.32) Extent: 2.4 x 2.0 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 893.70 (Bottom) to 894.33 (Top). Description: This structural Achaemenid period phase is comprised of two mudbrick walls and associated occupation and fill deposits. The better-preserved wall runs north-south across the central part of the sounding (L.3069). It has seven visible courses of light, mid-brown and grey mudbricks and is preserved to a height of 64 cm. In the south section it is possible to see that the lower three mudbrick courses have slumped to the west, and the upper four courses appear to have been added to make the wall upright again, at some point after it had slumped. It is not clear whether this slumping was the result of subsidence, or whether it was due to the fact that the wall was built above the underlying pit in Sub-Phase 13b (L.3075, 3078). The second wall is perpendicular to the first, running west-east across the northern edge of the sounding, and has been partially eroded by the recent damage to the mound (L.3070). Only two courses of brown mudbricks are visible, and the upper course appears to have been laid vertically rather than horizontally. The associated deposits on either side of the NS wall are different. On the western side, there are layers of grey brown mudbrick collapse mixed with ash (L.3063, 3067, 3071, 3072), occasionally separated by clear lenses of ash and mottled clay (L.3066) that all slope steeply from east to west. On the eastern side, there were patches of dense yellow chalky material and mottled

clay (L.3065), which appear to be the remains of an occupation surface related to the wall, and immediately above this surface at the south baulk were the remains of a fired clay hearth lining (L.3064). The overlying fill was comprised of mudbrick collapse mixed with medium to large river-stones between 5x10 and 20x30 cm in size (L.3062). Above the preserved height of the wall, the entire sounding was covered by a layer of light-mid brown clay with patches of brown/orange degraded mudbrick (L.3061). This overlying deposit slopes from the southeast corner of the sounding to the southwest and northwest. Culture Period: Achaemenid – suggested by the presence of Achaemenid carinated bowls and an Iron Age bridge spouted vessel. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3063 (Wk13985) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 800-200 BC, with a high probability of being c. 550-350 BC, indicating that this phase is Early Achaemenid in date. Although there are no radiocarbon determinations from the relevant deposits at TN, it is possible that TS Phase 12 is broadly contemporaneous with TN Phase B6. TS Phase 11 (Figures 4.33-4.34) Extent: 2.0 x 2.0 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 894.33 (Bottom) to 894.70 (Top). Description: This structural Achaemenid period phase is comprised of a sloping pebble pavement with overlying layers of burned brown/grey clay and ash and fill. The pebble pavement is composed of small river pebbles ranging in size from 1x1 up to 4x5 cm, which is preserved as a relatively regular surface sloping from a flat area in the southeast down into the southwest, northwest and northeast corners of the sounding (L.3060). The pebbles are overlain by a compressed level of light brown/grey clay with fragments of charcoal, which increased in thickness towards the west side of the sounding (L.3055, 3056, 3058, 3059), making the uppermost surface of this phase relatively flat. Culture Period: Achaemenid – suggested by the presence of distinctive Achaemenid ceramic forms. Although there are no radiocarbon determinations from the relevant deposits at TN, it is possible that TS Phase 11 is broadly contemporaneous with TN Phases B6-B5. TS Phase 10 (Figures 4.35-4.37) Extent: 1.8-2.0 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 894.70 (Bottom) to 895.40 (Top). Description: This structural Achaemenid period phase is comprised of a mudbrick wall with a clay render, and associated occupation and fill deposits. This wall runs west-east across the northern part of the sounding, close to the cut edge of the mound, leaving a thin 20-30 cm strip of deposit on its northern side. Five courses of brown mudbricks (c.30x30x10-15 cm) are preserved to a height of c.60 cm, and a light brown clay render with clear signs of burning was preserved on the west end of the wall on its southern side (L.3054, 3057). The uppermost course of this wall was not preserved across its entire length. The associated fill deposits to the S of the wall consists of a thin layer of soft grey ash (L.3052) topped by remnants of a white/buff clay floor (L.3051, 3053), which appears to have been an occupation surface.

98

This was overlain by a light brown/grey clay collapse/fill with patches of orange degraded mudbrick and numerous charcoal fragments (L.3050). Culture Period: Achaemenid – suggested by the appearance of Achaemenid ceramic forms. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3050 (Wk13986) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 390-170 BC, indicating that this phase is Late Achaemenid or Early Post- Achaemenid in date. Although there are no radiocarbon determinations from the relevant deposits at TN, it is possible that TS Phase 10 is broadly contemporaneous with TN Phases B4-B1. TS Phase 9 Extent: 2.4 x 2.0 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 895.40 (Bottom) to 895.50 (Top). Description: This non-structural Achaemenid/Post-Achaemenid period phase is situated between the structural remains of Phases 8 and 10, and comprised of a layer of mottled light, mid and dark brown and grey clay with fragments of collapsed mudbricks and thin ephemeral lenses of white ash/organic material (L.3045, 3046, 3048, 3049). No discernable structural remains were present, and this appears to be a layer of fill. Culture Period: Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid – suggested by the presence of Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid ceramic forms. Although there are no radiocarbon determinations from the relevant deposits at TN, it is possible that TS Phase 9 is broadly contemporaneous with TN Phases B4-B1. TS Phase 8 (Figure 4.38) Extent: 1.7-1.8 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 895.50 (Bottom) to 895.80 (Top). Description: This structural Post-Achaemenid period phase is comprised of a poorly preserved mudbrick wall and associated fill layers. The wall runs west-east along the northern edge of the sounding, but has been disturbed so that it is only visible in the west section. Only one course of mudbricks (c.30x40x15 cm) is preserved to a height of 40 cm (L.3047). As with the west–east running wall in Phase 12, the bricks in this wall appear to have occasionally been laid vertically rather than horizontally. The associated collapse/fill deposits are mottled buff/light brown/light grey clay layers that contain whole and fragmentary mudbricks and fragments of charcoal (L.3038, 3040, 3041, 3043, 3044). Culture Period: Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid – suggested by the presence of Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid ceramic forms. TS Phase 7 (Figures 4.39-4.40) Extent: 1.6-1.7 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 895.80 (Bottom) to 896.20 (Top). Description: This structural Post-Achaemenid period phase is comprised of a mudbrick wall with associated fill layers. This wall runs north–south along the west baulk of the sounding. The wall is preserved to a height of 30 cm in two courses of densely packed orange, buff and grey bricks (c.50x40 10 cm) (L.3039, 3042). The associated fill was mottled light grey clay and degraded mudbrick with patches of discolouration and burning, and an

abundance of carbon fragments, separated by lenses of ephemeral ash/organic material (L.3035, 3036, 3037). Culture Period: Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid – suggested by the presence of Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid ceramic forms. TS Phase 6 Extent: 1.2 x 1.2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 896.20 (Bottom) to 896.25 (Top). Description: This non-structural Post-Achaemenid Phase is comprised of a heavily disturbed occupation surface and underlying deposit. Visible along the length of the east section, this was a 2-4 cm thick hard packed yellow chalk occupation surface (L.3021, 3033) overlying layers of dark brown/red burnt clay and soft grey ash (L.3022, 3029, 3034). This occupation layer was disturbed at some point before the construction of the structures in TS Phase 5, as the yellow chalk surface underlies the later structures, but does not extend across the limits of the sounding. Culture Period: Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid – suggested by the presence of Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid ceramic forms. TS Phase 5 (Figures 4.41-4.42) Extent: 1.6 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 896.25 (Bottom) to 896.45 (Top). Description: This structural Post-Achaemenid period phase is comprised of the remnants of four mudbrick walls, and associated occupation and collapse deposits. One wall runs north–south along the west baulk, following the line of the wall in Phase 7 (L.3032), while the other three join to form a U-shape extending from the southeast corner of the sounding (L.3030, 3031). No clear mudbrick outlines could be discerned in any of these walls, but two courses of bricks, approximately 10 cm think are visible in the southern section. The surface that lay between the mudbrick walls was dense brown clay overlain by a thin layer of white and black ash (L.3028). This was covered by dense burnt orange mudbrick collapse containing fragments of charcoal (L.3024, 3019). These walls are close together, and do not appear to enclose a usable space. Culture Period: Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid – suggested by the presence of Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid ceramic forms. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3024 (Wk13987) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 400-170 BC, which is statistically identical to the date from TS Phase 8 and indicates that this phase is Late Achaemenid or Early Post- Achaemenid in date. TS Phase 4 (Figures 4.43-4.46) Extent: 1.5-1.6 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 896.45 (Bottom) to 897.00 (Top). Description: This structural Post-Achaemenid period phase is comprised of two sub-phases. Sub-Phase 4b: two mudbrick walls and connected structure with associated fill deposits. One wall runs north–south along the east baulk and is visible in both the south and east sections (L.3023, 3025). At its highest point, this wall appears to have had at least six courses of grey and brown mudbricks, preserved to a height of 58 cm. The

99

construction material used in the wall was almost identical to the material present in the adjacent mottled light brown/grey fill deposit (L.3018, 3020), which contained an almost complete though fragmented ceramic beaker (TS 98-101). The interface between the two was marked by a thin and irregularly preserved vertical layer of ash and charcoal. The other wall runs north–south partway into the sounding, and appears to stop before reaching the south baulk (L. 3027). This wall appears to have been made of compressed mud/clay, and there were no clear brick lines visible. Extending from west–east along the northern edge of the sounding, an irregular mud/clay structure was visible (L.3026), separating the mottled light brown/grey fill deposits from compact orange and grey clay layers visible only at the northern edge of the sounding (L.3019). Although this chineh structure clearly acts as a barrier between two different types of fill deposit, its exact function is not clear. Sub-Phase 4a: an occupation phase, depth 0.26 m, associated with the upper courses of the north–south wall constructed in Phase 4b. Abutting the upper preserved course of this wall were a series of compact ephemeral ash and buff clay surfaces (L.3016), which appear to be associated with a scatter of 5x5 – 10x15 cm river-stones, which runs along the southern part of the sounding (L.3017). To the north of these stones is mottled grey/brown clay containing larger scattered river stones (5x5-30x50 cm in size), and an almost complete though fragmented ceramic storage vessel (TS 134-137) (L.3014, 3015 – see Figure 4.46). Culture Period: Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid – suggested by the presence of Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid ceramic forms. TS Phase 3 (Figures 4.47-4.49) Extent: 1.3-1.4 x 2 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 897.00 (Bottom) to 897.30 (Top). Description: This structural Post-Achaemenid period phase is comprised of a mudbrick structure with associated occupation and fill deposits. Remnants of one course of light grey and orange mudbrick structure are visible along the south baulk, and this appears to have originally been two walls extending north into the

sounding (L.3011, 3013), with a compacted buff clay surface between the two (L.3010). This surface contained fragments of carbon and patches of orange and blackened clay. Adjacent to the structure is mottled mid-brown/grey and orange fill (L.3012), overlain by a destruction layer of burnt dark brown and orange clay containing abundant organic material and ceramic fragments from a large storage vessel (TS 56-70, 87-92) (L.3009). Above this destruction layer was a thin lens of mid-brown clay (L.3008). Culture Period: Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid – suggested by the presence of Achaemenid/Post Achaemenid ceramic forms. A radiocarbon date from Locus 3009 (Wk13988) has a 2σ calibrated range of c. 370-50 BC, which is statistically similar to the date from TS Phase 5 and indicates that this phase is Early Post- Achaemenid in date. TS Phase 2 Extent: 1.0 x 2.0 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 897.30 (Bottom) to 897.66 (Top). Description: The uppermost stratified archaeological layers of this Post-Achaemenid period phase were not associated with any structural elements. The phase is composed of hard packed brown and grey clay layers containing fragments of charcoal (L.3002, 3003, 3004, 3005, 3006, and 3007). The sections of deposit closest to the edge of the mound had been affected by rain, and although they may have been the same as the adjacent deposit, they were excavated separately. Culture Period: Post Achaemenid – suggested by the presence of Post Achaemenid ceramic forms. TS Phase 1 Extent: 1.0 x 2.0 m, with the absolute height of the deposits ranging from 897.66 (Bottom) to 898.90 (Top). Description: This heavily sloping soft clay topsoil varies in colour from brown and black to orange (L.3000, 3001). Disturbed by surface vegetation and groundwater, with patches of hard clay and degraded mudbrick visible. Culture Period: Unknown.

4.3. TS Ceramics 4.3.1. Introduction and Definition of

Terminology The ceramics from the Tol-e Spid sounding will be presented by stratigraphic phase, following the sequence outlined in the preceding section. It is important to reiterate that this discussion is based on a relatively small sample of sherds and complete vessels, collected from a stratigraphic sounding that ranged from 2x1 to 2x3 m in size. Due to the limited size of the sounding, it cannot be assumed that the pottery assemblages recovered from each phase are truly representative of the range of vessels that were being used at Tol-e Spid during any one chronological period. Also, until further excavations are

carried out in other areas of the site, it cannot be assumed that every phase of occupation at the site is represented in the preliminary sounding. Nevertheless, the ceramic material that was recovered provides a basis for attributing the known stratigraphic phases to specific chronological periods. They also provide a précis of the way in which the occupational and cultural history of the Mamasani region relates to the established regional sequences elsewhere in southwest Iran. A total of 2168 sherds excavated from the Tol-e Spid sounding were registered, and given registration id numbers from TS 1 to TS 2168. The discussion of the ceramic fragments recovered from each stratigraphic phase that is presented below is separated into Ware,

100

Shape and Decoration categories. Each discussion deals predominantly with registered diagnostic fragments and the small number of whole vessels that were recovered. However, for Phases 24-18, a count was made of the frequency of wares for the sherds that were not registered, and these data have been included in order to give a sense of the relative composition of each assemblage, and to indicate whether the registered corpus is representative of the material recovered from the phase. A representative selection of the registered sherds from each phase has been illustrated in Figures 4.50-4.149, and drawn sherds are described in the adjacent tables. Individual sherds are listed by their unique TS registration number, and their provenience of is given by Locus and Phase. A Description of each sherd is also provided, including details of nine numerically designated categories: 1. Vessel Form. 2. Manufacture. 3. Firing. 4. Fabric Colour (ext./int./core.). 5. Inclusions. 6. Finish (ext./int.). 7. Decoration (ext./int.). 8. Exterior Coating/Colour/ Treatment. 9. Interior Coating/Colour/Treatment. These categories can be defined as follows: 1. Vessel Form – describes the specific vessel form or where possible assesses whether the form is open or closed. The form is otherwise listed as unknown. 2. Manufacture – indicates whether the vessel was hand built, wheel finished or completely wheel thrown where this is possible, otherwise it is listed as unknown. 3. Firing – indicates whether the vessel was under fired (friable), well-fired (non-friable) or over fired (discoloured, burnt or vitrified). No estimation of potential firing temperature or method has been made. 4. Fabric Colour - describes the colour of the exterior, interior and core of the sherd visible in (ext./int./core.) the sherd section, using common colour terms such as buff, orange, brown, and grey, which range from light to dark. The most common colour descriptors are listed below, with their Munsell Soil Colour Chart equivalents. Colour Munsell Equivalent Range Colour Munsell Equivalent Range

Buff 5Y 8/1 to 8/2, 2.5Y 8/1 to 8/2 Orange 2.5YR 6/8, 2.5YR 7/8

Greenish-Buff Gley 1 5GY 8/1 to 5G 8/1 Dark Orange 10R 5/8, 10R 6/8

Light Brown 2.5Y 7/2 to 7/4, 2.5Y 6/2 to 6/4 Red 10R 4/8, 10R 3/6

Brown 10YR 5/3 to 5/8 Light Grey 5Y 7/1 to 7/2, Gley 2 5B 7/1 to 5PB 7/1

Dark Brown 10YR 3/3 to 3/6, 10YR 4/3 to 4/6 Grey 5Y 5/1, Gley 2 5B 6/1 to

5PB 6/1

Light Orange 7.5YR 7/6 to 7/8 Dark Grey 2.5Y 4/1, Gley 2 5B 4/1 to 5PB 4/1

5. Inclusions – describes the type of inclusions present, which can be none visible, sand, grit, vegetal or combinations thereof. Three size modifiers are used in the description of these inclusions: fine (<0.5 mm), medium (>0.5 and <2 mm), and coarse (>2 mm).

6. Finish – describes the nature of the exterior and interior surface finish of the sherd, (ext./int.) ranging from very fine to fine, medium, coarse, and very coarse 7. Exterior Coating - indicates whether a coating is present on the sherd exterior, and gives a description of its type and colour. The nature of any surface treatment is also indicated. Additional coatings on the exterior of a formed vessel include Slip, Wash and Glaze. Slip and Wash are both fluid suspensions of clay in water that are applied to the vessel before firing to form a thin coating on the surface. Wash is similar to Slip, but it is thinner, and the body of the vessel can be seen through the coating. Slip and Wash are typically different in colour to the paste/fabric of the vessel. Where they are the same colour as the paste, they can be difficult to distinguish from un-slipped, smoothed or polished surfaces (after Rice 1987: 149-151). Glaze is a coating of glass melted in place, and fused to the vessel surface (Rice 1987: 151-152). Treatments can be applied to vessels with and without a coating, and include Burnishing, Smoothing, and Shaving. Burnishing is where the surface of the vessel has been rubbed back and forth with a smooth hard object, such as a pebble, bone, horn or seeds, which compacts the surface and produces lustre. It can be done on either leather hard or dry clay, and can produce horizontal, vertical or random patterns (after Rice 1987: 136-152). Wet Smoothing is where a soft yielding tool, such as cloth, leather, grass, or the potter’s hand is used to create a finer and more regular matte surface than results from forming, and is usually done before the vessel is completely dry, or after it has been rewet. When a hand is used, fine parallel striations with rounded edges are visible (Rice 1987: 138). Shaving is where a hard tool has been used to slice clay from the surface of the vessel before firing, with the aim of thinning the surface. The colours used in the descriptions of these coatings and treatments are the same as those used to characterise the fabric colours, noted above. 8. Interior Coating - indicates whether a surface coating is present on the sherd exterior, and includes a description of its type, colour and the nature of any surface treatment, following the definitions outlined for exterior coating. 9. Decoration - describes the nature of any exterior and interior surface decoration on the (ext./int.) sherd, including Painting, Incision, Carving, Appliqué, Impression or Relief. Parallels, where found, are listed for each sherd, followed by details of the site, archaeological context and dating of the parallel, followed by the details of publication. Where ‘?’ is shown next to a parallel, the parallel cited is similar but not precise. Where ‘? Form’ is shown, the vessel form is similar but the fabric is different to the piece cited. All drawings of ceramic fragments have been reproduced at 40% of their full scale. A convention has been used in all line drawings, whereby red slip is indicated by 20% grey shading, red paint by 40% grey shading, brown paint by 60% grey shading, and dark brown/greenish-black/black paint by 100% black. The black and white

101

and colour photos of the ceramic fragments have not been reproduced at a consistent scale. 4.3.2. Description of Wares, Shapes and

Decoration by Phase TS Phase 24 (Figures 4.50, 4.119, Plate 12) As noted above, TS Phase 24 was not excavated in its entirety, and only 18 registered and 60 body sherds were recovered6. Most were grit-tempered with a burnished exterior surface and resemble the Lapui Common Ware described by Sumner (Sumner 1972: 41-42; 1988b: 26-27)7. There is also some resemblance to the frequent lime inclusions noted in Sumner’s description of Lapui Fine Ware8. However, there appears to be greater variety of colours and finish details than has previously been noted. There were also a small number of fine orange ware fragments that bear some resemblance to Sumner’s Lapui Fine Ware (Sumner 1972: 41-42; 1988b: 26-27). Fine buff ware reminiscent of the Tall-i Gap and Tall-i Bakun material in the Kur River Basin, and coarse vegetal-tempered fragments were also present. Wares Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: (72 fragments) the predominant fabric is well-fired, has medium to coarse grit temper, and comes from hand formed vessels that have a medium exterior surface finish, produced by horizontal or occasionally random burnishing. Slip is frequently present on the exterior, and burnishing occasionally appears on the interior lip. The fabric ranges from orange with a brown slip to orange, grey, and brown, with fewer examples of dark orange and light brown. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: (1) the sole fragment of fine orange ware is well-fired and hand made, has no visible temper and is similar in colour to the orange variant of the grit-tempered ware. Residual Buff Ware: (2) the buff ware fragments are well-fired and hand made, with no visible temper and a regular buff fabric. It is likely that these fragments are residual, but it cannot be ruled out that this ware was in use contemporaneously with the burnished grit-tempered ware at Tol-e Spid. Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (3) well-fired and hand made, these show traces of vegetal temper, and are reminiscent of the Archaic wares seen in Tol-e Nurabad Phases A27-19. The fragments are small, and are likely residual. Shapes Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: there was only a small range of vessel forms evident in Phase 24 and all were grit-tempered ware. Forms include bowls with incurved rims (TS 2162, 2163); small jars with out-flared rims (TS 2161, 2166) and hole-mouth jar forms (TS 2159, 2160). These all have close parallels with the Lapui assemblages from the Kur River Basin. Decoration Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: most show signs of burnishing, but are otherwise undecorated.

