Chapter 32: 1960-1968Chapter 32: 1960-1968Leadership of the 1960’sLeadership of the 1960’s

Election of 1960Election of 1960

Democrat:Democrat:

Senator John F. Senator John F. KennedyKennedy

-handsome & good -handsome & good personalitypersonality

Richard M. NixonRichard M. Nixon

Republican Republican candidatecandidate

-not good on TV -not good on TV debatesdebates

-1-1stst television debate television debate b/w Kennedy & b/w Kennedy & Nixon.Nixon.

CamelotCamelot

Presidency viewed Presidency viewed as elegantas elegant

Stylish wife, JackieStylish wife, Jackie

Young kidsYoung kids

Gave great Gave great speeches.speeches.

THE NEW THE NEW FRONTIERFRONTIER

Kennedy’s programs Kennedy’s programs that he proposedthat he proposed– Wanted to give Wanted to give

medical care to elderlymedical care to elderly– Rebuild urban areas.Rebuild urban areas.– Aid education.Aid education.– Build national defense.Build national defense.– Increase international Increase international

aid.aid.– Expand space Expand space

programs.programs.

CongressCongress

Did not pass the programDid not pass the program

Kennedy lacked a MANDATE:Kennedy lacked a MANDATE:– Knowledge that voters approved of his Knowledge that voters approved of his

plans.plans.

– Did build economy & defense.Did build economy & defense.

– International aid.International aid.

– Space program.Space program.

Civil RightsCivil Rights

MLK, Jr. was arrested w/33 othersMLK, Jr. was arrested w/33 others

Nixon had no opinionNixon had no opinion

Kennedy called King’s wifeKennedy called King’s wife

Kennedy’s brother, Robert, convinced Kennedy’s brother, Robert, convinced a judge to release King on bail.a judge to release King on bail.

Kennedy won African American vote Kennedy won African American vote & won the election.& won the election.

PovertyPoverty

Large problemLarge problem

Kennedy wanted to fight poverty & Kennedy wanted to fight poverty & help civil rights.help civil rights.

Pushed Robert Kennedy & the Pushed Robert Kennedy & the Justice Dept. to investigate racial Justice Dept. to investigate racial injustices in the South.injustices in the South.

Made Kennedy unpopular.Made Kennedy unpopular.

Race to the MoonRace to the Moon

Soviets launched 1Soviets launched 1stst human into outer human into outer space.space.Kennedy wanted to send a person to Kennedy wanted to send a person to the moon.the moon.New space bases in Fl & Tx.New space bases in Fl & Tx.7 years later: July 20, 1969: Neil 7 years later: July 20, 1969: Neil Armstrong was the 1Armstrong was the 1stst person to walk person to walk on the moon.on the moon.

RACE TO THE RACE TO THE MOONMOON

On April 12, 1961, On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the Gagarin became the first human in spacefirst human in spaceMeanwhile, America’s Meanwhile, America’s space agency (NASA) space agency (NASA) began construction on began construction on new launch facilities in new launch facilities in Cape Canaveral, Cape Canaveral, Florida and a mission Florida and a mission control center in control center in Houston, TexasHouston, Texas

A MAN ON A MAN ON THE MOONTHE MOON

Finally, on July 20, 1969, Finally, on July 20, 1969, the U.S. would achieve its the U.S. would achieve its goalgoal

An excited nation watched An excited nation watched as U.S. astronaut Neil as U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong took the first Armstrong took the first steps on the moonsteps on the moon

Space and defense-related Space and defense-related industries sprang up in industries sprang up in Southern and Western Southern and Western states states

Armstrong

“One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind”

FOCUS ON THE FOCUS ON THE COLD WARCOLD WAR

From the beginning of From the beginning of his term in early 1961, his term in early 1961, JFK focused on the JFK focused on the Cold War (Soviet Cold War (Soviet relations)relations)

JFK tripled our nuclear JFK tripled our nuclear capability, increased capability, increased troops, ships and troops, ships and artillery, and created the artillery, and created the Green Berets (Special Green Berets (Special Forces) Forces)

CRISIS OVER CUBACRISIS OVER CUBAJust 90 miles off the coast of Florida, Cuba presented the Just 90 miles off the coast of Florida, Cuba presented the first big test of JFK’s foreign policyfirst big test of JFK’s foreign policy

Openly Communist, Cuba was led by revolutionary leader Openly Communist, Cuba was led by revolutionary leader Fidel Castro who welcomed aid from the USSRFidel Castro who welcomed aid from the USSR

Relations between the U.S. and Cuba were deterioratingRelations between the U.S. and Cuba were deteriorating

Crisis in CubaCrisis in Cuba

Castro took over oil fields & sugar Castro took over oil fields & sugar cane fields owned by U.S.cane fields owned by U.S.

U.S. no longer traded w/Cuba.U.S. no longer traded w/Cuba.

Cuba received aid from Soviet UnionCuba received aid from Soviet Union

10% of Cubans left and moved to 10% of Cubans left