Lapui Fine Orange Ware: the fragment had a polished surface, but is otherwise undecorated. Residual Buff Ware: one fragment is decorated with a band of brown paint above a zigzag. Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: fragments of this ware are undecorated. TS Phase 23 (Figures 4.51, 4.120, Plate 12) The ceramics from Phase 23 (66 registered and 173 body sherds) are very similar to those recovered from Phase 24, but there is a broader range of vessel types and sizes. Wares Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: (232 fragments) grit-tempered wares are again dominant in Phase 23. This ware is well-fired, has medium to coarse grit-temper and occasional instances of spalling. The vessel forms are typically hand made and have a fine-medium exterior surface produced by regular or irregular horizontal burnishing. The fabric is predominantly orange, but significant quantities have a brown slip. Fewer examples of brown, grey, dark orange and light brown fabrics appear, and a small number have brown streaks left by the burnishing process. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: (5) the small number of examples of the fine orange ware are well-fired, hand made, and have no visible temper. Lapui Painted Grit-Tempered Orange Ware: (2) unique to this phase are two fragments of a well-fired hand made ware with fine grit temper and surface finish, which has been painted on the exterior. This ware will be discussed below. Residual Bakun Fine Buff and Buff/Orange Ware: (23) there is an increase in the quantity of plain buff and black-on-buff painted ware, and a small number of examples that are best described as having an orange/buff fabric begin appearing. Residual Archaic Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (6) the well-fired and hand made coarse vegetal-tempered ware is similar to that from Phase 24, but some have a red-brown slip, akin to the Archaic material known from Tol-e Nurabad. One has both vegetal and grit inclusions. Shapes Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: vessel forms in grit-tempered ware include bowls with incurving rims (TS 2112, 2114), an upright beaker with out-turned lip (TS 2144), small jars with out-flared rims (TS 2148), hole-mouth jars (TS 2141), and a number of flat bases (TS 2106, 2108, 2110). These forms all have close parallels with Lapui wares from the Kur River Basin. A small pierced lug was also recovered (TS 2105). It has been asserted that pierced rounded lugs are distinctive markers of the Late or Terminal Lapui ceramic assemblages (dating to the mid-4th millennium BC Sumner 1988b: 26; Alden 2003a: 196); but in contrast to this, Phase 23 is the earliest structural layer thus far identified at Tol-e Spid, and is overlain by a further three phases that display similar ceramic material. Although the examples that have been illustrated from the Kur River Basin are larger (Sumner 1988b: 26; Alden 2003a: 196), the lug from Phase 23 suggests that either pierced lugs occurs earlier

102

in the Mamasani region than in the Kur River Basin, or that the dating of this morphological feature may have to be revised. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: none of these ware fragments is diagnostic of shape. Lapui Painted Grit-Tempered Orange Ware: one fragment comes from an everted bowl with a rounded rim (TS 2116), reminiscent of Lapui and Late Susiana forms. Residual Buff Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Archaic Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Decoration Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: most show signs of burnishing, but are otherwise undecorated. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: these have a polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. Lapui Painted Grit-Tempered Orange Ware: the two fragments of fine grit-tempered orange ware are decorated with purple bands applied over a red ground (TS 2116, 2131), and one also shows what appears to be a hatched diamond motif (TS 2116). The colour of the ware and the decorative style used is distinct from those used on either Asupas Ware9 (Sumner 1972: 41-42), or the transitional painted wares from the uppermost deposits of Tall-i-Bakun A (Langsdorff and McCown 1942: 32, Plate 19.17-19)10. Residual Buff Ware: the decorated examples typically show remnants of one or two horizontal or vertical bands, and one example displays one horizontal and one vertical band (TS 2134), reminiscent of vessels from the Middle Susiana levels at Chogha Mish. Residual Archaic Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: a number of the fragments of this ware are covered with a red slip, but are otherwise undecorated. TS Phase 22 (Figures 4.52-4.54, 4.121, Plate 12) With the exception of the disappearance of the ware with purple on red painted decoration, the ceramic wares that appear in Phase 22 (77 registered and 384 body sherds) are essentially the same as those in Phase 23. Wares Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: (409 fragments) the Phase 22 examples of this ware are well-fired, have medium to coarse grit or frequently limestone temper. The vessel forms are typically hand made, but many of the rims are very regular and have striations suggesting that they may have been slow turned on some form of tournette. A fine-medium exterior surface is typically produced by horizontal burnishing, which varies from an even and smooth to an irregular execution. The fabric is typically orange, with many examples having a brown slip, but brown and grey variants also appear, along with dark orange, orange with brown streaks and light brown variants that are the least common. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: (4) the small number of examples are well-fired, hand made, and no visible temper, and have a polished surface.

Lapui Fine Grit-Tempered Orange Ware: (1) an example of a well-fired ware with sparse limestone grit temper was also recovered, with clearly visible striations suggesting that it had been slow turned on some form of tournette. Residual Buff Ware: (36) similar to the buff wares from earlier phases, these are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, a fine surface and range in colour from buff to orange-buff and light brown. Most of these buff ware fragments were not decorated. Residual Archaic Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (11) these are similar to the vegetal-tempered ware fragments from the earlier phases. They are well-fired, hand made, and have a coarse surface and vegetal or vegetal and grit temper. Other Wares: Phase 22 also contained a unique example of an unusual well-fired grey-ware sherd without visible inclusions, and a slipped surface that has been evenly burnished (TS 2020). In terms of finish and inclusions this fragment is similar to the fine orange wares, but appears to be the product of reduction firing procedure. Shapes Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: the vessel forms that appear in grit-tempered ware are more diverse and varied than previous periods, and include bowls with incurving rims (TS 2006, 2010, 2069, 2084), bowls with flattened lip (TS 2071, 2075, 2076, 2083), a bowl with out-flaring thickened lip (TS 2079), upright beakers with out-turned lip (TS 1998, 2028, 2078), a large bowl (TS 1992), and jars with an applied neck (TS 2002), small jars with out-flared rims (TS 2004, 2005, 2011, 2077), hole-mouth jars with simple rounded rim (TS 2025), flattened rim (TS 2007, 2008, 2012, 2021, 2022, 2024, 2072), thickened wall near the rim (TS 1994, 1995, 2061, 2067, 2082), and upturned lips (TS 1993, 2014, 2023), and a number of flat bases (TS 2029, 2030, 2063). These forms all have parallels with Lapui phase vessels from the Kur River Basin and Late Susiana forms from Susa and Chogha Mish. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: the only diagnostic example of fine orange ware is from a bowl with incurving rims (TS 1997), very similar to the examples of this form in grit-tempered ware. Lapui Fine Grit-Tempered Orange Ware: the sole example of this ware is a fragment of a large jar with an upright and out-turned neck (TS 2089). While the form of this vessel finds ready parallels in the Kur River Basin and at Chogha Mish, the fabric is distinct. Residual Buff Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Archaic Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Other Wares: the unusual grey ware fragment is from an upright beaker with simple lip (TS 2020), which resembles a Lapui Fine Ware form. Decoration Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: most show signs of burnishing, but are otherwise undecorated. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: these have a polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated.

103

Lapui Fine Grit-Tempered Orange Ware: the one fragment is undecorated. Residual Buff Ware: the decorated examples typically show remnants of one horizontal band (e.g. TS 2087). One fragment displays one horizontal brown band with thinner perpendicular band and two circular blobs to one side of the junction (TS 2092 not illustrated). Residual Archaic Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are undecorated. TS Phase 21 (Figures 4.55-4.56, 4.122, Plate 12) The ceramic wares that appear in Phase 21 (32 registered and 283 body sherds) are essentially the same as those in the preceding phases, but for the first time, fragments of a fine buff ware with red slip appear in the assemblage. Wares Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: (286 fragments) the well-fired, hand made medium-coarse grit-tempered wares with fine-medium burnished surface continue to be predominant. As in Phase 22, a number of the rims are very regular and have striations suggesting that they may have been slow turned on some form of tournette. Orange remains the most predominant colour, but there was a significant increase in the proportion of light brown fragments, and significant quantities of the orange with brown slip, grey and brown variants, while the dark orange and the brown streaked orange wares being rare and very rare respectively. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: (4) the examples of the fine orange ware are well-fired, hand made, have no visible temper, and have a polished surface. Lapui Fine Buff Ware with Red Slip: (2) in Phase 21 we see the first appearance of sherds of the fine and well-fired buff ware with a polished or burnished red slip. These fragments are very rare, and none of them are diagnostic. Residual Buff Ware: (15) similar to buff wares from earlier phases, these are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, fine surfaces and range in colour from buff to orange buff and light brown. There are equal quantities of decorated and plain examples. Residual Archaic Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (8) similar to vegetal-tempered ware fragments from the earlier phases, these are well-fired, hand made, have a coarse surface and vegetal- or vegetal and grit temper. Shapes Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: a number of the grit-tempered forms continue from the previous phase, including bowls with incurving rims (TS 2031, 2045, 2046), jars with out-flared rims (TS 2044), hole-mouth jars with simple rounded rim (TS 1988, 2032, 2034), flattened rim (TS 2035), and upturned lips (TS 2033, 2039, 2040), upright beakers with out-turned lip (TS 2037), and a number of flat bases (TS 1986, 1989, 2036, 2038). New variants include a bowl with everted rim (TS 1967), and small jar with thickened out-turned lip (TS 1965). These forms have parallels with Lapui phase

vessels from the Kur River Basin and Late Susiana forms from Susa and Chogha Mish. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Lapui Fine Buff Ware with Red Slip: neither of these is diagnostic of shape. Residual Buff Ware: two diagnostic buff ware base forms were recovered in Phase 21, one a simple flat base (TS 2038), while the other was a well preserved base from a footed beaker (TS 1991), similar to the diagnostic base forms found at Tall-i Bakun A. In form, it is most like an example from the later AV levels (see parallels for Figure 4.56), while the fabric is more reminiscent of the earlier levels at Tall-i Bakun A (I-IV). While this example appears to be a hybrid, it may well be a residual piece. Residual Archaic Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Decoration Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: most show signs of exterior burnishing, but are otherwise undecorated. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: these have a polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. Lapui Fine Grit-Tempered Orange Ware: these have a slipped and polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. Residual Buff Ware: the decorated examples typically show remnants of one horizontal black/brown painted band (e.g. TS 1990, 2048), including the diagnostic example of a classic Bakun buff ware beaker base (e.g. TS 1991), which has a black band around the base above the foot. Traces of a curved motif are visible on TS 2048. Residual Archaic Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are undecorated. TS Phase 20 (Figures 4.57-4.58, 4.123, Plate 12) The ceramic wares that appear in Phase 20 (31 registered and 292 body sherds) are essentially the same as those in Phase 21, but there is a notable increase in the quantity of fine orange ware and fine buff ware with red slip. With the increase in the quantities of both of these wares, we also see the appearance of specific shapes in these fabrics. Wares Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: (277 fragments) the medium-coarse grit-tempered wares with fine-medium burnished surface continue to predominate. They are well-fired and hand made although some showed signs of having been turned in the finishing process. Orange is predominant colour, but there were significant quantities of brown, orange with brown slip, grey and light brown fragments present, while there were few examples of the brown streaked orange and dark orange variants. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: (13) there is an increase in the quantity of well-fired, hand made, fine orange ware with no visible temper, and a polished surface. Lapui Fine Buff Ware with Red Slip: (19) there is also a marked increase in the quantity of fine buff ware

104

with red slip, including a number of diagnostic fragments. This fine and well-fired buff ware has a smooth polished or burnished red slip. Residual Buff Ware: (8) there is a marked decline in the number of fine well-fired buff ware fragments, with no visible inclusions, fine surfaces and none of these are decorated. Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (6) similar to vegetal-tempered ware fragments from the earlier phases, these are well-fired, hand made, have a coarse surface and vegetal temper. There are no examples with vegetal and grit temper in Phase 20. Shapes Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: forms that continue to appear in the grit-tempered ware include different sized small jars with out-flared rims (TS 1951, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1961, 1963, 1971, 1974, 1975), hole-mouth jars with simple rounded rim (TS 1952, 1964), flattened rim (TS 1959, 1977), and thickened wall near the rim (TS 1978), and a flat base (TS 1983). Lapui Fine Orange Ware: a hole-mouth jar with thickened wall at the rim (TS 1953), and a bowl with out-flaring lip (TS 1962) appear in the fine orange ware. The hole-mouth jar form is finer than the examples seen in the grit-tempered ware. Lapui Fine Red-Slipped Buff Ware: a small jar with upright and out-turned lip (TS 1958) and a beaker with an out-flaring lip (TS 1957) appear in the fine buff ware with red slip. This beaker form is very similar to the bowl form that appears in fine orange ware. The forms in these three wares all have close parallels with Lapui Fine and Common Ware vessels from the Kur River Basin and also with a number of the Late Susiana forms from Susa and Chogha Mish. Residual Buff Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Decoration Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: most show signs of exterior burnishing, but are otherwise undecorated. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: these have a polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. Lapui Fine Red-Slipped Buff Ware: these have a slipped and polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. Residual Buff Ware: only undecorated fine buff ware is present. Residual Vegetal-Tempered Ware: these are undecorated. TS Phase 19 (Figures 4.59-4.60, 4.124, Plate 12) Phase 19 presents the earliest example of a bevelled-rim bowl at Tol-e Spid. With the exception of the bevelled-rim bowl fragment, on the whole the ceramic assemblage (69 registered and 399 body sherds) appears to be a continuation of the vessel forms present in the previous periods, and as such is generally akin to the Lapui Fine and Coarse Ware forms of the Kur River Basin.

Wares Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: (293 fragments) the grit-tempered ware with burnished surface is still the predominant ware type. Fragments are well-fired and hand made although significant quantities have evenly finished rims and regular striations suggesting that they were finished on a tournette. The orange variant predominates and while there are quantities of brown, grey and orange with brown slip, the light brown, dark orange and brown streaked orange variants are rare. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: (6) the well-fired, hand made, fine orange ware with no visible temper, and a polished surface is less frequent in Phase 19, and the fragments are generally small. Lapui Fine Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (129) in Phase 19, there is a significant increase in the frequency of the fine and well-fired buff ware with a smooth polished or burnished red slip. A variant with sparse limestone grit temper and a red slip also appears11. Rim fragments are generally evenly finished and have regular striations suggesting that they were finished on a tournette. Locus 3130 is notable as it contained the in situ fragments of two vessels. The first was the base of a fine buff ware vessel with a bright red slip (TS 1901) fragmented into over 100 pieces, which has helped increase the quantity of red-slipped buff ware fragments in Phase 19. Fine Ware with Sparse Limestone Temper and Purple Paint: (2) the other fragmented vessel recovered from Locus 3130 was a jar made from a light brown fabric-tempered with large but sparse limestone grits and painted with maroon/purple bands on the exterior (TS 1903, 1921). The body of this vessel appears to have been hand formed, and the out-flared neck and lip was added in a separate part of the forming process and turned to finish. The fabric is similar to that used for the fine buff ware with sparse limestone grits covered with a red slip. Coarse Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (5) Phase 19 presents the earliest example of a bevelled-rim bowl fragment to be found at Tol-e Spid. It is made from a coarse vegetal-tempered fabric that has been fired to a higher temperature than other vegetal-tempered wares, indicating that it may have been produced in a different manner. Residual Buff Ware: (16) similar to buff wares from earlier phases, these are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, fine surfaces and range in colour from buff to orange buff. Most are undecorated. Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (5) with one exception, the vegetal-tempered wares fragments are similar to those from the earlier phases. Shapes Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: forms that appear in the burnished and slipped grit-tempered ware include small jars with out-flared rims (TS 1909, 1947), hole-mouth jars with simple rounded rim and thickened wall near the rim (TS 1905, 1906, 1919, 1920, 1932), and upturned lips (TS 1939), and an unusual example with a folded lip (TS 1940). There are no examples of the hole-mouth jar with the flattened rim typical of Phases 24-20, possibly indicating a chronological development in hole-mouth jar lip forms.

105

Lapui Fine Orange Ware: none of these fragments is diagnostic of shape. Lapui Fine Red-Slipped Buff Ware: forms that appear in the fine red-slipped buff ware include bowl with simple everted rim (TS 1904), and a flat base (TS 1901). Forms appearing with limestone temper include bowls and beakers with out-flaring lip (TS 1922, 1923), an unusual small hole-mouth jar (TS 1917) and flat bases (TS 1901, 1924, 1948). These are distinct from the grit ware forms. Fine Ware with Sparse Limestone Temper and Purple Paint: the jar painted with maroon/purple bands on the exterior (TS 1903, 1921) has an out-flaring neck and a relatively traditional Lapui rim form. Coarse Vegetal-Tempered Ware: the only diagnostic vegetal-tempered fragment recovered from Phase 19 is the earliest example of a bevelled-rim bowl at Tol-e Spid (TS 1933). In his discussion of the phase markers for the early parts of the Banesh sequence, Alden has noted that bevelled-rim bowls appear without Banesh trays in both the Terminal Lapui and Initial Banesh phases – and suggests that this may be used “with confidence in dating excavated samples” (Alden 2003a: 196). There are no vegetal-tempered tray forms in Phase 1912. Residual Buff Ware: only one is diagnostic of shape, TS 1913, which is a simple flat base. Decoration Lapui Grit-Tempered Ware: most show signs of exterior burnishing, but are otherwise undecorated. Lapui Fine Orange Ware: these have a polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. Lapui Fine Red-Slipped Buff Ware: these have a slipped and polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. Fine Ware with Sparse Limestone Temper and Purple Paint: the jar with out-flaring neck (TS 1903, 1921) is decorated with three slightly irregular purple/maroon bands, which run around the neck and shoulder of the jar. Two vertical bands that appear to continue further onto the shoulder cross these bands, but a break in the sherd prevents further clarification. Both fragments also have ‘flicks’ of paint which leave the uppermost of the three bands and rise and thin toward the lip. There is also a band that runs around the inside lip of the vessel and partway onto the exterior. The paint colour and bands has parallels in the Middle Banesh Malyan. Coarse Vegetal-Tempered Ware: this fragment is undecorated. Residual Buff Ware: there are only two decorated buff ware fragments, one has simple painted bands, while TS 1927 shows traces of three brown horizontal bands, which are met by three vertical bands. TS Phase 18 (Figures 4.61-4.66, 4.125-4.126, Plate 13) Phase 18 sees the appearance of a completely new set of ware types and vessel forms (194 registered and 590 body sherds), most notably the vegetal-tempered bevelled-rim bowl and the low-sided tray. In addition to the bevelled-rim bowls and trays, there are also a number of other vessel forms that bear similarities to vessels in the Susa

III/Middle Banesh/Proto-Elamite assemblages from Khuzistan and the Kur River Basin. The vessel forms and vessel/fabric combinations present in Phase 18 appear to be distinct from the assemblages from Phases 24-19, which resemble the Lapui-Early Banesh/Susa I-II assemblages of the Kur River Basin and Khuzistan. However, the Phase 18 material is also distinct from the typical Middle Banesh/Susa III assemblages, and this may indicate that it represents a local Susa III/Banesh-related assemblage. Wares Banesh Coarse Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (237 fragments) what appear to be new types of well-fired coarse vegetal- and coarse vegetal and grit-tempered wares appear in Phase 18. The fabric ranges from light brown, to brown and orange in colour, with the variation potentially resulting from fluctuations in firing temperature. These wares were used for mould made, hand made and wheel-turned vessels. Typically, little care was taken with the surface finish, and only very rare examples have a surface slip or burnishing. Those made in a mould have a coarse exterior surface, and those that are hand made typically have visible finger marks on the exterior and interior. Wheel turned vessels often clearly show finger striations on the interior, and there are examples of string cut bases, suggesting mass production. Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (255) there are a number of similarities between the grit-tempered wares present in Phase 18 and those present in Phases 24-19. However, the Phase 18 wares appear to be distinct, and will be referred to as Banesh grit-tempered ware. These grit-tempered ware fragments are typically well-fired and appear wheel-turned, frequently showing striations around the rim. Burnishing is present but not common, and the surface is typically fine to medium. The fabric appears in orange, brown or grey, with orange and brown predominating. There are variants that appear with a brown slip, but these are less common than un-slipped variants. Banesh Fine Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (192) well-fired fine buff ware with red-orange slip continues to appear in Phase 18, and there is a further increase in the quantity. This ware generally has no visible inclusions, although there were a small number of examples that have sparse medium to coarse limestone grits. The vessels show clear signs of having been wheel turned, and the slip is typically even, although there are often darker patches on some examples. While the colour of the slip is ostensibly red, on different vessels it varies between dark orange, red, red-brown or brown hues. The surface of many of the slipped vessels has also been polished/burnished. Banesh Fine Orange Ware: (7) small quantities of well-fired, fine orange ware with no visible temper, and a polished surface continue to appear in Phase 18, although the fragments are generally small. Residual Buff Ware: (78) well-fired buff ware, with no visible inclusions continues to appear in Phase 18. Although there were only three black on buff painted fragments, there is a significant quantity of undecorated buff ware sherds present.

106

Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (2) there are two fragments of what appear to be well-fired residual archaic vegetal-tempered wares with thick red slip. Shapes Banesh Coarse Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the coarse vegetal- and vegetal and grit-tempered wares have been used to make bevelled-rim bowls, low-sided trays, goblets, and a variety of bowl shapes. The bevelled-rim bowl is the most common vessel form in the Phase 18 assemblage (e.g. TS 1598, 1601, 1755-1764), contrasting starkly with the sole fragment from Phase 19. The other common vessel form is the low-sided tray (TS 1638-1642, 1678, 1735, 1827-1833). In their basic shape, both of these are forms typical of both the Susa II/Early Banesh and the Susa III/Middle Banesh ceramic assemblages. However, there are morphological differences between Susa II and Susa III trays, and the Phase 18 examples are akin to the latter. There are also other typical Banesh forms present, such as so-called chaff-tempered goblets (TS 1647, 1690, 1838, 1840, 1841), club rims (TS 1599), as well as flat (TS 1690) and string cut bases (TS 1646, 1647). There is also one vessel that appears to fall somewhere between a Banesh vegetal-tempered goblet and a Banesh grit-tempered pinched rim bowl, which is made from a vegetal and grit-tempered fabric (TS 1840). Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: vessels made from grit-tempered ware include pinched rim bowls and (TS 1650 not illustrated), bowls with simple rims (TS 1644), and club rims (TS 1600), folded rim jars (TS 1660), jars with thickened flattened rim (TS 1839), hole-mouth jars with upturned lips (TS 1765), as well as flat bases (TS 1669, 1775, 1868, 1869). There are also fragments from vessels that appear to be akin to Banesh vegetal-tempered types, but which are made from grit-tempered fabric (e.g. flaring sided cup-TS 1834, goblets-TS 1857). There were also a number of vessels with close affinities to Lapui bowl and jar forms, including bowls (TS 1659, 1663, 1766), and necked (TS 1661, 1774), and hole-mouth jars (TS 1616, 1862, 1864, 1894). Banesh Fine Red-Slipped Buff Ware: in many respects the slipped fine wares present in Phase 18 represent a continuation of those in Phase 19, and although a number of these vessels have parallels with Lapui fine ware forms, some show subtle differences. The slipped fine ware vessels that have close affinities to typical Lapui bowl and jar forms, appear to have been wheel-turned, and include bowls with out-flaring rims (TS 1662, 1850, 1853), a bowl with upright rims (TS 1741), and jars with out-flaring rims (TS 1842, 1852, 1892). A number of the bowl fragments are similar in form to Banesh grit-tempered pinched rim bowls (TS 1770), so-called chaff-tempered goblets (TS 1851, 1858, 1859), and expanded rim bowls (e.g. TS 1767, 1771, 1772, 1773, 1854). There is an example of a closed form in slipped fine ware that is similar to medium-coarse grit-tempered Banesh form (TS 1769). Bases are flat (TS 1744, 1777, 1866) and some may have been wheel turned (TS 1843, 1870, 1872). Banesh Fine Orange Ware: there is one example of a fine orange ware bowl with a form similar to the Banesh grit-tempered pinched rim bowl (e.g. TS 1768).

Residual Buff Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Decoration Banesh Coarse Vegetal-Tempered Ware: these are undecorated. Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: some show signs of exterior burnishing, but are otherwise undecorated Banesh Fine Red-Slipped Buff Ware: these have a slipped and polished surface. Banesh Fine Orange Ware: these have a polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. Residual Buff Ware: although there was a significant quantity of buff ware sherds, only three showed traces of painted decoration, and no motifs could be discerned (e.g. TS 1784). It is likely that these are residual. TS Phase 17 (Figures 4.67-4.74, 4.127-4.128, Plate 13) Phase 17 sees the appearance of a completely new set of ware types and vessel forms (309 registered sherds), and in many ways this is different to the change evident in Phase 18. Rather than continuity, Phase 17 is marked by the appearance of a different type of red-slipped ware in new forms, and new types of vegetal and grit-tempered wares, which often have brown painted bands on the exterior and are reminiscent of the Kaftari wares from the Kur River Basin. The range of shapes that are present is considerably more diverse than those in earlier levels. This shift also coincides with a break in the nature of deposition; Phase 20-18 all present evidence for structural remains that were disturbed by an earthquake split, whereas this disturbance does not affect the 2 metres of ephemeral surfaces of Phase 17. Wares Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (100 fragments) the vegetal- and vegetal and grit tempered wares that begin appearing in Phase 17 are well-fired, wheel turned, and have fine vegetal temper that often has medium to coarse grits added. In many cases, the grit is limestone. The exterior and interior surfaces typically have a medium finish, and often have what appears to be a fine light brown, brown or orange slip, which may be a product of firing in some instances. The fabric is most typically light brown, orange or brown in colour, and there are also buff examples. Kaftari Grit-Tempered Ware: (93) the Phase 17 grit-tempered wares are well-fired, wheel turned and typically have medium to coarse grit temper, and look visually similar to the Kaftari vegetal-tempered wares. The exterior and interior surfaces typically have a fine to medium finish, and occasionally have what appears to be a fine light brown, brown or orange slip. The fabric is most typically light brown, orange or brown in colour, but there are also buff examples. Kaftari Coarse Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (5) in Phase 17, a distinctive coarse grey ware appears. It is well-fired, wheel turned, and has a medium to coarse grit temper. The exterior and interior surfaces have a medium finish and occasionally a brown slip.

107

Kaftari Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: (63) the slipped fine wares present in Phase 17 resemble those from Phase 18, and it is difficult to separate material that is in context from what is residual. The Phase 17 wares are generally well-fired, wheel turned and range from having no visible to sparse medium grit inclusions. However, the surface of most vessels is not as smooth as the Phase 18 ware, and the slip is often streaked and not of a consistent thickness. The differentiation is primarily made on the basis of form. Fine Buff Orange Ware: (7) as with the slipped fine ware, it is difficult to differentiate fine buff or orange wares that are in context from residual buff ware. Fragments are well-fired, wheel turned, and either have no visible or fine grit inclusions. The vessel forms and some of the surface decoration make them distinctive. Residual Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (5) there are a number of residual vegetal-tempered ware fragments, which are well-fired, hand or mould made and have a coarse finish. Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: (19) as might be expected there are quantities of residual ware fragments in Phase 17. The most common are grit-tempered wares, including both Lapui and Banesh variants. Respectively, these are well-fired, and hand made with a medium burnished and sometimes slipped surface, and well-fired, wheel-made and with a slipped surface and generally no burnish. Residual Buff Ware: (17) in addition to the plain buff or orange ware, there are also a number of fine buff ware fragments that are clearly residual. These are typically small fragments of well-fired and hand made vessels with no visible temper and a fine surface finish. Shapes Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the range of vessel forms that appear in the Kaftari vegetal- and vegetal and grit-tempered ware include bowls with upright and projecting triangular rim (TS 1306), everted and projecting triangular rim (TS 1467), and everted flattened rim (TS 1445), as well as a large bowl/vat with upright rim (TS 1798), and unusual wheel turned (TS 1298), and hand made open forms (TS 1379). There are also different sized jars with upright necks and out-flared lips (TS 1303, 1304, 1474, 1477, 1790), jars with upright everted neck (TS 1360), upright neck and thickened out-flared rim (TS 1435), upright flattened rim (TS 1344), flattened flange rim (TS 1392), flattened collared rim (TS 1443), down turned lip (TS 1393), and different variations of hole-mouth jars (TS 1395, 1436, 1787). Large jars have beaked (TS 1475) or club rims (TS 1259, 1785), and also appear with a raised ridge a short distance below the rim (TS 1343). Small plinth bases (TS 1349), flat bases (TS 1415/1416, 1699), and more elaborate ring bases of varying sizes (TS 1447, 1448, 1493, 1495, 1803) are also present. Distinctive coarse vegetal and grit-tempered handles (TS 1350, 1449) potentially come from cooking vessels13. Kaftari Grit-Tempered Ware: forms that appear in this ware include bowls with simple everted rim (TS 1310, 1374, 1394, 1695, 1793, 1795), upright rim (TS 1710), flattened flange rim (TS 1490-1), upright and projecting triangular rim (TS 1478), out-flaring rim (TS

1345), different sized jars with upright necks and out-flared lips (TS 1307, 1396, 1423), and jars with out-flared rim (TS 1424, 1789), upright neck with out-turned rim (TS 1444), upright neck and rounded rim (TS 1308), upright neck and out-flared collared rim (TS 1421), s-shaped neck with flattened lip (TS 1786, 1788, 1792), different variations of hole-mouth jar rims (TS 1422, 1440, 1711), and large jars with club rims (TS 1299). Bases are relatively simple and flat (TS 1408, 1800) or flat footed (TS 1802). Kaftari Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include a bowl with simple everted rim (TS 1439), and a jar with upright neck and out-flared lip (TS 1373). Bases are flat (TS 1347, 1494). Kaftari Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: forms that appear in this ware include bowls with slightly incurving rims (TS 1437), everted rims (TS 1346, 1446, 1698), out-flared rims (TS 1441, 1706), fine jars with out-flared rims (TS 1297, 1300, 1301, 1305, 1380), hole-mouth jar (TS 1382), and flat (TS 1348, 1363) and footed bases (TS 1409)14. Fine Buff Orange Ware: forms that appear in this ware include bowls with simple upright rim (TS 1383, 1791) or simple everted rim (TS 1696, 1697, 1796), and jar with out-flaring rim (TS 1381), along with flat bases (TS 1311, 1385). Residual Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: residual vegetal- and vegetal and grit-tempered forms include fragments of bevelled-rim bowls (TS 1692, 1712, 1713), low-sided trays (TS 1302, 1691), and chaff-tempered goblets (TS 1442, 1797). Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: residual grit-tempered forms include a pinched rim goblet (TS 1794), a jar with out-turned rim (TS 1707), and a number of flat bases (TS 1714, 1715). Residual Buff Ware: the two diagnostic residual buff ware fragments are fairly typical of Tall-i Bakun and Tall-i Gap forms, one being a thin everted rim fragment (TS 1414), and the other being a projecting foot from a beaker (TS 1804). Decoration Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the painted decoration that appears in Phase 17 is akin to the Kaftari decoration known in the Kur River Basin. In the vegetal-tempered wares, parallel brown bands (e.g. TS 1265, 1361) are the most commonly appearing type, and these are occasionally separated by wavy lines (TS 1324), crossed by vertical lines (e.g. TS 1403, 1516), or incorporated into larger decorative schemes (e.g. TS 1257). While most of these are body sherds, there are also some that appear around the necks and lips of jars with upright rims (TS 1303, 1360), and there is one rim with irregular thin and broad horizontal and thin vertical bands (TS 1474). One ring base from a large jar has broad brown bands around the body (TS 1803). There are also unusual examples with dashes shown on the upper surface of the rim (TS 1306, 1467). In addition to the painted decoration, there is also a distinctive example of wavy incision on the jar with club rim and a raised ridge below the rim (TS 1343). There were also a number of examples of finger impressed rope cordons, which appear as single (TS 1451) or multiple

108

bands (TS 1805). These are all typical Kaftari decoration types. Kaftari Grit-Tempered Ware: fragments decorated with parallel brown bands (e.g. TS 1258) also appear in the grit-tempered ware, and examples also display registers of hatched lines (e.g. TS 1407), or an unusual cross-hatched drop pendant (TS 1518). Most are body sherds, but there are also some that appear around the necks and lips of jars with out-flaring rim (TS 1396, 1789). As with the vegetal-tempered ware, there are also unusual examples with dashes shown on the upper surface of the rim (TS 1478). Similarly, there were also examples of finger impressed rope cordons (TS 1452), and unusually, there is also a fragment with a row of rectangular impression around the shoulder carination (TS 1808). Kaftari Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: these are undecorated. Kaftari Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: this ware has a slipped and polished surface. Fine Buff Orange Ware: only TS 1385 has traces of incision around the base and the body. Residual Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are undecorated. Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: these show signs of burnishing on the exterior. Residual Buff Ware: the residual buff ware fragments typically show standard bands in brown or black (e.g. TS 1414, 1804), but TS 1811 shows a more elaborate horizontal and vertical banded pattern, with indications of a complex motif. TS Phase 16 (Figures 4.75-4.77, 4.129, Plate 13) The ceramics from Phase 16 (86 registered sherds) were recovered from a structural phase with related occupation, which is taphonomically distinct from the deposits of Phase 17. While the ceramic wares and forms in Phase 16 represent a continuation from Phase 17, there are far fewer residual fragments, and the forms are more overtly Kaftari suggesting that this material is likely to be the product of a primary deposition. Wares Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (33 fragments) these wares are well-fired, wheel turned, and have fine vegetal temper that often has medium to coarse grits added, which are frequently limestone. The exterior and interior surfaces have a medium finish, and often a fine buff or light brown slip. The fabric is most typically light brown, orange or brown, and also buff and grey. Kaftari Grit-Tempered Ware: (34) the grit-tempered wares look visually similar to the Kaftari vegetal-tempered wares, are well-fired, wheel turned and have medium to coarse grit temper, which is frequently limestone. The surfaces have a fine to medium finish, and occasionally have a buff, light brown or orange slip. The fabric is typically light brown, orange or brown, but there are also grey examples. Kaftari Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) this fragment is well-fired, wheel turned, and has coarse limestone grit

temper. The exterior and interior surfaces have a coarse finish and a light brown slip. Kaftari Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: (13) the slipped fine wares are similar to those of Phase 17, being well-fired, wheel turned and range from having no visible to sparse medium grit inclusions. It is difficult to differentiate from earlier material, but the slip, which ranges from red to brown, and has an even polish, is often not of a consistent thickness. Fine Buff Orange Ware: (1) the one fragment of this ware is well-fired, wheel turned, has no visible inclusions, and a fine exterior and interior surface. Residual Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (2) the sole residual vegetal-tempered ware fragment is well-fired; mould made and has a coarse finish. Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: (3) in Phase 16 there are few fragments of residual wares. The residual grit-tempered wares, including both Lapui and Banesh variants, which are well-fired, and hand made with a medium burnished and sometimes slipped surface, and well-fired, wheel turned and with a slipped surface and generally no burnish. Residual Buff Ware: (1) the residual buff ware fragment is small, well-fired, has no visible temper and a fine surface finish. Shapes Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the range of vessel forms that appear in the Kaftari vegetal-tempered ware is more restricted in Phase 16, and includes bowls with a slightly incurving rim (TS 1180, 1184, 1188), or an everted flattened or rounded rim (TS 1173, 1185, 1334). There are also jars with upright necks and rounded rim (TS 1332, 1175), upright neck with club rim (TS 1174), upright neck with thickened out-flared rim (TS 1176), and flattened flange rim (TS 1187). Flat bases (TS 1027), bases with a flared foot (TS 1368), and more elaborate ring bases of varying sizes (TS 1083, 1189, 1337) are also present. Kaftari Grit-Tempered Ware: forms appearing in grit-tempered ware include bowls with everted rim (TS 1333), and jars with everted neck (TS 1090, 1366), upright neck with flattened rim (TS 1177), upright neck with flanged rim (TS 1179), out-flared neck with flanged rim (TS 1365), or with hole-mouth (TS 1186). The only base present is a small plinth base (TS 1190). Kaftari Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: the only fragment comes from a large jar with club rim and rounded ridge around the neck (TS 1183). Kaftari Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: vessel forms that appear in slipped buff ware include bowls with slightly incurving rims (TS 1367), out-flaring rims (TS 1331), and fine jars with out-flared rims (TS 1037), or a hole-mouth (TS 1197). Fine Buff Ware: the one fragment is a typical Kaftari or 2nd millennium BC everted bowl form with a flattened rim (TS 1181). Residual Vegetal--Tempered Ware: two residual fragments come from a low-sided tray (TS 1182) and a bevelled-rim bowl (TS 1082). Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: two fragments of Lapui-style hole-mouth jars with simple rounded rims were present in Phase 16 (TS 1026, 1178).

109

Residual Buff Ware: this fragment was not diagnostic of shape. Decoration Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the painted decoration that appears in Phase 16 is akin to that in Phase 17, but shows more variety. For vegetal-tempered wares, simple bands continue to appear (TS 1209), and there are fragments with bands of brown paint on either side of a register of cross-hatched lines (TS 1210), cross-hatched lines and a blank window (TS 1211), and bi-chrome bands and a curved shape, which could be an example of a ‘Kaftari bird’ motif (TS 1031). Brown bands also appear around the neck of a jar with flattened flange rim (TS 1187). Kaftari Grit-Tempered Ware: fragments decorated with parallel brown bands (TS 1091) also appear in the grit-tempered ware, but they also appear with registers of vertical lines (TS 1085), cross-hatched lines (TS 1030, 1206), or continuous upright tooth or flame motifs (TS 1089, 1207). There are also bands around the necks of a jar with out-flaring rim (TS 1366). Kaftari Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: this fragment has a raised ridge around the neck (TS 1183) Kaftari Red-Slipped Buff Ware: the fragments of this ware have a slipped and polished surface. Fine Buff Orange Ware: this is undecorated. Residual Vegetal-Tempered Ware: this is undecorated. Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: these show signs of exterior burnishing. Residual Buff Ware: this fragment shows one band of black paint (TS 1032). TS Phase 15 (Figures 4.78-4.82, 4.130-4.131, Plate 13) Although the depth of deposit in Phase 15 is relatively shallow, it contains substantial quantities of what appears to be typical Kaftari ceramic material (289 registered sherds). However, there are a number of fragments that display some resemblance to later forms and/or decorative styles, possibly indicating that Phase 15 is representative of a late Kaftari assemblage. Wares Kaftari/Qaleh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (97 fragments) similar to the Phase 17 and 16 ware, this is well-fired, wheel turned, and has fine vegetal temper that often has medium to coarse grits added, which are frequently limestone. The surfaces typically have a medium finish, and often a fine buff or light brown slip on a light brown, orange, brown, buff or grey fabric. Kaftari/Qaleh Grit-Tempered Ware: (140) the grit-tempered wares are well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit, which is often limestone. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish, and occasionally a buff, light brown or orange slip. The fabric is typically light brown, orange or brown, but there are also grey examples. Kaftari/Qaleh Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (7) is well-fired, wheel turned, and has a medium to coarse grit

temper. The exterior and interior surfaces have a fine to medium finish and occasionally a brown slip. Kaftari/Qaleh Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: (27) the slipped fine wares are well-fired, wheel turned and range from no visible to sparse grit inclusions. The slip ranges from red to brown, with an even polish. Fine Buff Orange Ware: (1) the one fragment of this ware is well-fired, wheel turned, has no visible inclusions, and a fine exterior and interior surface. Residual Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (1) there is one fragment of this ware, which is similar to Banesh period vegetal-tempered wares. Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: (16) in Phase 16 there are few fragments of residual wares. The residual grit-tempered wares include both Lapui and Banesh variants, which are well-fired, and hand made with a medium burnished and sometimes slipped surface, and well-fired, wheel turned and with a slipped surface and generally no burnish. Residual Buff Ware: (1) the residual buff ware fragment is small, appears to be slightly over fired, has no visible temper and a fine surface finish. Shapes Kaftari/Qaleh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include bowls with everted rounded rim (TS 956, 1272, 1276), as well as a large everted bowl/vat with round rim (TS 1016). There are also different sized jars with upright neck and out-flared lip (TS 1015, 1017, 1041, 1275), jars with upright everted neck (TS 1014), upright neck and thickened out-flared rim (TS 1223, 1268), and two variations of large hole-mouth jars with a collared rim (TS 1217, 1267). Large jars with a thickened neck and flanged beak (TS 926, 1539) or flange rims (TS 1219); appear with a raised ridge a short distance below the rim. Distinctive coarse vegetal and grit-tempered strap handles, which are potentially from cooking vessels, also appear (TS 1274, 1281), along with an unusual goblet base (TS 1278). Other base forms include a footed disc base (TS 1552). Kaftari/Qaleh Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include bowls with simple everted rim (TS 1222), flattened triangular rim (TS 1018), flattened flange rim (TS 1059, 1218), angled interior rim (TS 954), out-flaring rim (TS 927), everted bowl with rounded out-flaring lip (TS 1040, 1273), as well as a large bowl with an upright flattened rim (TS 928). TS 938 is a Kaftari everted bowl with flattened triangular rim and unusual painted decoration. Different sized jars with upright necks and out-flared lips (TS 933, 1044, 1062, 1063, 1213, 1225, 1270), and jars with out-flared rim (TS 941, 1061), upright neck with flattened triangular rim (TS 937, 949), upright neck and flattened flange rim (TS 1042, 1266), club rims (TS 957, 1271), and different variations of hole-mouth jar rims (TS 942, 1058, 1064), also appear. TS 939 is a Kaftari jar with flattened flange rim, but it has distinctive painted decoration. There are both flat (TS 1279) and ring bases (TS 966, 971, 1038, 1277, 1537), and a strap handle (TS 1280). Kaftari/Qaleh Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: the only illustrated fragment is from a flat base (TS 972). Kaftari/Qaleh Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: forms include bowls with slightly incurving rims (TS 1269),

110

fine jars with out-flared rims (TS 945, 950, 1594), and a flat base (TS 1226). Fine Orange Ware: this fragment was not diagnostic of shape. Residual Vegetal-Tempered Ware: the one form is a low-sided tray (TS 1045). Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: residual grit-tempered forms include Lapui jars with out-flaring lip (TS 1212), and hole-mouth jars (TS 925, 930, 1043). Residual Buff Ware: this fragment was not diagnostic of shape. Decoration Kaftari/Qaleh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: painted decoration is typically limited to brown bands (TS 1246, 1562, 1568, 1569, 1571, 1577, 1581, 1583, 1584), but there are examples where the bands are crossed by vertical lines (TS 1247, 1253), or have registers of cross-hatched lines (TS 1250, 1291, 1574, 1582), upright triangles (TS 1573, 1575) or wavy lines (TS 1564) between them. There are also a number of previously unattested examples of diagonal lines and chevron patterns painted between registers of brown bands (TS 1025, 1072, 1245), an unusual dot and circle motif in red (TS 1242), and a fragment that shows bands topped by a very distinctive tree motif (TS 1248). These motifs do not have obvious parallels in the known Kaftari assemblage from the Kur River Basin15. Brown bands also appear around the rim of jars with out-flared rims (TS 1015, 1017, 1275), a hole-mouth jar with a collared rim (TS 1217). One jar fragment has a brown band around the top of the lip (TS 1268). TS 1576 presents an otherwise unknown decorative scheme where there is an area of brown cross-hatching adjacent to a motif of triangles bounded by a square. In addition, there is also one fragment with incised lines on the exterior (TS 1039). Kaftari/Qaleh Grit-Tempered Ware: fragments decorated with parallel brown bands also appear in the grit-tempered ware (TS 1059, 1243, 1251, 1561, 1565, 1586), often with registers of wavy lines (TS 996, 1075), vertical lines (TS 1240), cross-hatched lines (TS 984, 1589), or upright (TS 992, 1056) or inverted tooth motifs (TS 985, 1254, 1587). Brown bands also appear around the rim of jars with out-flared rims (TS 1225, 1270), and two examples of everted flanged rim bowls have a brown band around the top of the lip (TS 1040, 1059). TS 938 and 939 are both typical Kaftari vessel forms, decorated with brown painted bands, but they also have dashes of paint along the lip, which is best paralleled in later Qaleh and Shogha assemblages. This is possibly indicative of a late Kaftari decorative style. There are also fragments with incised lines on the exterior (TS 1006 not illustrated, 1008), finger impressed cordons (TS 1007) and one with five low ridges around the body, which have been impressed with a fingernail or tool to form a distinctive pattern (TS 1236). Kaftari/Qaleh Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: this fragment is undecorated. Kaftari/Qaleh Red-Slipped Buff Ware: these have a slipped and polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. Fine Orange Ware: the one fragment has traces of four brown bands on the exterior (TS 982 not illustrated).

Residual Vegetal-Tempered Ware: this fragment is not decorated. Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: these show signs of exterior burnishing, but are otherwise undecorated. Residual Buff Ware: this fragment shows two bands of black paint (TS 1013). TS Phase 14 (Figures 4.83-4.90, 4.132-4.133, Plate 13) It was noted in Chapter 4.3.2 that the stratified deposits of Phase 14 are unlike those of any of the other phases at Tol-e Spid. This has echoes in the composition of the ceramic assemblage. While there have consistently been fragments of residual material in all of the earlier phases, in Phase 14, the quantities of residual Archaic, Bakun, Lapui, and Banesh material are substantial, and these are mixed with Kaftari, Shogha, Teimuran and possibly Elamite ceramics that can otherwise be dated to the 2nd millennium BC (328 registered sherds). The implication is that the fill that makes up the Phase 14 deposits is comprised of material excavated out of earlier deposits at the site. Wares Qaleh/Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (46 fragments) similar to the Phase 17-15 ware, this is well-fired, wheel turned, and has fine vegetal temper that often has medium to coarse grits added, which are occasionally limestone. The surfaces typically have a medium-coarse finish, and often a fine buff or light brown slip on a light brown, orange, brown, buff or grey fabric. Qaleh/Elamite Grit-Tempered Ware: (125) the grit-tempered wares are well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit, which is often limestone. Surfaces have a fine to coarse finish, but are typically medium, and occasionally coated with a buff, light brown, brown or orange slip. The fabric is typically orange, brown, light brown or grey. Fine Buff/Orange Ware: (16) fine buff ware fragments are well-fired, wheel turned, have no visible or fine grit inclusions, fine surfaces and range in colour from buff to light brown. Qaleh Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: (53) the slipped fine wares are well-fired, wheel turned and range from having no visible to sparse medium grit inclusions. The slip ranges from red to brown, and has an even polish. There are two examples of what appear to be slipped ware with fine grit temper and surface finish and painted decoration (TS 830, 1126). Residual Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (4) a small number of residual well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware fragments of mould made bevelled-rim bowls and other wheel turned Banesh forms were present. For the bevelled-rim bowls, the fabric ranges from light brown to orange-buff in colour and little care was taken with the surface finish, leaving a coarse exterior surface. Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: (32) the residual grit-tempered wares are like those in Phases 24-20, well-fired, and hand made with a medium burnished and sometimes slipped surface.

111

Residual Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (19) the residual slipped fine ware is well-fired and generally has no visible inclusions, although there are examples that have sparse limestone grits. The slip varies between dark orange, red, or brown and the surface is typically polish/burnished. Residual Buff Ware: (27) the residual buff ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible or fine grit inclusions, fine surfaces and range in colour from buff to light brown. The fragments are generally small, but many have traces of painted decoration. Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (4) these are well-fired, hand made, with coarse vegetal temper and a burnished thick slip on the interior and exterior surfaces. Shapes Qaleh/Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include bowls with everted rounded rim (TS 826), upright and flattened rim (TS 823), and large bowl/vat with upright and flattened rim (TS 786). There are different sized jars with upright neck and out-flared lip (TS 900, 1105, 1133), and jars with upright everted neck (TS 1106), rolled rim (TS 894, 896), and flanged rim (TS 1138). There is only one large jar with beaked rim (TS 1098). A distinctive knob handle also appears (TS 833). There are flat (TS 901, 1111) and ring bases (TS 681, 682, 840, 843, 844, 1142), as well as a number of different varieties of goblet bases (TS 671, 738, 794, 903). Although the rim is absent, there is one example of a raised ridge; similar to those that appeared on other Kaftari jars (TS 1163). Qaleh/Elamite Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include bowls with simple everted rim (TS 761, 764, 768, 769, 820, 825, 1103, 1104), thickened everted rim (TS 1128), folded rim (TS 767, 815, 1100), flattened projecting rim (TS 1129), out-flaring rim (TS 783, 792), carinated bowl with out-flaring rim (TS 817), as well as large bowls with an upright (TS 751) or everted rounded rim (TS 789). There is an unusual grey grit-tempered bowl with a simple rim with incised grooves around the lip (TS 819). Different sized jars with upright necks and out-flared lips (TS 892, 1127, 1136), and jars with club rim (TS 700, 828, 1099, 1101, 1134), upright neck with rounded rim (TS 1130, 1140), upright neck with flattened triangular rim (TS 890, 897, 898), upright neck and flattened flange rim (TS 814, 822, 893), beaked rim (TS 755, 787), and different variations of hole-mouth jar rims (TS 791, 891), also appear. There are flat (TS 674, 676, 677, 793, 846, 1112, 1143), rounded flat (TS 666, 904), flat-footed (TS 680, 837, 848, 1110), ring (TS 838, 847, 1145), footed ring bases (TS 670, 902), and a goblet base (TS 845). A fine handle fragment was also recovered (TS 1108). While Phase 14 contains a diverse mixture of material from different periods, some of the latest material that can be clearly identified appears in grit-tempered ware, and includes a jar with out-flaring rim with flattened lip (TS 785) that have parallels in Ville Royale AXI (Susa Period VII), and a jar with an upright neck and complex rim (TS 1132) that has parallels with a Middle Elamite form from the Ville Royale II sounding (Susa Period VIII).

Fine Buff/Orange Ware: forms include simple everted bowl (TS 745, 788, 834, 835, 899), everted bowl with projecting rim (TS 763), bowl with upright lip (TS 759), out-flaring lip (TS 754), and flat bases (TS 664, 667, 668, 669, 842). Qaleh Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: forms in plain slipped ware include bowls with upright rolled rim with grooved lip (TS 821), fine jars with out-flared rims (TS 772, 829), and flat bases (TS 1146). It is not possible to establish whether the two fragments of painted slipped ware come from the same vessel; one is a slightly everted rounded rim (TS 1126) and the other a slender footed base (TS 839). Residual Vegetal-Tempered Ware: forms appearing in residual vegetal-tempered ware include the bevelled-rim bowl, which appears in three distinct styles (TS 739, 895, 1097), as well as a bowl with rounded rim (TS 818), and chaff-tempered goblets (TS 770, 1139). Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: residual grit-tempered forms include Lapui bowl with rounded rim (TS 749, 1135), jars with upright neck and out-flaring lip (TS 740), different sized jars with out-flaring lip (TS 743, 744, 756, 813, 832), and different sizes of hole-mouth jars (TS 742, 746/7, 750, 752, 757, 758, 811, 812, 816, 824, 1102, 1131), as well as a vertical lug handle (TS 905) and flat bases (TS 683, 1147, 1148). Residual Red-Slipped Buff Ware: forms in residual slipped ware include Lapui type bowls with incurving (TS 748, 765), or out-flaring rim (TS 753, 827, 790, 831), different sizes of jars with upright necks and out-flared lips (TS 760, 762, 766, 771, 773), a jar with flattened rolled rim and exterior groove (TS 741), and a flat base (TS 678). Residual Buff Ware: while most fragments are body sherds recognisable forms include simple upright rim (TS 719), and footed (TS 735, 836) and flat bases (TS 841). Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: distinctly Archaic forms include a simple upright rounded rim (TS 1137), and a flat base (TS 795) Decoration Qaleh/Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: painted decoration is typically brown bands that appear around the rim of jars with out-flared rims (TS 826, 900, 1105, 1106, 1133), and there is also an example where the bands have registers of cross-hatched lines (TS 1155). Qaleh/Elamite Grit-Tempered Ware: painted parallel brown bands appear around the rim of jars with upright neck and flattened flange rim (TS 822), out-flared rims (TS 892, 1127) and beaked rim (TS 787), as well as on body sherds which show saw tooth motifs (TS 919), cross-hatched lines (TS 703, 1158/1160), wavy lines (TS 878), or tree motifs (TS 883). Unique fragments which appear to relate to the Fars 2nd millennium painted traditions include a continuous ‘hammer’ shaped motif (TS 886), triangular motif (TS 1154), or elaborate red lines enclosing a poorly executed meander, with cross hatching on one side, and a series of curved horn-like lines, which have short dashes along their entire length (TS 917). TS 700 is like TS 939 in that it has dashes of paint along the lip. TS 809 is reminiscent of so-called Teimuran ware, with outlines of pendant chevrons in

112

brown paint, but the ware is completely different. There are also fragments with incised lines on the exterior (TS 814, 853 not illustrated), and a finger impressed rope cordon (TS 1162). Fine Buff/Orange Ware: these are undecorated. Qaleh Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: the two fragments of painted slipped ware both have dark brown bands; TS 839 having around base lip and foot, and TS 1126 have a thick dark brown band around lip, with two thin lines below, the lowest bordering a register of alternately facing hatched triangles separated by a vertical line. Residual Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are undecorated. Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: some exterior burnishing. Residual Red-Slipped Buff Ware: these have a slipped and polished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. Residual Buff Ware: there is an unusually diverse collection of black on buff painted ware in Phase 14, including classic Bakun type motifs such as the stepped cross pendant shape (TS 736), traces of the so-called “hairy triangle” motif (TS 718), brown bands with short (TS 706), and long thin diagonal lines extending down (TS 710), as well as simple black or brown bands (TS 716, 720, 733 none illustrated). Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: these have a slipped and burnished surface, but are otherwise undecorated. TS Phase 13 (Figures 4.91-4.94, 4.134) There were 109 sherds registered from Phase 13. Similar to Phase 14, the Phase 13 deposits contained substantial quantities of residual Archaic, Bakun, Lapui, and Banesh material mixed with Kaftari, Shogha Teimuran and possibly Elamite ceramics. Wares Qaleh/Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (16 fragments) these are well-fired and wheel turned, with fine vegetal temper that often has medium to coarse grits added. The surfaces typically have a medium finish, and the fabric ranges from light brown to orange, buff or grey. Qaleh/Elamite Grit-Tempered Ware: (30) well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish, and occasionally coated with a light brown or orange slip. The fabric is typically orange, brown, or light brown. Qaleh Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: (17) the slipped fine wares are well-fired, wheel turned and range from having no visible to sparse medium grit inclusions. The slip ranges from red to brown, and has an even polish. The fabric colour varies from buff to light brown and orange. Residual Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (6) the residual well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware fragments are from hand, mould and wheel made forms, with the fabric ranging from light brown to orange/buff in colour. Little care was taken with the finish, leaving coarse surfaces.

Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: (6) the residual grit-tempered wares are well-fired, and hand made with a medium burnished and sometimes slipped surface. Residual Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (25) the residual slipped fine ware is well-fired and has no visible inclusions. The slip varies between orange, red, or brown, the surface is typically polish/burnished, and the fabric colour ranges from buff to light brown and orange. Residual Buff Ware: (9) the residual buff ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible or fine grit inclusions, fine surfaces and range in colour from buff to light brown. The fragments are generally small, but many have traces of painted decoration. Shapes Qaleh/Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include bowls with everted rounded rim (TS 622, 776), upright and flattened rim (TS 541), and bowl with upright rim and pinched lip (TS 608). There are different sized jars with upright neck and out-flared lip (TS 575); different variations of hole-mouth jar rims (TS 581), a jar with an upright neck and collared lip (TS 596) and large jar with folded rim (TS 602). There are footed (TS 615), and different sizes of ring bases (TS 603, 778). While Phase 13 contains a diverse mixture of material, some of the latest material that can be clearly identified includes a bowl with everted rim (TS 573), and a jar with a club rim neck and a ridge around the neck (TS 616) that have parallels with Middle Elamite forms from Ville Royale AX and the Ville Royale II sounding (Susa Period VIII). Qaleh/Elamite Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include bowls with simple everted rim (TS 542, 579, 631), thickened everted rim (TS 625, 626), incurving rim (TS 578, 605), and out-flaring rim (TS 775). Jars with out-flared lip (TS 613, 627), upright neck with out-flaring and flattened lip (TS 580), and large jars with upright neck and club rim (TS 604), folded rim (TS 636), and different variations of hole-mouth jar rims (TS 610, 623, 634), also appear. There are only flat bases (TS 576, 628). Some of the latest material includes a bowl with flattened and projecting everted rim (TS 621/643), and a jar with an upright neck and collared lip (TS 630) that have parallels with Middle and Neo-Elamite forms from Susa (Period VIII). Qaleh Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: forms include everted bowls with round (TS 539) or out-flared rim (TS 577). Residual Vegetal-Tempered Ware: forms appearing in residual vegetal-tempered ware include the bevelled-rim bowl (TS 639), low-sided tray (TS 633, 638), and chaff-tempered goblet fragments (TS 534, 620, 635). Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: residual grit-tempered forms include bowl with out-flaring rim (TS 617), incurving rim (TS 624), a jar with out-flaring lip (TS 611) and a flat base (TS 642). Residual Red-Slipped Buff Ware: forms in residual slipped ware include Lapui type bowls with out-flaring rim (TS 607, 619, 629, 637, 774) and flat bases (TS 640, 655). Residual Buff Ware: the only recognisable form is a bowl with simple everted rim (TS 777).

113

Decoration Qaleh/Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: painted decoration is limited to brown bands (TS 540). Qaleh/Elamite Grit-Tempered Ware: painted parallel brown bands are only visible around the rim of a hole-mouth jar (TS 610). TS 580 has a sharply defined groove around the neck, while TS 604 has an otherwise unattested pattern of impressed crescents along the top of the rim. Qaleh Red/Brown Slipped Buff Ware: these have a slipped and polished surface. Residual Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Red-Slipped Buff Ware: these have a slipped and polished surface. Residual Buff Ware: the buff ware is typically decorated with black or brown bands (TS 660, 661, 662 none illustrated), and there is one fragment showing a complicated motif comprised of thin horizontal brown bands, which are crossed by other diagonal bands (TS 594). TS Phase 12 (Figures 4.95-4.99, 4.135, Plate 14) There is a distinct change in the composition of the ceramic assemblage in Phase 12 (117 registered sherds), and from this point on, painted wares only appear as residual material, and grit-tempered wares predominate. Due to the nature of the stratigraphy, it is difficult to confirm whether or not there is a clear break in occupation between Phases 13 and 12. This is primarily due to the fact that Phase 14 and 13 are difficult to interpret, and neither can be easily attributed to a specific period. What is clear, however, is that Phase 12 presents clear examples of Achaemenid ceramic forms. It should also be noted that there is a greater variation in the range of rim forms in this phase than in those that follow. In traditional interpretations, this would be taken to indicate a cultural and/or a chronological break between the Middle/Neo-Elamite occupation at the site, and the arrival of Achaemenids. Wares Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (1 fragment) the example is well-fired and wheel turned, with very fine vegetal and fine grit temper. The fabric is light brown, with a grey core, and the surfaces have been burnished to a medium to high polish. This fabric is unique at Tol-e Spid potentially indicating that this is an imported piece. Grit-Tempered Ware: (51) the Phase 12 grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit, which is occasionally limestone. Surfaces range from fine to coarse, with a medium finish predominating. Some vessels are coated with a light brown or orange slip, and the fabric is typically orange, light brown, brown or buff. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (15) a significant quantity of grit-tempered ware is grey in colour. They are well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to

coarse grit, which is occasionally limestone. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish, and occasionally coated with a grey or orange slip. Fine Buff Ware with Glaze: (1) the one fragment of this ware showing signs of a glazed surface (TS 498), is well-fired, wheel turned and has no visible inclusions. The surface is fine, and there are only slight traces of a degraded yellow glaze on both the interior and exterior. Residual Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (20) vegetal-tempered ware that is obviously Elamite is well-fired and wheel turned, with fine vegetal temper that often has medium to coarse grits added. The surfaces typically have a medium finish, and the fabric ranges from light brown to orange, buff or grey. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (2) vegetal-tempered ware that is obviously Kaftari is well-fired, wheel turned, and has fine vegetal and fine grit temper. The surfaces typically have a fine-medium finish on a light brown fabric. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (8) the vegetal-tempered ware that is obviously Banesh is under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware from hand made and wheel turned forms. The fabric ranging from light brown to orange in colour, and the surface is typically coarse. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (5) the residual Lapui and Banesh grit-tempered wares are well-fired, have medium grit temper and are either hand made or wheel finished. Some show signs of irregular burnish on the exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (11) the residual Lapui slipped fine ware is well-fired and has no visible or fine grit inclusions. The slip varies between orange, red, or brown, the surface is typically polish/burnished, and the fabric colour ranges from buff to light brown and orange. Residual Buff Ware: (2) the residual fine buff ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, fine surfaces and range in colour from buff to orange. Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: (1) the sole one fragment of Archaic ware is under fired, hand made, is vegetal-tempered, and has traces of a red slip on the interior and exterior. Shapes Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the only fragment of this ware is a highly diagnostic tulip bowl form (TS 439), with a rounded base, sharp carination and everted lip. Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include open bowls with slightly incurving rounded rim (TS 448), slightly everted simple rim (TS 451, 528), upright flattened rim (TS 505), and s-shaped rim with thin lip (TS 520). There are a number of potential copies of the fine tulip bowl, as indicated by the presence of a tulip form lip with simple rim (TS 452), and a carination (TS 495). Jar forms include upright mouth, have upright neck with everted rim (TS 475, 515), out-flaring rim (TS 521), slightly out-flaring rim with thickened collar (TS 440, 474), out-flaring rim with squared lip (TS 504), rounded club rim (TS 442), flattened club rim (TS 530) and a large jar with out-flaring rim (TS 509). Folded flanged rim (TS 494)

114

and hole-mouth jars of different types (TS 476, 518) were also present, and there are also examples of flat (TS 553, 569), rounded (TS 454), and ring bases (TS 501, 517, 525). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: forms appearing in grey grit-tempered ware include everted bowl with thin rim (TS 493, 523) and everted bowl with triangular rim (TS 499). There are also two bowl forms that with attached handles, one with a club rim (TS 500) the other with a rounded rim (TS 502). There are also examples of jars that have out-flaring rims (TS 441, 446), and a necked jar with round rim and upright bridge spout (TS 516). There are only flat (TS 481), and footed ring bases (TS 482). Fine Buff Ware with Glaze: the only glazed ware fragment comes from a bowl with a simple upright rim with rounded lip (TS 498). Residual Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the residual Elamite forms include bowls with upright rounded rim (TS 444, 450, 507), an upright goblet rim (TS 546), a goblet base (TS 568), a flat base (TS 508), and an unusual hole-mouth form (TS 544). There are also some possible Neo-Elamite forms such as the jar with upright neck with flanged rim, and raised ridge around neck (TS 477, 506; also 465 not illustrated). Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the residual Banesh vegetal-tempered forms include various low-sided tray fragments (TS 453, 483, 522, 529, 531, 543)16, an upright neck and slightly out-flaring rim (TS 445), and a chaff-tempered goblet rim (TS 479). It is possible that the tray fragments are not residual, but this must be demonstrated by further excavation. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: the residual grit-tempered forms include a jar with out-flaring rim (TS 478), and a hole-mouth jar (TS 549) Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: the residual slipped fine ware forms include an everted bowl with thin rim (TS 519), and one flat (TS 545), and one rounded base (TS 567). Residual Buff Ware: forms include one flat (TS 486) and one footed base (TS 510). Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: one fragment of Archaic ware appears to come from a hole-mouth jar (TS 550). Decoration Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: there is a depression in the centre of the interior of TS 439, enclosed by a low ridge, and radiating grooves, which create a slight gadroon pattern on the exterior. This is clearly a clay imitation of a classic Achaemenid metal tulip bowl. Grit-Tempered Ware: a distinctive marker of Phase 12 is the appearance of flat (TS 566; also 459, 532, not illustrated cf. Phase 11-TS 276) relief bands in grit-tempered ware, and there are also rounded (TS 512; also 462, 547 not illustrated), and triangular variants (TS 463; also 460 not illustrated)17. In addition to the ridges, there are a number of examples of engraved grooves around the neck of the vessel (TS 524; also 513 not illustrated).

Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: similar to the ridges in grit-tempered ware, there is also an example of a flat ridge in grey grit-tempered ware (TS 503) Fine Buff Ware with Glaze: there are traces of yellow glaze on the exterior and interior. Residual Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: There are also two examples of finger impression cordons (TS 497, 511 none illustrated). In addition to the ridges that appear in grit-tempered ware, there are a number of rounded ridges (e.g. TS 477; also TS 480, 484, 487, 488, 489, 490, 492-not illustrated), reminiscent of earlier Elamite and Kaftari ridges. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the two fragments that are clearly residual Kaftari ware show brown painted bands (TS 551, 552-none illustrated). Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: surface burnishing on exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: slip on exterior and interior. Residual Buff Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Archaic Vegetal-Tempered Ware: this example has a slipped surface. TS Phase 11 (Figures 4.100-4.102, 4.136, Plate 14) There were 62 sherds registered from Phase 11. Wares Grit-Tempered Ware: (31 fragments) this ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces range from fine to medium, some vessels are coated with a light brown or orange slip, and the fabric is typically orange, light brown, or brown. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (12) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish. Residual Elamite Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (4) well-fired and wheel turned, with fine vegetal and coarse grit temper. Surfaces are medium to coarse, with orange to light brown fabric. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (2) well-fired, wheel turned, and with fine vegetal and fine grit temper, the surfaces have a medium finish on a light brown fabric. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (5) under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware, in hand made forms with the fabric ranging from light brown to buff in colour. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (4) well-fired, with medium grit temper and are either hand made or wheel finished. Some show signs of irregular burnish on the exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (2) well-fired and has no visible inclusions. The slip is red/brown, the surface is typically polish/burnished, and the colour ranges from buff to orange.

115

Residual Buff Ware: (1) the residual fine buff ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, and fine surfaces. Shapes Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include open bowls with slightly everted simple rim (TS 378, 380, 385), and out-flaring rim with flattened exterior (TS 468). Jar forms include everted neck with flattened rim (TS 336), Thick beak rim (TS 384), different sized jars with out-flaring rim with collared lip (TS 342, 382, 473), and a slightly out-flaring rim with rounded lip and flat topped handle (TS 383). A folded flanged rim (TS 339) was also present, and there are also examples of flat bases (TS 379, 407). There is also an example of a necked jar with round rim and upright bridge spout that has close parallels with the example from Phase 12 (TS 340 – cf. Phase 12 TS 516). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: forms appearing in grey grit-tempered ware include everted bowl with simple rim (TS 390), different sized everted bowls with grooved folded rim (TS 387, 467, cf. TS 427), and jars with out-flaring rim with thickened collar (TS 466), club (TS 377), or squared club rims (TS 470). Residual Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: none diagnostic of shape. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: none diagnostic of shape. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms are limited to various low-sided tray fragments (TS 274, 469). Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: forms limited to a hole-mouth jar (TS 381). Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: forms limited to jar with out-flaring rim (TS 386). Residual Buff Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Decoration Grit-Tempered Ware: flat (TS 276; also 344, 345, 346, 394, 395, 396, 397, 405, 410, 411 not illustrated) and rounded (TS 343; also 398 not illustrated) relief ridges continue to appear in Phase 11, and there were also examples of finger impressed cordons (TS 338 not illustrated). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: some fragments show surface burnishing (TS 387 and 390), and there are a number of examples of flat relief ridges (TS 337, 408, 409, 412 none illustrated). Residual Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: one fragment of what appears to be an Elamite vessel with high rounded ridges (TS 391) was recovered. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: surface burnishing on exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: slip on exterior and interior. Residual Buff Ware: these are not decorated.

TS Phase 10 (Figures 4.103-4.105, 4.137, Plate 14) There were 92 sherds registered from Phase 10. Wares Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (1 fragment) well-fired and wheel turned, with very fine vegetal and fine grit temper. The fabric is light brown/orange and the exterior has been burnished. Grit-Tempered Ware: (54) well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces range from fine to medium, some vessels are coated with a light brown, orange or grey slip and the fabric is typically orange, light brown, or brown. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (11) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish. Fine Buff Ware with Glaze: (2) well-fired, wheel turned and has no visible inclusions. The surface is fine, and remnants of degraded yellow glaze on both surfaces. Residual Elamite Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (7) well-fired and wheel turned, with fine vegetal and coarse grit temper. Surfaces are medium to coarse, with orange to light brown fabric. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (3) well-fired, wheel turned, and with fine vegetal and fine grit temper, the surfaces have a medium finish on a light brown fabric. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (8) under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware, in hand made forms with the fabric ranging from light brown to buff in colour. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (3) well-fired, with medium grit temper and hand made or wheel finished. Some show signs of irregular burnish on the exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (1) well-fired and has no visible inclusions. The slip is red/brown, the surface is typically polish/burnished, and the colour ranges from buff to orange. Residual Buff Ware: (1) the residual fine buff ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, and fine surfaces. Shapes Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the only fragment comes from a jar with out-flaring rim and collared lip (TS 419), which is a distinctive Achaemenid form. Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include open bowls with everted simple rim (TS 264, 294, 361), everted simple rim with grooved lip (TS 290) everted simple rim with flattened exterior (TS 296) or upright round rim (TS 363). Jar forms include upright neck with out-flaring and grooved rim (TS 257), different sized jars with out-flaring rim (TS 262, 362, 364), out-flaring rim with collar below lip (TS 260, 420), out-flaring rim with flattened exterior (TS 251, 270, 415), out-flaring neck and rolled rim (TS 360), club rim (TS 288), and a hole-mouth jar with a squared rim (TS 352). There are also fragments of jars with upright necks and attached handle (TS 370, 428), an

116

oval section handle (TS 372), and a fragment of a small bottle with upright neck and out-flaring lip (TS 298). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: forms appearing include everted bowls with grooved folded rim (TS 427, cf. TS 467), and jars with out-flaring rim with collared lip (TS 414), or flattened exterior (TS 252, 265). Fine Buff Ware with Glaze: the fragment diagnostic of shape is a shallow ring base from a fishplate form with an incised central depression (TS 358). Residual Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms are limited to an everted bowl with rounded rim and collar (TS 261). Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: none diagnostic of shape. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms are limited to various low-sided tray fragments (TS 271, 348, 349, 418, 421, 422), and a goblet base (TS 350). Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Residual Buff Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Decoration Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Grit-Tempered Ware: flat (TS 250; also 248, 249, 256, 356, 366, 367, 368, 423, 437, 438 not illustrated), triangular (TS 357; also 354, 373 not illustrated), and rounded (TS 435; 266, 355, 431, none illustrated) relief ridges continue to appear in Phase 10, and there were also examples of finger impressed cordons (TS 295, 297 none illustrated), and incised lines (TS 287, 288 none illustrated). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: one unique piece displays incision around the shoulder, with parallel lines and a zigzag pattern some fragments show surface burnishing (TS 424 not illustrated), and there are a number of examples of rounded relief ridges (TS 427, 429, 430, 432 none illustrated), and incised lines (TS 268 not illustrated). Fine Buff Ware with Glaze: TS 292 has an incised ridge across the body, and there are traces of yellow glaze on the exterior and interior. TS 358 has a clear coating of glaze on the interior and exterior and an impressed circle in the centre of the base. Residual Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the everted bowl has incision below the collar (TS 261), and there are a number of examples of round ridges (TS 259, 353, 365, 375, 376 none illustrated). Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: TS 258 has a brown tooth motif, and TS 255 and 425 have painted brown bands that are typically Kaftari. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: surface burnishing on exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: slip on exterior and interior. Residual Buff Ware: these are not decorated.

TS Phase 9 (Figures 4.106, 4.138) Phase 9 presents a number of fragments that have grit and medium vegetal temper, with shapes bearing some similarity to Neo-Elamite and post-Achaemenid forms. This suggests that there is some residual material present and at least one vessel made from a contemporary vegetal and grit-tempered ware (44 registered sherds). Wares Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (7 fragments) well-fired and wheel turned, with very fine vegetal and medium grit temper and light brown fabric. Grit-Tempered Ware: (17) well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces range from fine to medium, some vessels are coated with a light brown, orange or grey slip, and the fabric is typically orange, light brown, or brown. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (6) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned, with a medium surface finish and fine to medium grit temper. . Residual Elamite Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (4) well-fired and wheel turned, with fine vegetal and medium grit temper. Medium to coarse surface, with light brown fabric. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (3) under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware, in hand or wheel made forms with the light brown fabric. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (3) well-fired, with medium grit temper and are either hand made or wheel finished, with irregular burnish on the exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (4) well-fired and has no visible inclusions. The slip is red/brown, the surface is typically polish/burnished, and the colour ranges from buff to orange. Shapes Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the only diagnostic form comes from a jar with out-flaring rim with a squared lip (TS 327, cf. Phase 4 - TS 139, Phase 11 – TS 342), and the other fragments of this ware appear to come from the same vessel, which is a distinctive Achaemenid form. Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include open bowls with everted simple rim (TS 283) or upright rolled rim (TS 309). Jar forms include upright neck with flattened rim (TS 299, 325), different sized jars with out-flaring rim (TS 278, 310), and incurving rim with out-folded lip and broad strap handle (TS 279). There are also fragments of flat bases from small (TS 312) and large forms (TS 328). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Elamite Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms are limited to various low-sided tray fragments (TS 302, 311). Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: the only diagnostic form is a hole-mouth jar with upturned lip (TS 308). Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: the only diagnostic form is a flat base (TS 326).

117

Decoration Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the body fragments of the jar with out-flaring rim with a squared lip (TS 327) display rounded ridges (TS 320; also 316, 317, 318, 319, 330 not illustrated). Grit-Tempered Ware: rounded ridge are visible around the body of the large storage jar base (TS 328), and also some body fragments (TS 329 not illustrated). There was also an example of incised lines (TS 306). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: a number of fragments display square (TS 333; also 331, 334, 335 not illustrated) or rounded relief ridges (TS 285; also 277 not illustrated). Residual Elamite Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these fragments display round ridges (TS 301, 313; also 300, 305 not illustrated) that are reminiscent of Elamite types, but which also could be Achaemenid. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: surface burnishing on exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: slip on exterior and interior. TS Phase 8 (Figures 4.107, 4.139) There were 30 sherds registered from Phase 8. Wares Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (2 fragments) well-fired and wheel turned, with very fine vegetal and medium grit temper and light brown fabric. Grit-Tempered Ware: (16) this ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces range from fine to medium, some vessels are coated with a light brown or orange slip, and the fabric is typically orange, light brown, or brown. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (6) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) well-fired, wheel turned, and with fine vegetal and fine grit temper, the surfaces have a medium finish on a light brown fabric. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware, in a wheel made form with a light brown fabric. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (4) well-fired and has no visible inclusions. The slip is red/brown, the surface is typically polish/burnished, and the colour ranges from buff to orange. Shapes Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the only diagnostic fragment is from a jar with everted rounded rim with a collar below the lip (TS 214), a form that is typical of the 1st millennium BC. Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include open bowls with out-flaring rim (TS 215), upright thin rim (TS 226), upright flattened rim (TS 225), and slightly incurving rim

(TS 216). Jar forms are limited to a slightly out-turned rim (TS 223), and an example of a ring base (TS 230). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: forms appearing in grey grit-tempered ware include a jar with thin upright rim (TS 217), and a curved ridge that might have been a handle. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms limited to chaff-tempered goblet rim (TS 213). Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: forms limited to jar with upright lip (TS 219), or out-flaring lip (TS 218). Decoration Fine Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Grit-Tempered Ware: there are a number of triangular (TS 220, 231, 242) and square raised ridges (TS 228, 229, 246, 281) and two distinctive examples of a finger impressed cordon around the neck of a jar (TS 227 and 245 not illustrated, cf. TS 31, 295, 297, 338). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: there are examples of square raised ridges (TS 232; also 237 not illustrated), and a curved round ridge that may be part of a handle (TS 280). Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: there is one fragment showing painted brown bands (TS 238 not illustrated). Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: slip on exterior and interior. TS Phase 7 (Figures 4.108, 4.140) There were 53 sherds registered from Phase 7. Wares Grit-Tempered Ware: (28) this ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces range from fine to medium, some vessels are coated with a light brown or orange slip, and the fabric is typically orange, light brown, or brown. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (6) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (9) well-fired, wheel turned, and with fine vegetal and fine grit temper, the surfaces have a medium finish on a light brown fabric. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (4) under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware, in a wheel made forms with a light brown fabric. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) well-fired, with medium grit temper and hand made or wheel finished, with irregular burnish on the exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (4) well-fired and has no visible inclusions. The slip is red/brown, the surface is typically polish/burnished, and the colour ranges from buff to orange.

118

Residual Buff Ware: (1) the residual fine buff ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, and fine surfaces. Shapes Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include open bowls with out-flaring rim (TS 177), which might be a tulip bowl, as well as bowls with out-flaring rim (TS 179), and slightly everted with projecting triangular rim (TS 178). Jar forms are limited to a slightly everted rim with collared lip (TS 175), and an example of a ring base (TS 189). There are also two jars with upright rounded rim, with attached handles (TS 167, 185), and a number of handle fragments (TS 166, 168). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: the only diagnostic shape is a pinched strap handle (TS 182 not illustrated). Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the only diagnostic form is from a jar with upright neck and out-flaring lip (TS 176). Residual Banesh Vegetal-Tempered Ware: limited to low-sided trays (TS 165, 180, 181). Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Buff Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Decoration Grit-Tempered Ware: there are a number of square raised ridges (TS 195; also 193, 194, 196 not illustrated). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: one fragment shows a series of parallel channels in the exterior surface (TS 191), and there are a number of fragments with registers of incised lines (TS 197, 198 none illustrated), as well as examples of square raised ridges (TS 190, 192 none illustrated). Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the jar with out-flaring lip has a brown painted band on the lip (TS 176). There are also a number of other examples of painted brown bands (TS 172, 206, 207, 211 none illustrated), and others that have more complex motifs showing bands and dots (TS 208; also 210 not illustrated) chevrons (TS 209) or more complex patterns (TS 236). Some of these may be Pseudo-Prehistoric Ware like that recorded at Dau-o Dokhtar by Whitcomb (1991). Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: exterior burnishing. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: slip on exterior and interior. Residual Buff Ware: brown painted band (TS 174). TS Phase 6 (Figures 4.109, 4.141) There were very few ceramic fragments recovered from Phase 6 (8 sherds registered), and only three of these were diagnostic of shape. Wares Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned, tempered with medium grit, and with a medium finish.

Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (6) under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware, in a wheel made forms with a light brown fabric. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) well-fired, wheel finished, with medium grit temper in a brown fabric with irregular burnish on the exterior. Shapes Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: the only diagnostic fragment was a pierced lug handle (TS 221). Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: limited to low-sided trays (TS 131, 132, 133). Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Decoration Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: exterior burnishing. TS Phase 5 (Figures 4.110, 4.142) There were very few ceramic fragments recovered from Phase 5 (13 sherds registered), and only three of these were diagnostic of shape. Wares Grit-Tempered Ware: (3) this ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces range from fine to medium, some vessels are coated with a light brown or orange slip, and the fabric is typically orange, light brown, or brown. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (2) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish. Fine Orange with Red Slip: (3) a new well-fired, wheel turned ware, with fine grit temper, and a red slip surface with a fine smoothed finish. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) well-fired, wheel turned, and with fine vegetal and fine grit temper, the surfaces have a medium finish on a light brown fabric. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) well-fired, with medium grit temper and hand made or wheel finished, with irregular burnish on the exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (2) well-fired and has no visible inclusions. The slip is red/brown, the surface is typically polish/burnished, and the colour ranges from buff to orange. Residual Buff Ware: (1) the residual fine buff ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, and fine surfaces. Shapes Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include a bowl with slightly everted rim and rounded lip (TS 155, and a jar with an out-flaring and flattened lip (TS 163) Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape.

119

Fine Orange with Red Slip: one fragment appears to be the carination from a distinctive tulip bowl form (TS 156). Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Buff Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Decoration Grit-Tempered Ware: these are not decorated Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: these two fragments have square raised ridges (TS 149; also 150 not illustrated). Fine Orange with Red Slip: (TS 156) this ware is slipped on the exterior and interior. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: painted brown bands with zigzag meanders between (TS 157). Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: irregular burnish on the exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: traces of red slip. TS Phase 4 (Figures 4.111-4.113, 4.143, Plate 14) Phase 4 is distinct in that it contains a number of whole or near complete vessels (51 registered sherds), indicating that this phase was destroyed rather than abandoned. Wares Grit-Tempered Ware: (29) well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces range from medium to coarse, some vessels are coated with a brown or red/brown slip, and the fabric is typically orange, red/brown, or brown. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (12) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish, and often have grey slip. Fine Orange with Red Slip: (3) well-fired wheel turned ware, with fine grit temper, and a red slip surface with a fine smoothed finish. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (3) under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware, in hand made forms with the fabric ranging from light brown to buff in colour. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) well-fired, with fine grit temper and is wheel finished. Some show signs of even burnish on the exterior. Residual Buff Ware: (3) the residual fine buff/orange ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, and fine surfaces. Shapes Grit-Tempered Ware: forms in grit-tempered ware include the nearly completely preserved tortoise-shell shaped pilgrim flask with upright spout and out-flared lip (TS 134-137). This vessel has grey inclusions, and a brown slip on the exterior, and appears to have been made in two halves, which were then joined. This form is typical of the Achaemenid period, and there are

comparable examples from Persepolis. Other forms include a bowl with out-flaring rim (TS 162), and a slender loop strap handle (TS 96/104, 105 cf. TS 167, 182, 185), which also has parallels in late Achaemenid deposits at Pasargadae and Persepolis. There are also examples of flat (TS 122), and ring bases (TS 123). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: TS 98-101/141-142 is a tall beaker with upright neck and slightly rounded lip, which is a form that has not been otherwise attested in Fars. TS 139 is a necked jar with everted rim, and grit inclusions that cause the surface finish to be medium to coarse. In addition there are also jars with slightly everted lips and collared lips (TS 78), and ring bases (TS 106, 161). Fine Orange with Red Slip: forms include an everted bowl with flattened rim (TS 159), and bowl with out-flaring and grooved rim (TS 140), which is a form found Late Achaemenid levels at Pasargadae. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms are limited to low-sided trays (TS 121, 160), and a large vat (TS 127). Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: limited to flat bases (TS 108, 138). Residual Buff Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Decoration Grit-Tempered Ware: the large pilgrim flask (TS 134-137) has a thin groove incised around its waist, but is otherwise undecorated. Fragments of other vessels also have grooves (TS 111, 113), and there are examples of horizontal and vertical rounded ridges (TS 95/102). Other than the incised and plastic decoration, there is also a red band around the lip of the bowl with out-flaring rim (TS 162) Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: TS 98-101/141-142 displays three registers each of three parallel incised grooves around the upper part of the body of the beaker. Fine Orange with Red Slip: aside from the slipped surfaces, TS 97 has an incised channel on the vessel shoulder (not illustrated). Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: no decoration. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: even burnish on the exterior. Residual Buff Ware: one fragment has a band of brown paint on the exterior (TS 124 not illustrated). TS Phase 3 (Figures 4.114-4.116, 4.144, Plate 14) Similar to Phase 4, Phase 3 contained the fragments of an almost complete vessel, indicating that this phase was also destroyed in a conflagration rather than abandoned. There are nevertheless also small quantities of different types of residual material (49 sherds registered). Wares Grit-Tempered Ware: (32) well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with coarse grit. Surfaces range from fine to medium, and some sherds appear to have been wet smoothed. The fabric is typically orange, light brown, or brown, and although 2/3 of the fragments come from one

120

vessel, there is variety between these colours on almost every sherd. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (7) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish. Vegetal-Tempered Orange Ware with Red Slip: (2) a new fabric made from a well-fired hand made ware, with vegetal and fine grit temper, and an orange slipped surface with a fine burnished finish. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (2) well-fired, wheel turned, and with no visible or grit temper, the surfaces have a medium finish on a light brown/orange fabric. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (3) an under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware, in hand made forms with a brown fabric. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) well-fired, with medium grit temper and wheel finished. Some show signs of irregular burnish on the exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (2) well-fired and has no visible inclusions. The slip is red/brown, the surface is typically polished, on an orange fabric. Residual Buff Ware: (2) the residual fine buff ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, and fine surfaces. Shapes Grit-Tempered Ware: forms in grit-tempered ware include the nearly complete globular storage jar with upright neck, out-flared rim with rounded lip, three irregular square ridges around the body, and a flat base (TS 56-70/87-92). This vessel is 134 cm high, 92 cm wide at its maximum girth, and has a slipped interior and exterior surface. There is also an example of a tulip bowl carination (TS 83). Both of these forms are known from Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid period sites. Other forms include bowl with out-flaring and rolled rim (TS 49), out-flaring rim (TS 72), and jars with upright neck and out-flaring rim (TS 71), upright neck with out-turned lip (TS 80), upright hole-mouth jar (TS 81). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: bowl with rolled rim and carination (TS 47), jar with out-flaring rim with flattened exterior (TS 45), or squared rim (TS 48), as well as a flat base (TS 52). Vegetal-Tempered Orange Ware with Red Slip: a otherwise unattested narrow necked bottle with out-flaring rim (TS 93) and a pierced lug handle from the same vessel were also recovered (TS 94). This vessel appears to be unique in Fars, and is potentially imported. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: not diagnostic of shape Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms are limited to low-sided trays (TS 43, 74, 75). Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Buff Ware: only out-flared rim (TS 50), and thickened out-flared rim (TS 79).

Decoration Grit-Tempered Ware: the most common form of decoration in this phase was relief bands around the body (TS 60-70, 88-93). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: there are fragments with square raised ridges (TS 51, 85). Vegetal-Tempered Orange Ware with Red Slip: orange slip and burnished surface. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: there are two fragments that bear painted brown bands (TS 42, 77). TS 42 in particular might be Pseudo-Prehistoric Ware like that recorded at Dau-o Dokhtar (Whitcomb 1991), while TS 77 displays a ladder motif. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: not decorated. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: irregular burnish on the exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: red-slipped and polished surface. Residual Buff Ware: not decorated. TS Phase 2 (Figures 4.117, 4.145) There were 16 sherds registered from Phase 2 Wares Grit-Tempered Ware: (4) well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces range from fine to medium, some vessels are coated with a light brown, orange or grey slip, and the fabric is typically orange, light brown, or brown. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (7) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) well-fired, wheel turned, and with fine vegetal and fine grit temper, the surfaces have a medium finish on a light brown fabric Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware, in hand made forms with the fabric ranging from light brown to buff in colour. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (2) well-fired and has no visible inclusions. The slip is red-brown, the surface is typically polish/burnished, and the colour ranges from buff to orange. Residual Buff Ware: (1) the residual fine buff ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible inclusions, and fine surfaces. Shapes Grit-Tempered Ware: forms include open bowls upright rounded rim (TS 35), or upright flattened rim (TS 34). There is also an example of a strap handle (TS 32). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: forms appearing in grey grit-tempered ware include bowl with thickened incurving rim (TS 37), or out-flaring rim (TS 40), and jar with everted neck and thickened grooved lip (TS 41). Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: limited to a jar with slightly everted rounded rim (TS 33).

121

Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: forms limited to chaff-tempered goblet base (TS 29). Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Buff Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Decoration Grit-Tempered Ware: there is a distinctive example of a finger impressed cordon around the neck of a jar (TS 31 cf. TS 295, 297, 338). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: there are examples square raised ridges (TS 54; also 39, 53, not illustrated). Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: the jar lip has a brown band on the interior and exterior (TS 33). Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: this is not decorated. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: slip on exterior and interior. Residual Buff Ware: this is not decorated TS Phase 1 (Figures 4.118, 4.146) There were 28 sherds registered from Phase 1. Wares Grit-Tempered Ware: (11) well-fired, wheel turned and tempered with medium to coarse grit. Surfaces range from fine to medium, some vessels are coated with a light brown, orange or grey slip, and the fabric is typically orange, light brown, or brown. Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: (6) grey grit-tempered ware is well-fired, wheel turned with medium to coarse grit temper. Surfaces have a fine to medium finish. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (2) well-fired, wheel turned, and with fine vegetal and fine grit temper, the surfaces have a medium finish on a light brown fabric. Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: (3) under- to well-fired coarse vegetal-tempered ware, in hand made forms with the fabric ranging from light brown to buff in colour.

Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: (1) well-fired, with medium grit temper and hand made or wheel finished. Occasional irregular burnish on exterior. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: (2) well-fired and has no visible inclusions. The slip is red/brown, the surface is typically polish/burnished, and the colour ranges from buff to orange. Residual Buff Ware: (1) the residual fine buff ware fragments are well-fired, with no visible inclusions. Unknown Wares: (2) there are also fragments that cannot be attributed to a known ware. Shapes Grit-Tempered Ware: jar with out-flared rim (TS 15), or hole-mouth (TS 7, 11), and a footed base (TS 5). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: a bowl with flattened everted rim (TS 20) and a ring base (TS 10). Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: limited to an example of a jar with upright s-curved neck and flanged rim (TS 23). Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: low-sided trays (TS 8, 9, 22). Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: none of these are diagnostic of shape. Residual Buff Ware: not diagnostic of shape. Decoration Grit-Tempered Ware: TS 11 shows the remains of brown bands around the neck and a row of dots close to the lip. There are also examples of raised square ridges (TS 28; also 27 not illustrated). Grey Grit-Tempered Ware: no decoration. Residual Kaftari Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: fragment with parallel painted brown bands (TS 21) and stripes forming chevrons (TS 23). Residual Banesh Vegetal- and Vegetal and Grit-Tempered Ware: no decoration. Residual Lapui and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware: irregular exterior burnish. Residual Lapui Red-Slipped Buff Ware: red slip. Residual Buff Ware: no decoration.

4.4. TS Small finds In contrast to the material recovered from the soundings at Tol-e Nurabad, there were relatively few small finds and lithics recovered from the Tol-e Spid sounding. In total, there were only 17 finds recovered from the 165 excavated loci. These objects have each been given a unique TS SF number and their details are listed below in Table 4.3. Lapui Contexts (TS Phases 24-20) (Figure 4.147) Although there was an abundance of ceramic material recovered from the earliest five phases of occupation at Tol-e Spid, there was a notable lack of small find objects, and in particular, there were no clearly identifiable chipped stone pieces.

The only distinctive object recovered was a fragment of a small limestone vessel with an upright wall and slightly out-flared lip (TS SF 17 – loc. 3154). The form of this vessel is very similar to a vessel fragment from Tol-e Nurabad (TN 32), which was recovered from a phase of occupation that is Banesh in date. Although stone vessel fragments have been recovered from deposits at Tall-i Mushki, Tall-i-Gap, and Banesh phase deposits at Tal-e Malyan, they are generally different in form, and this is the first known fragment to have been excavated from a Lapui period context.

122

Transitional and Banesh Contexts (TS Phases 19-18) (Figure 4.148) The lack of small find material continues in Phases 19 and 18. Only one fragment of a flaked chert blade with a long dorsal ridge and signs of retouch was recovered from Phase 18 (TS SF 16 – loc. 3124). This is a very basic blade form with a triangular profile, which has been removed from a core. Both ends of the blade are missing, so it is not possible to say more about the method of percussion used to remove the blade. Chipped stone fragments displaying a similar production technology begin appearing in Fars in the Neolithic, and are known from Tall-i Mushki (e.g. Fukai et al. 1973: Pl. LIII.26), Tall-i-Gap (e.g. Egami and Sono 1962: Fig. 39), Tall-i Bakun (e.g. Langsdorff and McCown 1942: Pl. 85.13), and from Banesh period deposits at Tal-e Malyan (e.g. Nicholas 1990: Pl. 26: m). Kaftari Contexts (TS Phases 17-15) (Fig 4.149-4.150) The first copper based artefacts recovered from Tol-e Spid came from Phase 16 deposits. These two fragments (TS SF 14 – loc. 3094 and TS SF 15 – loc. 3097) are both very small, and non-diagnostic. Copper based objects in recognisable forms are known in Fars as early as the Neolithic from deposits at Tall-i Mushki (e.g. Fukai et al. 1973: Pl. LI.14-19), and while there is evidence for metal production at Tal-e Malyan during the Kaftari period (Nickerson 1983; Pigott et al. 2003: 168), it is notable that there is also textual evidence from Tal-e Malyan attesting to the administration of large quantities of bronze during the Middle Elamite period (Stolper 1984a; 1984b: 10). A complete ring stone formed from an irregular shaped stone with an irregular hole and (TS SF 12 – loc. 3090) was recovered from Phase 15. Pierced stones of various sizes are known from the Neolithic period onwards, and pierced river stones similar to the Tol-e Spid example are known from Tall-i Bakun (e.g. Langsdorff and McCown 1942: Pl. 84.2). A fragmentary pierced ceramic disc (TS SF 13 – loc. 3091) was also recovered from Phase 15. Similar discs made from different ceramic fabrics are known from Tall-i Bakun (e.g. Langsdorff and McCown 1942: Pl. 82.32-33) and Tal-e Malyan (e.g. Nicholas 1990: Pl. 30.H). Late 2nd and early 1st Millennium BC Contexts (TS Phases 14-13) (Figure 4.151) A fragmentary zoomorphic clay figurine that appears to be an image of a quadruped (TS SF 3084) was recovered from the mixed deposits of Phase 14. Similar figurines are known from the Neolithic period onwards, and have been recovered from Tall-i Mushki (e.g. Fukai et al. 1973: Pl. LV.73), Tall-i-Gap (e.g. Egami and Sono 1962: Fig. 32.15), and at Banesh period (Sumner 2003: Fig. 42.f) and Middle Elamite period Tal-e Malyan (Carter, E. 1996: Fig. 29.5). On the basis of the mixed nature of the Phase 14 deposits, this figurine fragment could have

originated in deposits from any period from the Neolithic onwards. However, the ceramic fabric indicates that this fragment probably dates from the Banesh period onwards. Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid Contexts (TS Phases 12-1) (Figures 4.152-4.153) A small biconical carnelian bead with a regular drill hole (TS SF 7 – loc. 3061) was recovered from Phase 12. Carnelian is known as early as the Banesh deposits at Tal-e Malyan (Sumner 2003: Fig. 37.p), and if the bead from Phase 12 is not residual, its presence indicates continued contact with South Asia during the mid-1st millennium BC, which may have been facilitated by the expansion of the Achaemenid Empire. Three fired brick fragments were also recovered from Phase 12 (TS SF 8, 9 and 10 – all from loc. 3061). None of these fragments were preserved to the extent that any of the original dimensions could be established. An additional fired brick fragment was recovered from Phase 11 (TS SF 6 – loc. 3058, not illustrated), and this example had a complete profile preserved, suggesting that this brick was 90 mm in height. Baked brick fragments were recovered from Phase A3 at Tol-e Nurabad, which dates to the Kaftari period. Fired bricks appear in Mesopotamia during the Early Dynastic period (c.2900 – 2300 BC), but they do not appear regularly in Iran until the 2nd millennium BC (Azarpay 1990: 447), when they are found in deposits at Susa and Tal-e Malyan. At Malyan, whole and fragmented bricks are known from Operations EE 10 and EE 16, where they do not appear to have been in use before the Elamite period (Sumner 1988a: 313). On the basis of the discovery of the Shilhak Inshushinak brick at Tol-e Spid by Herzfeld, it might be tentatively suggested that the fired brick fragments found at Tol-e Spid were used during the Middle Elamite period. If this is true, then it need be no surprise that fired brick fragments have been recovered from Phase 12 and Phase 11 deposits, which date to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, and appear to represent the next phase of occupation at the site. As the structural remains revealed in Phase 12 are built of unfired mudbrick, it seems likely that these fragments are residual material from an earlier phase of occupation, and they might well be related to the enigmatic Phases 14 and 13. A non-diagnostic shell fragment was recovered from Phase 9 (TS SF 5 – loc. 3046, not illustrated), together with an iron blade fragment (TS SF 4 – loc. 3045, not illustrated), and a copper based bangle fragment (TS SF 3 – loc. 3046, not illustrated). An additional iron blade fragment was found in Phase 8 (TS SF 2 – loc.3038, not illustrated). A biconical ceramic spindle whorl with irregularly spaced incisions around the carination was recovered from the surface of the site (TS SF 1, not illustrated). Spindle

123

whorls are know from Tall-i-Gap (e.g. Egami and Sono 1962: Fig. 37.7-12), and whorls with irregularly spaced

incisions are known from Tall-i Bakun (e.g. Langsdorff and McCown 1942: Pl. 82.35).

Table 4.3: Small finds from Tol-e Spid sounding Reg. No. Locus Phase Object Material Description Length Width Height

1 Surface - Spidle whorl ceramic Biconical with irregular incisions around carination 30 30 19

2 3038 8 Blade fragment iron Corroded blade fragment 30 22 7

3 3046 9 Bangle fragment copper-base Corroded round section bronze bangle fragment 25 5 5

4 3045 9 Blade fragment iron Corroded fragment of an iron blade 31 11 2-5

5 3046 9 Shell? Shell Fragment 16 7 2

6 3058 11 Fired brick fragment ceramic Fragmentary brick with one vertical surface and

fragments of two horizontal surfaces preserved 123 64 90

7 3061 12 Bead stone Biconical carnelian bead with clear drill hole 10 7

8 3061 12 Fired brick fragment ceramic Fragmentary brick with parts of one vertical and two

horizontal surfaces preserved. 80 85 66

9 3061 12 Fired brick fragment ceramic Corner with parts of two vertical and one horizontal

surface preserved, Hard fired with vegetal temper 85 80 84

10 3061 12 Fired brick fragment ceramic Side of a fired architectural element with the remains

of some interior surface 135 65 80

11 3084 14 Figurine Fragment? ceramic Very irregular shape that bears a resemblance to a

horse 42 23 4

12 3090 15c Ring Stone stone River stone with hole in centre 82 60 27

13 3091 15c Pierced ceramic disc ceramic Fragmentary ceramic disc with 10mm hole pieced in

centre 23 48 16

14 3094 16a Bronze Fragment copper-base Small fragment 6 5 5

15 3097 16b Bronze Fragment copper-base Small spherical fragment 5 3 3

16 3124 18b Stone blade stone Grey brown chert blade with two edges and a long central ridge. Some signs of retouch 33 15 3

17 3154 22 Alabaster Bowl Fragment stone Small carved alabaster vessel with upright wall and

out-flared lip 25 35 6

4.5. TS Faunal and Botanical Samples Soil samples for flotation were not systematically collected from all contexts during excavations at Tol-e Spid. Rather, when deposits containing an abundance of carbonised material were encountered, particularly features such as hearths and those with evidence for conflagration (e.g. Locus 3009, Phase 3; Loci 3075, 3080, Phase 13; Locus 3103, Phase 17), a sample of approximately 12 litres of soil was collected and subjected to floatation. In some instances, quantities of burnt seeds were recovered, but these have not yet been subjected to systematic botanical analysis. Material from a number of these was selected for radiocarbon dating (see Chapter 4.6). In additional to these soil samples containing carbonised material, fragments of carbonised wood were present in most loci, and readily visible pieces were removed using a clean trowel and placed into a new zip-lock plastic bag at the point of excavation. Samples of varying size were recovered from Lapui (21 loci), Transitional and Banesh

(12 loci), Kaftari (12 loci), late 2nd millennium BC (4 loci), Achaemenid (6 loci), and Post Achaemenid (27 loci) contexts. At present 14 charcoal samples have been submitted for radiocarbon analysis (see Chapter 4.6) but the remainder are unstudied. It is hoped that future analysis of this extensive collection will provide important evidence for the use of various wood plants at the site. There were significant quantities of faunal bone material in a large number of loci, and in general it can be said that faunal bone was common in the excavated deposits, and was recovered from virtually all loci. Where such material was present, it was collected by hand at the point of excavation and put into a clear plastic bag. Once it reached the dig house, the bone was washed, cleaned and dried, before being re-bagged and stored. The results of the analysis of this bone material are presented in Chapter 5.

124

4.6. TS Radiocarbon Dates During the excavation of the Tol-e Spid sounding, a total of 137 samples of carbonised organic material were collected. Samples were not collected from every locus, but from some loci, more than one sample was taken. Of these 137 samples, 14 were selected for AMS radiocarbon dating. Ten of these samples were submitted to the Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory at the University of Waikato, New Zealand, and the other four were submitted to the ANSTO Laboratory at Lucas Heights, Australia. Samples were selected from well-stratified surfaces, or from collapse material lying on floor surfaces. Where possible, attempts were made to select short-lived samples such as burnt seeds. When no short-lived samples were available, carbonised wood fragments were used. In no case were these fragments larger than 1 cubic centimetre in size. The series of fourteen radiocarbon determinations will only ever provide a relatively broad impression of the absolute chronology of the 24 separate structural or occupation

phases that were revealed. With an awareness of this limitation, the samples were selected in order to broadly characterise the entire sequence of occupation, and this has unavoidably left a number of chronological issues outstanding. The provenience of these samples in relation to the vertical distribution of the separate phases is shown in Figure 4.154. Four samples were selected from Phases 24-20, one sample was selected from Phase 19, one sample was selected from Phase 18, four samples were selected from Phases 17 – 15, and four samples were selected from Phases 12-3. Phases 14 and 13 have not been dated by absolute means. The raw determinations were calibrated using OxCal 3.10, and the raw radiocarbon ages, error ranges and the calibrated 2σ probability distributions are shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4: Radiocarbon Determinations from Tol-e Spid with 2σ Calibrated Probability Distributions

Phase Locus Sample 14CAge Std. Dev. Cal. Age Probability 95.4% @ (2σ)

23 3164 OZI139 5070 BP +/- 60 3980 (95.4%) 3710BC 22 3153 Wk 13980 4981 BP +/- 51 3940 (21.0%) 3840BC, 3820 (74.4%) 3650BC 21 3150 OZI140 4910 BP +/- 40 3770 (95.4%) 3630BC 20 3142 Wk 13979 4821 BP +/- 47 3710 (94.1%) 3510BC, 3400 (1.3%) 3380BC 19 3132 Wk 13981 4857 BP +/- 48 3760 (70.3%) 3620BC, 3600 (25.1%) 3520BC 18 3117 Wk 13982 4515 BP +/- 46 3370 (92.7%) 3080BC, 3060 (2.7%) 3030BC 17 3112 OZI141 3360 BP +/- 50 1770 (95.4%) 1510BC 17 3108 Wk 13983 3643 BP +/- 43 2140 (95.4%) 1880BC 16 3096 OZI142 3390 BP +/- 40 1870 (2.0%) 1840BC, 1780 (89.2%) 1600BC, 1590 (4.2%) 1530 BC 15 3092 Wk 13984 3425 BP +/- 48 1890 (95.4%) 1600BC 12 3063 Wk 13985 2338 BP +/- 42 800 (4.3%) 700BC, 550 (80.8%) 350BC, 300 (10.3%) 200BC 10 3050 Wk 13986 2218 BP +/- 44 390 (95.4%) 170BC 5 3024 Wk 13987 2243 BP +/- 53 400 (95.4%) 170BC 3 3009 Wk 13988 2163 BP +/- 44 370 (93.3%) 90BC, 80 (2.1%) 50BC

The probability distributions for these determinations are displayed graphically in Figure 4.155. A cursory look at the probability distributions, suggests that there are two significant gaps in the sequence of occupation at Tol-e Spid (see Figure 4.156). Four radiocarbon samples from the Lapui period phases were analysed, one from Phase 23 (OZI139: L.3164 3980-3710 BC), one from Phase 22 (Wk13980: L.3153 3940-3650 BC), one from Phase 21 (OZI140: L.3150 3770-3630 BC), and one from Phase 20 (Wk13979: L.3142 3710-3380 BC). A χ² test carried out using the Combine function in OxCal 3.10 has shown that these dates are not statistically the same, and thus serve to emphasise that the Lapui phase occupation at Tol-e Spid may well be protracted and could span a period from as early as 3980 BC up until 3510 BC and possibly until 3380 BC. Although it has previously been supposed that the Lapui period dates to the early 4th millennium BC, this is the first time that radiocarbon determinations have been used to provide confirmation.

The radiocarbon determination from Phase 19 (Wk13981: L.3132 3760-3520 BC) shows that this transitional Lapui/Banesh phase dates to the mid-4th millennium BC. This is prior to the Middle Banesh occupation at Tal-e Malyan as is expected. The radiocarbon age of Wk13981 is actually c.40 radiocarbon years older than the determination from Phase 20 (WK13979). However, a χ² test carried out using the Combine function in OxCal 3.10 shows that these dates are statistically the same, which could indicate that Phase 20 and 19 are relatively close in time chronologically, or that some residual carbonised material from Phase 20 was re-deposited in Phase 19. A mid-4th millennium BC date for Phase 19 is particularly notable for what it implies for our understanding of contact between the lowland and highland areas of southwest Iran at this time (see below). The radiocarbon determination from Phase 18 (Wk13981: L.3132 3370-3030BC) indicates that the Middle Banesh/Susa III/Proto-Elamite occupation at Tol-e Spid dates to the late-4th millennium BC, making it

125

contemporaneous with Phase A9 at Tol-e Nurabad, and the Middle Banesh occupation in Operations ABC and TUV at Tal-e Malyan (Sumner 2003: Table 13). Interestingly, there is no overlap between the calibrated ranges of the determinations from Phase 20 or Phase 19 with that from Phase 18. While this could be interpreted as indicating that there was a brief gap in occupation between the transitional phase and the Banesh occupation proper, it is important to note that there is a substantial plateau on the radiocarbon calibration curve for the late 4th millennium BC, and the separation of the dates from Phases 19 and 20 may well be an artefact of calibration (see below). While there is evidence for Phases 20-18 having been affected by earthquake subsidence (Chapter 4.2.3), this does not appear to have affected Phase 17. This suggests that the earthquake or earthquakes occurred during or some time after Phase 18, but before Phase 17. However, this provides little indication of the length of time between the two phases. The likelihood that the site was abandoned for some time after Phase 18 is emphasised by the two radiocarbon determinations from Phase 17, although there is some inconsistency between the stratigraphic order of the samples, and their date ranges. The stratigraphically earlier determination from Phase 17 (OZI141: L.3112 1770-1510 BC) suggests that there was a substantial gap between Phases 17 and 18, of up to 1300 years spanning the 3rd and early 2nd millennia BC. While the stratigraphically later radiocarbon determination from Phase 17 (Wk13983: L.3108 2140BC-1880 BC) is also substantially younger than the determination from Phase 18, it is also older that the other determination from the same phase. A χ² test carried out using the Combine function in OxCal 3.10 shows that these dates are not statistically the same, but at this point, it is not precisely clear which of the two determinations is the more reliable18. It therefore cannot be precisely established when Tol-e Spid was resettled during the Kaftari period. However, it is likely that there was a protracted abandonment at the site after the Banesh period. The probability range for the radiocarbon determination from Phase 16 (OZI142: L.3096 1870-1530 BC) is somewhat older than the stratigraphically earlier determination from Phase 17 (OZI141), but also has a significant overlap with that sample, while it is significantly later than the stratigraphically later determination (Wk13983). The radiocarbon determination from Phase 15 (Wk13984: L.3092 1890-1600 BC), is also somewhat older than the stratigraphically earlier determination from Phase 17 (OZI141), but also has a significant overlap with that sample, while it is significantly later than the stratigraphically later determination (Wk13983). These four samples characterise three phases comprising three

metres of deposit, and on the basis of the radiocarbon determinations, it is not precisely clear at present whether these phases actually date to different parts of the Kaftari period, spanning c.2140-1530 BC, or whether they all generally date to the late and post-Kaftari period, spanning c.1770-1510 BC (see below). There is very little information about what takes place at the end of the Kaftari period in the Kur River Basin, and it is primarily through radiocarbon determinations that it has been proposed that the phase comes to an end c.1600 BC (Carter, E. 1984: 172-173; Sumner 1988a: 316). What transpires immediately after Phase 15 at Tol-e Spid is also somewhat of a mystery. The ceramic material present in the deposits of Phases 14 and 13 is mixed, and in relative terms ranges in date from the 5th to the late 2nd millennia BC, with the latest material being potentially Middle Elamite. It is unfortunate that the Phase 14 and 13 deposits have not been dated by absolute means, but the mixed nature of the ceramic material indicates that any carbonised sample might itself be residual. At this point, it is worth mentioning the radiocarbon determination from Phase 12 (Wk13985: L.3063 800-200BC), which is significantly later than the date from Phase 15 (1890-1600 BC), and seems to indicate that there was a second major period of abandonment at Tol-e Spid from the mid-2nd until the mid-1st millennium BC. The 1.5 metres of deposit that comprise Phases 14 and 13 must however date to sometime during this intervening period, and this will be discussed below (see Chapter 4.7). The radiocarbon determination from Phase 12 (Wk13985: L.3063 800-200BC) has a particularly long span, but this is partially the result of its proximity to the 1st millennium BC plateau in the calibration curve. By far the largest proportion of the probability range falls between 550-350 BC, suggesting that Phase 12 dates to the Achaemenid period. The radiocarbon determinations from Phase 10 (Wk13986: L.3050 390-170 BC) and Phase 5 (Wk13987: L.3024 400-170 BC) are later and are virtually identical. They suggest that both phases should be dated to the Achaemenid or Post-Achaemenid periods. In contrast, the determination from Phase 3 (Wk13988: L.3009 370-50 BC) appears to almost certainly date to the Post-Achaemenid period. Taken together, Phases 12 to 3 represent up to ten separate structural phases that date between c.550 and 50 BC, indicating that rebuilding or remodelling episodes were taking place at the site with considerable regularity during the later 1st millennium BC. Three metres of deposit that comprise these 10 phases have a chronological span that is longer than any other site with 1st millennium BC occupation thus far excavated in Fars, including the Tall-i Takht at Pasargadae.

126

4.7. Summary of Excavations at Tol-e Spid The range of cultural material remains recovered from the Tol-e Spid sounding has been presented in detail in the preceding sections, following the reconstructed phasing of the excavated deposits. A summary of the architectural sequence of the excavated deposits, their chronology, and their material culture, in particular the ceramic material will now be presented. This will focus on data and interpretations that are of specific relevance to our understanding of the occupation of Tol-e Spid. 4.7.1. Occupational Phases at Tol-e Spid The stratified cultural remains exposed in the sounding at Tol-e Spid are consistently of a high quality. Perhaps the only beneficial by-product of the damage that has been done to the site in recent decades is that a standing section of archaeological deposit that would typically be situated closer to the centre of the mound has been exposed. The placement of the sounding on the face of this section has resulted in the exposure of a series of very clearly defined occupation phases that span from c.4000 to 50 BC (see Figure 4.11). These occupation phases are typically characterised by well preserved architecture, and generally contain discrete assemblages of cultural material without substantial mixing of residual remains. However, the stratigraphy revealed in the sounding is particularly varied, and suggest that there were several changes in the nature of the occupation at the site, as it has been revealed. Despite the quality of the archaeological deposits, this was no more than a small sounding, and the results being presented here should be considered as preliminary. It will only be possible to provide a more substantial contextualisation of the results when expanded excavations are carried out at the site. At present, it is not possible to establish precisely when Tol-e Spid was first occupied, as the excavation of the sounding was halted before virgin soil was reached due to time constraints. Excavations were halted approximately 50 cm above the level of the surrounding plain. However, it is not at all clear exactly how much depth deposit remains to be investigated, as the presence of residual Neolithic and Bakun material in later occupation phases indicates that it is entirely possible that there are earlier occupation deposits than those that have been revealed in Phase 24. The five earliest phases of occupation that have thus far been excavated at Tol-e Spid (Phases 24 – 20) are each characterised by substantial walls of mudbrick and stone. A standard mudbrick size does not appear to have been used in the walls preserved in Phases 23 and 20, although it is difficult to be definitive on the basis of such a limited exposure. The structures built in each successive phase appear to have been constructed on a different alignment, and this potentially indicates that each structural phase represents a distinct period of occupation of an unknown duration, after which the buildings were abandoned or destroyed, before new structures were built. At this stage, there is no definitive evidence to suggest that the site was

abandoned for a protracted time between each of these phases, as the ceramic assemblages associated with these phases are relatively consistent. The radiocarbon samples from Phase 23 (3980-3710 BC), Phase 22 (3940-3650 BC), Phase 21 (3770-3630 BC), and Phase 20 (3710-3380 BC) have a degree of overlap in their probability distributions, but as a group are statistically different, and this suggests that the Phase 24-20 structural remains represents a protracted sequence of occupation, which could date from as early as 3980 BC up until 3510 BC and possibly until 3380 BC. It should however, be pointed out that the lowest phase that has thus far been excavated at Tol-e Spid is also characterised by Lapui ceramic material, but it has not yet been dated with radiocarbon dates. When this factor is combined with the potential for there being additional Lapui phases below Phase 24, it can be hypothesised that Lapui style ceramics may first have begun to be used at some point in the late 5th millennium BC. The structural remains in Phases 19 and 18 are poorly preserved river-stone walls, which appear to have been damaged as a result of subsequent occupation, and this makes it difficult to make clear suggestions about their original form and use. The river-stone wall in Phase 19 in particular shows signs of having been disturbed by both the subsequent occupation and the earthquake splits that also substantially disturbed the deposits of Phases 20 and 18. However, the presence of shattered ceramic vessels in Phase 19 and evidence for surfaces within the deposits suggests that there is some support for there being primary occupation in this phase subsequent to the disturbance of the wall. There are a number of indications that some of this ceramic material is transitional between the Lapui style ceramics of Phase 24-20 and the Banesh style material from Phase 18. The radiocarbon date from Phase 19 is very similar to that from Phase 20, suggesting that the two phases were relatively close to each other in time. The structure in Phase 18 is even less well preserved than that in Phase 19, and the deposits are particularly difficult to interpret. The presence of examples of characteristic Middle Banesh/Susa III/Proto-Elamite ceramic forms, including a number of vessels fragmented in situ suggests that there was considerable occupation related to this phase, which the radiocarbon determination indicates dates to the late-4th millennium BC (3370-3030BC). This suggests that there might have been a gap in the occupation at the site between Phase 19 and Phase 18, but on the basis of the stratigraphy it is not clear how long this gap might have been. The evidence for the subsidence that affected Phases 20-18 is very clearly delimited in the section (Figure 4.10), and appears to confirm that the earthquake or earthquakes occurred during or some time after Phase 18 and certainly before the site was reoccupied during Phase 17. It is not yet possible to establish whether this subsidence destroyed the Phase 18 occupation at the site, and caused its abandonment. It is however, notable that the split itself

127

appears to have been filled with very fine clay, which potentially washed into the crack soon after the earthquake. There is a change in the nature of the occupation in Phase 17, and the 2 m of occupation deposits are clearly different to those of the earlier phases. There are no substantial structural remains, and the deposits appear to be ephemeral occupation surfaces and ash lenses interleaved with compacted clay, which occasionally has associated features (e.g. fire installation - Locus 3099). All of these deposits are characterised by distinctively decorated Kaftari style ceramics. Although interpretation is difficult on the basis of a small sounding, it is possible that these deposits might be exterior courtyard surfaces built up gradually over time. The radiocarbon dates from Phase 17 (1770-1510 BC and 2140BC-1880 BC) are both significantly later than that from Phase 18, suggesting that there was potentially a protracted abandonment of this part of the site during the 3rd millennium BC, from 900 up to 1300 years in length. This correlates with the evidence from Tal-e Malyan that suggests that there was a reduction in the settled area of that site and in the Kur River Basin generally after the Banesh period (Sumner 2003: 57; Miller and Sumner 2004). The inconsistency between these two radiocarbon dates means that it is not simple to establish precisely when the site was resettled during the Kaftari period, but the absence of diagnostic ceramics that might indicate that Tol-e Spid was occupied during the Late Banesh or Early Kaftari periods (e.g. Sumner 2003: 54-55; Miller and Sumner 2004) reiterate that the site was abandoned during these periods. The depth of the deposits attributed to the four sub-phases of Phase 17 is substantial. However, in the absence of a detailed micro-morphological analysis focussing on the nature of the surfaces, it can only be assumed that they accumulated over a protracted period. The uppermost surfaces of the final Phase 17 sub-phase were clearly used as an occupation surface, as there was clear evidence for the construction, use and reuse of a hearth. Immediately above this evidence for activity in this part of the site, there was a change in the nature of the deposits. As can be seen in the section (Figure 4.10), the substantial river-stone wall in Phase 16 was built directly above the latest Phase 17 surfaces. The preserved components of the Phase 16 wall show that it was very substantial, being constructed of specifically selected large river stones with smaller stones placed in the interstices to reinforce the construction. There is only limited evidence for the use of this structure, as the wall was heavily disturbed. The substantial build up of deposits over the disturbed section of the wall suggests that there may subsequently have been a protracted abandonment, or a deliberate attempt to level this part of the site. While the radiocarbon determination from Phase 16 (1870-1530 BC) is similar to the stratigraphically earlier date from Phase 17, a number of questions about the relative chronological correlations between these phases and the material from Tal-e Malyan remain unanswered.

Overlying the Phase 16 fill, Phase 15 displays the poorly preserved remains of a mudbrick structure with a river-stone foundation that lies on a new alignment. The radiocarbon determination from these deposits (1890-1600 BC) indicates that Phase 15 dates to the later part of the Kaftari phase, but it is not possible to assess whether the evidence for the construction of the Phase 15 structure on a new alignment indicates that the Phase 16 structure was intentionally levelled and replaced, or that the site was abandoned for some time. The presence of ephemeral deposits overlying this Phase 15 wall suggests that after the use of this structure, there may again have been a period when surfaces were able to build up gradually over time. The inconsistency between the radiocarbon dates from Phase 17 means that it is not yet possible to establish whether Phases 17, 16 and 15 represent different phases of the Kaftari period or whether they all actually date to the later and post-Kaftari period. Similarly, these chronological differences may well have significance for changes in architectural styles, and in the nature of occupation at the site, which will only be revealed through further excavation. There is little known about what transpires at the end of the Kaftari period in the Kur River Basin, and there is limited stratigraphic evidence to characterise the transition to the Qaleh period (Carter, E. 1984: 172-173; Sumner 1988a: 316). As Carter has noted, “the gaps in both the archaeological and historical record make the period between the end of the Sukkalmah Dynasty and the rise of the Middle Elamite Kings of the 13th and 12th centuries poorly known” (Carter, E. 1986: 156). At Susa, there is evidence for continuity throughout the 2nd millennium BC. At Tal-e Malyan, however, there is only limited evidence for the period between the end of the Kaftari and the next major known construction phase revealed in Operation EDD: the Middle Elamite building, dating c.1350-1100 BC (Carter, E. 1984: 173; Sumner 1988a: 316). The evidence that does exist for this period is primarily in the form of ephemeral architectural and fill layers that are characterised by Qaleh wares, but these have not yet been dated using radiocarbon determinations (see Sumner 1988a: 316). What transpires immediately after Phase 15 at Tol-e Spid is also somewhat of a mystery. The dense deposit that marks Phase 14 is unlike any of the other phases at Tol-e Spid. A thick and fairly consistent layer of intentional clay and degraded mudbrick fill, it contains no discernable features and appears to have been the product of a deliberate filling and/or levelling operation of an as yet unknown purpose. The deposit is very consistent, and was potentially deposited as part of one archaeological event, rather than over a protracted period. The ceramic material is mixed, and presents material ranging in date from the 5th to the late 2nd millennium BC, with the latest material being potentially Middle Elamite. Phase 13 is primarily comprised of fill layers of river pebbles in chalky clay, which are cut by a sequence of pits and might potentially be related to the use of the levelled area created by the Phase 14 fill. Similar to the underlying fill, the Phase 13 deposits presents mixed

128

ceramic material, ranging in date from the 5th to the late 2nd millennium BC. The radiocarbon determinations from Phases 15 and 12 seem to indicate that there may have been a second major period of abandonment at Tol-e Spid from the mid-2nd until the mid-1st millennium BC. The 1.5 metres of deposits that comprise Phases 14 and 13 must date to this intervening period. The discovery of the brick bearing an inscription of Shilhak Inshushinak at Tol-e Spid by Herzfeld combined with the discovery of the fired brick fragments in Phases 12 and 11 of the recent sounding suggest that there was a fired brick structure at the site. Although it is highly speculative, if the fill observed in Phase 14 was deposited over a short period, it is possible that it represents the creation of a level platform upon which a large fired brick structure might have been constructed. In this case, the Phase 13 deposits might represent contemporaneous use of this part of the site. While this is an enticing possibility, only further excavations will reveal the precise purpose of the Phase 14 and 13 deposits. There is no substantial deposition between Phase 13 and the mudbrick structure of Phase 12, which is built directly above. Whereas the Phase 13 deposits are marked by a mix of material with the latest material dating to the 2nd millennium BC, Phase 12 presents diagnostic Achaemenid ceramics that date to the mid-1st millennium BC, suggesting that there has been a significant change in the cultural assemblage between the phases. Due to the problems with interpreting Phase 14 and 13, it is not possible to establish whether there was a gap in occupation at the site between Phases 13 and 12. However, the placement of the Phase 12 wall directly on top of a Phase 13 pit suggests that the builders were not aware of the pit’s presence, and implies some discontinuity between the phases. What appears most likely is that the site was abandoned some time before the mid-1st millennium BC, and the Phase 12 structures represent a major re-occupation. After its initial construction, the Phase 12 wall appears to have slumped into the pit, and then to have been rebuilt once before being abandoned. The deposits above the remains of the Phase 12 wall do not appear to have been levelled, as they are directly overlain by the pebble pavement of Phase 11, which is not level, but follows the sloping ground surface created by the destroyed wall. These pebbles can only have been placed here deliberately, but the precise purpose of this is not known. The deposits overlying the pavement were densely compacted and showed signs of burning, which was presumably an aspect of the use of this part of the site at this time. The sequence of structures that comprise Phases 10-8 display evidence for rebuilding, and although there is a stratigraphic break, the structures of Phases 10 and 8 follow the same alignment. This suggests that there was a considerable amount of remodelling of the structures at the site taking place without intervening periods of abandonment. Similarly, Phases 7-3 display evidence of continuity, with wall stubs being reused, added to and modified in each subsequent phase. The re-use of older

walls suggests that there also were no protracted periods of abandonment between any of these phases. Phases 2 and 1 are comprised of hard packed clay and are difficult to interpret. Taken together, Phases 12 to 3 represent up to ten separate structural phases that date between c.550 and 50 BC, indicating that rebuilding or remodelling episodes were taking place at the site with considerable regularity during the later 1st millennium BC. The fact that a number of these phases are marked by conflagrations, suggests that this region may well have been subjected to conflicting political forces during this period. It is notable that the radiocarbon determinations from the three metres of deposit that comprise Phases 12 to 3 (c.550 to 50 BC) have a chronological span that is longer than any other site with 1st millennium BC occupation thus far excavated in Fars, including the Tall-i Takht at Pasargadae. On this basis, further excavations of the upper levels at Tol-e Spid are likely to provide completely new insight into the socio-economic and cultural processes that were in operation in the Mamasani region in the later 1st millennium BC. 4.7.2. Ceramic Assemblages at Tol-e Spid On the basis of the excavated remains thus far exposed at Tol-e Spid, the site was certainly occupied from the beginning of the 4th millennium BC. As the sounding has not reached virgin soil, it is not yet possible to determine when the site was first settled. However, if the Archaic and Bakun period ceramic fragments that appear as residual material are anything to go by, then it is likely that the site was occupied during the 5th, and possibly also during the 6th millennium BC. Thus far, none of the early Neolithic ceramics found in the earliest phases at Tol-e Nurabad have yet been found, but this does not rule out the possibility that Tol-e Spid could have been occupied in the 7th millennium BC. Early to Mid- 4th Millennium BC Lapui Ceramics (Phases 24-20) The five earliest occupational phases that have thus far been excavated at Tol-e Spid, Phases 24-20, are all characterised by a similar ceramic assemblage, dominated by a burnished grit-tempered ware, which typically appears in bowl and beaker forms with incurving or out-flaring lips, and jars with out-flared rims or hole-mouths. This ware is akin to Bakun AV red ware (Langsdorff and McCown 1942: 32-33), which was renamed Lapui ware by Sumner (Sumner 1988b; Sumner 1992: 284-285). A number of the vessel forms typical of the Lapui assemblage have very good parallels with Late Susiana red wares that are found in Susa Period I deposits and on the surface of contemporaneous sites in Khuzistan19. The burnished grit-tempered ware and the vessel forms from Tol-e Spid Phases 24-20 closely resemble Sumner’s Lapui Common Ware (Sumner 1972: 41-42; Sumner 1988b: 26-27), however, there is also some resemblance to the forms and the presence of frequent lime inclusions that are characteristic of Sumner’s Lapui Fine Ware. It is notable that there appears to be a greater variety of fabric

129

colours and finish details at Tol-e Spid than has been noted previously. It has been suggested that the Lapui period dates to the early 4th millennium BC, but the excavations at Tol-e Spid have provided the most reliable confirmation of this by producing absolute dates for the first well-stratified red ware ceramic assemblages to have been excavated in Fars. Smaller quantities of two fine wares also appear in the Phase 24-20 deposits. Fragments of an orange-red ware with a finely polish/burnished surface and no visible inclusions appear from Phase 24 onward, while fragments of a fine buff ware with no visible inclusions and a smooth red-slip on the interior and exterior begin appearing in Phase 21. The vessel forms that appear in both wares are similar to those seen in the burnished grit-tempered ware, and include bowl and beaker forms with incurving or out-flaring lips, and jars with out-flared rims or hole-mouths. Although they do not have frequent lime inclusions, the fine orange-red ware and the fine buff ware with red slip resemble Sumner’s Lapui Fine Ware (Sumner 1972: 41-42; Sumner 1988b: 26-27). It is however, possible that these two fabrics, which were grouped together by Sumner, should actually be separated into two distinct ware groups. The differences between the high calcium and low calcium clays that must have been used to produce the different fabric colours, and the difference in the processes required to produce the red-slipped finish as opposed to an un-slipped polished finish indicate that these two wares are probably the product of two distinct manufacturing processes (also see Blackman 1989: 104-105). The evidence that they do not initially appear at the same time in the Tol-e Spid sounding reinforces this further. The two fragments of a fine grit-tempered orange ware with bi-chrome purple and red painted decoration from Phase 23 are distinct from other contemporary painted traditions known in Fars, and serve to emphasise that there is much to be learned about the early 4th millennium BC in this region. In Phases 24-20, there are also small quantities of what appear to be residual material. These include examples of black- or brown-on-buff painted sherds reminiscent of the Middle and Late Susiana wares in Khuzestan, and the material from Tall-i Gap, and Tall-i Bakun A and B in the Kur River Basin, and the buff ware recovered from Phases A19-A13 at Tol-e Nurabad. In addition to these painted pieces, fragments of fine ‘sandy’ unpainted buff and orange/buff wares were also present. In most cases, these buff ware fragments were small, and while it is likely that they are residual, they do form a discernable proportion of the material in each phase. Fragments of a coarse vegetal-tempered ware were also present, which bears similarities to the Archaic/Neolithic sherds found in the lower phases at Tol-e Nurabad. As with the black-on-buff painted sherds, these vegetal-tempered ceramics form a discernable proportion of the material in some phases, but are most likely residual. In many respects, Phases 24 to 20 at Tol-e Spid display a gradual development in the ceramic assemblage. Each phase is dominated by the burnished and slipped grit-tempered ware, and from Phase 21 onwards, there is first

the appearance and then a gradual increase in the quantity of fine buff ware sherds with a red slip. The composition of the Phase 19 ceramic assemblage suggests that it marks both continuity and the first hints of a transition in the occupational history of Tol-e Spid (see Chapter 6.1.4). Mid to late 4th Millennium BC Lapui/Banesh Transitional Ceramics (Ph. 19) In Phase 19, there is a marked increase in the number of fine red-slipped fragments in the assemblage, although most of these came from one vessel that was shattered in situ. A new variant of this ware also appears, which has sparse limestone grit temper, but which still resembles the description of Lapui Fine Ware. The increase of fine red-slipped ware was not accompanied by a lessening of the frequency of the burnished grit-tempered ware that dominated Phases 24-20. However, there are two distinctive additions to the assemblage that suggest that Phase 19 may in fact be a transitional phase. Perhaps the more unusual are the fragments of a jar crafted in a form that is typical of the Lapui jars from the Kur River Basin, but which is decorated with Dark Purple or Maroon painted bands, similar to bands and the pigment colour used on Banesh period vessels at Tal-e Malyan (TS 1903). The presence of a jar form that appears to be a hybrid between so-called Lapui and Banesh forms provides a provocative indication of what might be revealed about the evolution of ceramic styles during the 4th millennium BC from further excavations at Tol-e Spid. The other addition is the bevelled-rim bowl, which is represented by one vegetal-tempered rim fragment (TS 1933). The presence of a fragment of a bevelled-rim bowl in a phase that dates to the mid-4th millennium BC and otherwise displays continuity with the preceding phases is significant. At present there is little information available regarding the transition from the cultural assemblages of early – mid 4th to those of the mid-late 4th millennium BC in Fars province, but in Khuzistan, we know this period witnessed a cultural break, characterised by the appearance of an ostensibly Mesopotamian ceramic assemblage, comprised of distinctive vessel shapes that include the bevelled-rim bowl (Johnson 1973; Voigt and Dyson 1992: I.132-133; Wright 1998). In the Kur River Basin, this period is believed to witness a transition from the Lapui to the Early Banesh cultural assemblages, and according to Alden, the Initial Banesh phase is marked by the appearance of bevelled-rim bowls and the absence of low-sided trays in an otherwise local assemblage (Alden 2003a: 196). Although one example of a bevelled-rim bowl was found in Phase 19, there were no fragments of low-sided trays, and in many respects, it is plausible that Phase 19 at Tol-e Spid is contemporaneous with the Terminal Lapui/Initial Banesh phase in the Kur River Basin. While this suggests that similar processes were operating in Mamasani and the Kur River Basin, it does not explain those processes (see Chapter 6.1.4).

130

Late 4th Millennium BC Banesh Ceramics (Phase 18) While the evidence for Phase 19 being interpreted as a transitional phase might be slight, there is no doubt that there are new influences evident in the Phase 18 ceramic assemblage. A significant proportion of the Phase 18 assemblage is made up of coarse vegetal-, and vegetal and grit-tempered wares, which are distinct from the small numbers of residual vegetal-tempered fragments in Phases 24-20. The relative abruptness of the appearance of these new wares at Tol-e Spid and the proportion of the assemblage that they comprise suggest that they were introduced in Phase 18. Vessel forms made from these wares include the bevelled-rim bowl and the low-sided tray, which are initially derived from Mesopotamian Uruk period forms, and have parallels in both the Susa II and Susa III assemblages. No examples of storage jars with lug handles and shoulder incision or of droop spouts, which are characteristic of the Susa II phases, have yet been found at Tol-e Spid20. However, the presence of pinched rim bowls and chaff-tempered goblets in particular, suggests that Phase 18 is contemporaneous with the Susa III/Middle Banesh/Proto-Elamite phase, which is known from a relatively small number of excavations, and two major surface surveys in the Kur River Basin21. This relative association is confirmed by the radiocarbon dates discussed above. Although the presence of the vegetal-tempered wares at Tol-e Spid suggests that there was a marked change in the composition of the assemblage in Phase 18, there are also specific indications of continuity and the production of new vessel forms in what can be considered as local fabrics. The method of manufacturing burnished and slipped grit-tempered wares that dominated the assemblages of Phases 24-19 undergoes some alteration in Phase 18. While they are somewhat similar in appearance, the grit-tempered wares that appear in Phase 18 generally show signs of having been wheel turned, and few examples show any burnishing. This grit-tempered ware is the predominant ware type, but it can be difficult to differentiate from the burnished grit-tempered ware from Phases 24-19, corresponding with Alden’s observations about the difficulty in distinguishing ‘Rough Slipped Ware’ from Lapui Common Ware and Banesh Grit-Tempered Ware at Tal-e Kureh (Alden 2003a: 196). Although there are obvious changes to the composition of the ceramic assemblage, this similarity in the appearance of grit-tempered wares hints that there was an element of continuity in ceramic production procedures between the Lapui and the Banesh period. Significant numbers of residual fine buff ware and smaller numbers of fine orange and Archaic vegetal-tempered ware fragments continue to appear, in Phase 18, but perhaps the most surprising feature of the assemblage is the dramatic increase in the number of fragments red-slipped buff ware, which becomes almost as ubiquitous as the grit-tempered ware. In Phase 19, the fine orange and fine buff with red-slipped wares were used for typical Lapui vessel forms, whereas in Phase 18, the forms made in red-slipped ware become far more diverse. It is used to

a) produce forms that are derivative of those seen in previous phases, b) produce forms that are derivative of those produced in other regions, where they are made from different fabrics, and c) produce a small number of types that are otherwise unknown. This suggests that rather than being intrusive and remaining so, some of the vessel forms that appear to have been introduced in the vegetal- and vegetal and grit wares were also being made locally from a red-slipped ware. While this is paralleled at Tol-e Nurabad (Phases A9-A6), it is distinct from the situation that has been observed at sites in the Kur River Basin (see Chapter 6.1.4). Late 3rd and early mid-2nd Millennium BC Kaftari Ceramics (Phases 17-15) Phases 17, 16 and 15 present another notable shift in the composition of the ceramic assemblage at Tol-e Spid, and in many ways this shift is different to the change that was evident in Phase 18. Rather than any indications or implications of continuity between Phase 18 and 17, there is a marked change in the types of ceramic fabrics that appear in Phase 17, and this is coupled with the introduction of a distinctive style of painted decoration. This shift coincides with a break in the nature of deposition at the site, and a protracted gap in the radiocarbon chronology. Phases 17, 16 and 15 are marked by the appearance of distinctive types of vegetal and grit-tempered wares, which appear in new forms and often have brown painted bands and cross-hatched registers on the exterior. There were also a small number of coarse grit-tempered grey ware fragments. Red-slipped ware also continues to appear, but the vessel forms are slightly different to those that appeared in Phase 18 and earlier. The new vegetal and grit-tempered, grey and red-slipped wares continue to appear in Phases 16 and 15, and all have parallels with the so-called Kaftari assemblage, best known from sites in the Kur River Basin22. There has only been limited publication of well stratified Kaftari material, and at present there are only a small number of published collections of material that are reliable enough to be usable for comparative purposes (see Petrie et al. 2005)23. On the basis of the ceramic material recovered from the Tol-e Spid sounding, there does not appear to be any evidence for a Late Banesh period occupation at the site, and there is also none of the vessel and decorative forms considered as Early Kaftari. Locus 3113, the lowest deposit attributed to Phase 17, only contains residual Banesh, Lapui or Bakun style ceramics, and no distinctive Kaftari types. While this may well indicate that Locus 3113 dates to a period of abandonment subsequent to the Phase 18 occupation deposits, it should not be given too much significance, as Locus 3112, which immediately overlies and represents a continuation of 3113, contains unequivocally diagnostic Kaftari fragments (e.g. TS 1803, 1805). While this is not definitive, the lack of any material that could be considered Late Banesh or Early Kaftari emphasises that there is no direct continuity in the occupation of the site between the Middle Banesh Phase 18 and Kaftari Phase

131

17. This is confirmed by the difference between the radiocarbon determinations from the two phases (see Chapter 4.6). The presence of diagnostic Kaftari fragments in the earliest deposits of Phase 17 indicates that they are contemporaneous or later than the “fully articulated Kaftari style” (2200-1900 BC; Miller and Sumner 2004: 17; Sumner 2003: 54-55). In total, Phases 17-15 comprise three metres of deposit, which are likely to represent many centuries of occupation. Although it is too early to say with any definite clarity, the composition of the ceramic assemblages and the absolute radiocarbon dates indicate that Phases 17 and 16 may date to the Mid-Late Kaftari period, while Phase 15 might well belong to the Late or even post Kaftari period. The types of vessels present in the Phase 17-15 assemblages include bowl forms with incurving, upright, everted or out-flaring rims that could either be triangular, flattened or rounded, along with typical jars with upright necks, out-flared rims and simple, flattened, flanged, club, beaked or down turned lips. There is far greater variety in the vessel forms in Phases 17-15 than previously seen in Phases 24-18, and there does appear to be some development in the general vessel morphology particularly with the addition of a number of specific rim forms from Phase 17 to Phase 15. There also appears to be a shift in the nature of the decorative motifs that appear. The decorated fragments from Phases 17 and 16 display relatively standard Kaftari motifs and patterns, typically brown bands and occasionally registers of hatches or vertical lines. While these motifs and patterns also appear in Phase 15, there are also a number of distinctive motifs that appear in this later phase that do not have ready parallels in the known Kaftari assemblage from the Kur River Basin – such as diagonal lines, chevrons, dot and circles, and trees (e.g. TS 1025, 1072, 1242, 1245, 1248). Although they first appeared in Phase 17 (TS 1306, 1467), there are also examples of jars with brown painted dashes around the lip in Phase 15 (TS 938, 939), and these are best paralleled in the Qaleh ware assemblages of the late 2nd millennium BC (see Carter, E. 1996: Figs. 26-27, 40, Plate 11). Unfortunately the radiocarbon determinations do not allow for a simple separation of Phase 17, 16 and 15 into Early, Middle and Late phases of the Kaftari period. Rather there is a stratigraphic inconsistency with the dates, which indicates that one of the dates from Phase 17 is unreliable. While the deposits at Tol-e Spid may potentially span the period from 2140-1600 BC, they might also be limited to between 1890-1510 BC. The latter span correlates well with the absolute chronology of Tol-e Nurabad Phases A5-A2, although the best parallels for the A5-A2 ceramics is with Phase 16 and 15 materials from Tol-e Spid. If the later date range is in fact correct, then it suggests that both sites were abandoned for several centuries while Tal-e Malyan was a major urban centre. A clearer idea of the relative and absolute positioning of these phases will only come with further excavation.

Late 2nd and early 1st Millennium BC Elamite and Fars Painted Ware Ceramics (Phases 14-13) It has been pointed out that the deposits of Phase 14 at Tol-e Spid are unlike any of the other phases at the site, and that this can also be said for the composition of the ceramic assemblage. Phase 14 contains a mixture of material from all of the known phases of occupation at the site, and from a number that have not otherwise been attested stratigraphically, including Archaic, Bakun, Lapui, Banesh and Kaftari ware types. Interestingly, Phase 14 presents an unusual collection of Bakun material, which is more diverse than the examples recovered from earlier phases. The latest material recovered from Phase 14 appears to have good parallels with Middle Elamite forms from Susa, but there are only two such fragments (TS 785, 1132)24, and a number of goblet bases that resemble both Kaftari and Middle Elamite forms. The presence of Middle Elamite forms is paralleled in the Trench B Phases B9 to B8 at Tol-e Nurabad. In the absence of any absolute dates, and the likelihood that this large fill layer was deposited at one time, the Middle Elamite ceramic fragments can be used as a de facto terminus ante quem, to suggest that the intentional filling episode occurred either during or soon after the Middle Elamite period in the late 2nd millennium BC. As mentioned above, it is tempting to hypothesise that there is a relationship between this filling episode and the construction of a temple at Tol-e Spid during the reign of Shilhak-Inshushinak, as attested by the discovery of the inscribed brick bearing a dedicatory inscription. However, at present, the two ceramic fragments are the only pieces of circumstantial evidence that provide any indication that these two operations might be in any way contemporary. In many respects, the material recovered from the Phase 13 deposits is similar to that recovered from Phase 14, as there is a mixture of material from all of the known phases of occupation at the site, including Bakun, Lapui, Banesh, Kaftari, Qaleh, Middle Elamite and possible Neo-Elamite forms. The Phase 13 deposits are comprised of layers of pebble fill and chalky clay, and a number of pit features that cut into the Phase 14 fill. While it is stratigraphically possible that Phase 13 relates to the use of the top of the Phase 14 fill, the ceramic material does not confirm that these are primary occupation deposits, nor does it act as a clear terminus ante quem for Phase 14. The resolution of the significance of the Phase 14 filling episode will be one of the primary aims of any expanded excavations at Tol-e Spid. Mid-Late 1st Millennium BC Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid Ceramics (Phases 12-1) Phase 12 marks the last major change in the composition of the Tol-e Spid ceramic assemblages. From Phase 12 on, painted wares only appear in the assemblage as residual material, and the ceramics are typically medium to coarse grit-tempered wares, although there are examples of red-slipped buff ware and fine vegetal and grit wares. There are also small numbers of residual fine

132

red-slipped, vegetal- and vegetal and grit-tempered ware fragments reminiscent of the Lapui, Banesh, Kaftari, Middle Elamite and potentially even Neo-Elamite wares. Due to the nature of the stratigraphy exposed in the sounding, it is difficult to establish whether there is a clear break in the occupation between Phases 13 and 12. This is primarily due to the fact that Phases 14 and 13 are themselves difficult to interpret, as neither can be easily attributed to a specific period. However, as pointed out above, the walls constructed in Phase 12 appear to have been built with no awareness of the underlying pits of Phase 13, implying some form of discontinuity. What further sets Phase 12 apart from the earlier phases is the appearance of the first unequivocal examples of Achaemenid vessel forms (e.g. TS 439). Phases 12-3 at Tol-e Spid comprise in excess of three metres of deposit, which are marked by the appearance of a generally consistent ceramic assemblage that has parallels with the Late Plain Ware of the Kur River Basin (after Sumner 1986a). The radiocarbon determination from Phase 12 (800-200BC) has a particularly long span, but this is partially the result of its proximity to the 1st millennium BC plateau in the calibration curve. The largest proportion of the probability range falls between 550-350 BC, suggesting that Phase 12 dates to the Achaemenid period, and may well date towards the beginning of the appearance of Late Plain Ware. The radiocarbon determinations from Phase 10 (390-170 BC) and Phase 5 (400-170 BC) are virtually identical, and suggest that these phases should be dated to the Achaemenid or Post-Achaemenid periods. In contrast, the determination from Phase 3 (370-50 BC) appears to almost certainly date to the Post-Achaemenid period. With the exception of a small number of previously unattested vessel forms (e.g. TS 98-101/141-142), there appears to be a general continuity of vessel fabrics and forms from Phases 12 to 3. This is particularly notable in a number of the complete vessels that appear in the later phases (e.g. TS 134-137, 56-70/87-92 from Phases 4 and 3 respectively), but which show clear parallels to Achaemenid/Late Plain Ware forms from Persepolis. The vessel forms in Phases 12 and 11 in particular have good Achaemenid or Late Achaemenid parallels (e.g. TS 276, 387, 439), whereas from Phase 9 onwards, a greater number of fragments have good parallels with Late and Post-Achaemenid forms (e.g. TS 327). On the basis of the ceramic material, it is therefore likely that Tol-e Spid was occupied for a protracted period during both the Achaemenid and the post-Achaemenid periods. Phases 2 and 1 produced very limited quantities of ceramic material that is difficult to date with any precision, and were predominantly composed of

ambiguous compacted clay deposits and no visible structural remains. The ceramics of these phases have not been discussed in detail, and the presence of a recent mudbrick village on the top of the mound, and the amount of disturbance that has been wrought at the site have meant that it may not be possible to ascertain when precisely these phases date. 4.7.3. Conclusions There should be little doubt that the stratigraphic sequence that has thus far been revealed at Tol-e Spid is of immense significance for our understanding of the archaeology of both Mamasani, and also that of southwest Iran as a whole. It is notable that the periods of occupation represented at the site are complimentary to those evident at Tol-e Nurabad, as while the sequence at Tol-e Nurabad begins much earlier, the sequence at Tol-e Spid provides a great deal of detail about a number of periods that are not well represented at Tol-e Nurabad. This is particularly the case for the deposits dating to the early 4th millennium BC, which are the first such sequence of deposits excavated in Fars. Additionally, the sequence of Kaftari period phases is the most extensive sequence to have been identified outside of the Kur River Basin. Furthermore, the sequence of Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid deposits that top the mound are also significant for many reasons. These phases appear to include the earliest dated Achaemenid period occupation yet attested in Fars, and the sequence as a whole represents possibly the best and most protracted sequence of occupation dating to the later 1st millennium BC that has yet been excavated in Fars. It is also the first sequence that provides an impression on the nature of village occupation in this period, rather than the skewed impressions that have resulted from the focus on royal structures at Pasagardae, Persepolis and Susa (see Chapter 6). In terms of gaining a greater understanding of the socio-economic and political context of Mamasani as a whole, it is particularly significant that Tol-e Spid appears to have been occupied contemporaneously with the carving of the main relief at Kurangun, the use of the structure at Tappeh Servan (Jinjan) and the construction of the rock-cut tomb at Dau-o Dokhtar. There is thus an intimate link between these monumental structures and the inhabitants of Tol-e Spid. The implications that the stratigraphic sequence at Tol-e Spid has for our understanding of a range of broader issues intrinsic to the archaeology of southwest Iran and beyond will be outlined in Chapter 6 below.

133

Notes 1 The contour plans and digital elevation model that have been illustrated in Figure 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4, were created using the facilities of the Archaeological Computing Lab at the University of Sydney. The basic data manipulation was carried out using MapInfo v.5.0 software and the Vertical Mapper v.2 application. A Natural Neighbour Interpolation was used, with the ‘smoothed without overshoot’ option selected, and the slope value set to 0 (horizontal). This ensured that the integrity of the original survey data was preserved and that the digital surface was tightly controlled. Contours are shown at 1-metre intervals. The final digital surface was smoothed and normalised, with a vertical exaggeration of 1, in order to minimise the degree of data manipulation and to optimise the visibility of ground surface detail. 2 Stein made the following note about the archaeology of the Fahliyan Valley: “Ancient occupation is attested by several debris-mounds now occupied by small villages. Among these Tel-espīd (the ‘White Mound’), near which our camp stood, is the most conspicuous. Its conical height bears the small fort of Khurshī Khan, the chief local landowner, while an agglomeration of wretched mat-covered huts clothes the slopes. Here, as well as at the villages of Chahār Bāzār and Kushkak, the heavy accumulation of refuse on the slopes would not allow indications of the ancient remains, if any, buried in the strata below those seen on the surface” (Stein 1940: 38). 3 Shilhak Inshushinak reined between c.1150-1120 BC, and was perhaps the greatest of the Middle Elamite rulers, leaving behind numerous building inscriptions indicating that he constructed a great variety of buildings and carried out temple restorations (Potts 1999: 238-247; also in press b). 4 The Kurangun relief is believed to have been begun in the Sukkalmah period (early 2nd millennium BC), and added to in either the Middle-Elamite or Neo-Elamite periods (late 2nd or early 1st millennium BC) (for a detailed discussion see Miroschedji 1981b; 1989; 2003: 27, 33; Vanden Berghe 1984: 28-29; 1986; Seidl 1986; Potts 1999: 182; 2004). 5 There was considerable rodent bioturbation through the deposits of Phase 19. Where these were observed, the deposit adjacent to the disturbance was cut back to prevent unwanted contamination. The subsidence noted in Phase 20 continued through the Phase 19 deposits. 6 Of the two loci that were excavated in Phase 24 (Loci 3165 and 3166), only Locus 3165 contained ceramic material. 7 Lapui Common Ware has been described as having a red paste tempered with black grit, frequently with a grey core, which typically breaks with a rough edge, and has a slipped and roughly burnished surface that is frequently cracked or pitted (Sumner 1972: 41-42; 1988b: 26-27; 1992: 284-285). 8 Lapui Fine Ware has been described as having a hard dense well-washed buff with red slip or red paste with frequent lime inclusions, and is usually fired to a uniform red or buff throughout the core. Low calcium clays were typically used to produce a rich red body, while buff coloured high calcium alluvial clays generally have a low calcium clay slip, which produces a red surface colour. The surface is smoothed, sometimes with a slight lustre or roughly burnished (Sumner 1972: 41-42; 1988b: 26-27; 1992: 284-285). 9 Asupas Ware is a unique painted ware with a fine buff paste that was only found at one site in the Kur River Basin. The designs are applied in red, brown or black paint on a smooth buff surface (Sumner 1972: 41-42). It is perhaps notable that the decoration visible on the Asupas ware illustrated by Sumner (Sumner 1972: Pl. XVII) is also somewhat reminiscent of the decoration seen on Kaftari and Qaleh Ware vessels. 10 These are also known from a number of other sites in the south east of the Kur River Basin and appear to be related to

Black-on-Red Wares from the central Zagros or Bakhtiari (Sumner 1988b: 27-28). 11 The sparse limestone grits appear to have been deliberately added to an otherwise well levigated fabric. Although this suggests the use of a slightly different clay preparation process, both the fine red-slipped buff wares with no visible temper, and that with sparse limestone grit temper still accord with the description of Lapui Fine Ware (Sumner 1972: 41-42; Sumner 1988b: 24-26). 12 While the presence of a sole bevelled-rim bowl fragment can be viewed with interest, it must also be interpreted with a degree of caution, and it is entirely possible that this one fragment might be intrusive. 13 Although handles are illustrated from Sumner’s surface surveys, it is only in 3rd millennium BC levels at Susa that handles are known from stratified deposits. 14 It is notable that many of the jar rims, both in vegetal and grit and fine red-slipped ware have rims that flare out further than the typical parallels (e.g. TS 1380, 1381, 1424, 1789). 15 This diagonal decoration is somewhat similar to the painting visible on some of the vessels from Tepe Jalyan, but the application of the paint is much finer in all of the Tol-e Spid examples. 16 It should be noted that the trays from Phase 12 onwards are all made with coarse chaff-tempered clay, but in form they do not appear to closely resemble the classic Middle Banesh tray form. While this might reflect regional differentiation, the trays in Phase 18 do look like typical Banesh tray. Therefore, the possibility that these trays do actually date to the 1st millennium BC should be entertained. 17 These ridges appear in two different sizes: 3-7 mm and 7-12 mm. 18 It should be pointed out that these two dates come from different laboratories. 19 Slipped and/or burnished red wares have been excavated and/or surveyed at: – a. Tall-i-Bakun (Period AV - Langsdorff and McCown 1942:

32-33, Pl. 20-21), b. Sites visited in the surveys of the Marv Dasht (Sumner

1972: 41-42, Pl. XII-XVIII), c. Tepe Yahya (Period V - Beale 1986: 55-58), d. Sites visited in the Bahtiyari survey (S10, S17, and sites in

the Han Mirza - Zagarell 1982: Fig. 26, 29-31), e. Chogha Mish ( LS levels - Delougaz and Kantor 1996: I -

170; II - Pl. 162), f. The Acropole at Susa (Couche 27-25 - Le Brun 1971: 172-

175, Fig. 38-40), g. Jaffarabad (Levels 3d-l - Dollfus 1971: 42-45, Fig. 19;

1975: Fig. 53), h. Bendebal (Level 10 - Dollfus 1978a: 186-188; 1983a: Fig.

88), i. Sites visited in the surveys of Khuzistan (Dollfus 1985;

Hole 1985), and also possibly j. Tepe Sabz in the Deh Luran (Bayat red ware - Hole et al.

1969: 164-167), although it has been dated earlier. 20 The Uruk-related Susa II assemblage is known from the Acropole and Apadana soundings at Susa (Le Brun 1971: 183-188, Fig. 45-53; Miroschedji 1976), the Proto-Literate levels at Chogha Mish (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: I - 37-102, II - Pl. 80-123) the excavations at Farukhabad (Wright (ed.) 1981: 71-195), and observed in the various surveys of the Susiana plain (Johnson 1973). It has also been generally assumed that Period IV1 at Tepe Sialk (Ghirshman 1938: 58-61, Pl. LXXXIX), the Period VI/V oval complex at Godin Tepe (publications reviewed in Voigt and Dyson 1992: I.161-162), also date to this period, but there have been recent attempts to reassess these key phases of occupation (e.g. Helwing 2004; also 2005).

134

21 Excavations and surveys that have recovered evidence for Susa III/Middle Banesh/Proto-Elamite occupation include: - a. Operations ABC and TUV at Tal-e Malyan (Sumner 1974:

160-164; 2003: 45-50, Fig. 21-28; Nicholas 1990: Pl. 13-24),

b. Sites visited in Sumner’s initial surveys of the Kur River Basin ("Banesh" - Sumner 1972: 42-44, Pl. XII-XVIII),

c. The sounding at Tal-e Kureh (Alden 1979: Fig. 52; 2003a: 190-194, D4-8),

d. Sites visited in Alden’s survey and re-survey of Banesh sites in the Kur River Basin (1979: 210-252, Fig. 31-54),

e. The Sondage (1965) and Chantier de la Terrasse (1968) on the Acropole at Susa (Steve and Gasche 1971: 9-11, 25-41, Pl. 24-29),

f. The Susa Acropole I sounding (Couche 16-14b - Le Brun 1971: 189-195, Fig. 60-66),

g. The Ville Royale sounding at Susa (Periods 18-17 - Carter, E. 1980: Fig. 9-14),

h. The step trench at Tal-e Ghazir (Levels 36-38 - Caldwell 1968: 350-353),

i. The upper south mound at Tepe Sialk (Period IV2 - Ghirshman 1938: 58-61, Pl. LXXXIX; Voigt and Dyson 1992: I.168), and

k. Tepe Yahya (Periods IVC2 - Potts 2001: 6-78). 22 The most recent characterisation of the Kaftari Wares delineates three wares: a. Kaftari Buff Ware: porous, grainy textured, with a very

fine straw temper and fired to an even buff colour throughout the core. It occurs in plain and painted varieties, and sometimes with incision or simple relief;

b. Kaftari Red Ware: fine buff or brown with grit temper, and coated with a smooth but rarely burnished red slip. It occurs in plain and painted varieties, and sometimes with incision or simple relief;

c. Kaftari Coarse Grey Ware: a matte grey smooth surface with a crumbly paste, tempered with coarse grains of white quartz. Only decorated with incision or relief, and is considered to be a cooking ware (Nickerson 1983: 132-138).

Vanden Berghe initially characterised the Kaftari and Qaleh wares as two similar but chronologically distinct painted wares that were in use in the Kur River Basin during the 4th to 2nd millennium BC (Vanden Berghe 1954: 402-405). Sumner noted that Kaftari and Qaleh painted wares were difficult to differentiate, and grouped six contemporaneous Kaftari wares: Kaftari Painted Buff Ware, Kaftari Buff Ware, Kaftari Red Ware, Kaftari Painted Red Ware, Kaftari Bichrome Ware, Kaftari Coarse Grey Ware, together with Qaleh Ware. Using material from Tal-e Malyan, Nickerson simplified this to four ‘Kaftari sub-wares’: Kaftari Buff Ware, Kaftari Red Ware, Kaftari Coarse Grey Ware and Qaleh Ware (Nickerson 1983: 128). Although 10 sherds that could be positively identified as Qaleh Ware were found associated with Kaftari ceramics, they have also been found in strata above Kaftari Wares in Operation GHI and together with Middle Elamite ceramics in Operation EDD (Sumner 1988a: 316; Carter, E. 1992: 295-296). This indicates that Qaleh Ware postdates the Kaftari Wares, and that the fragments noted by Nickerson may have been intrusive. 23 This includes material recovered from: - a. Sites visited in the surveys of the Kur River Basin (Vanden

Berghe 1954: 402-403; Sumner 1972: 44-48, Pl. XXIII-XXXVI),

b. Excavations in various areas at Tal-e Malyan, including Operations ABC, GHI, FX106, GGX98, BY8, F26 and Test Trench D (Sumner 1974: 164-173; Nickerson 1983; Miller and Sumner 2004),

c. Excavations at the site of Tall-i Nokhodi near Pasagardae by Goff (1963: 51-52, Fig. 8; 1964: 41-44, Fig. 6-7), and

d. Material excavated from the site of Tall-i Peytul on the

Bushehr peninsular by Pezard (1914: Plates IV-VI). 24 A continuous sequence for the 2nd millennium BC has been excavated at the Ville Royale at Susa, and this provides the best parallels for post-Kaftari vessel forms: - a. Excavations of Chantier A and B on the Ville Royale

(Middle Elamite AXV-AXIII - Gasche 1973: e.g. Pl. 2-50), b. The excavation of the Ville Royale II Sounding

(Miroschedji et al. 1987: Fig. 10-15).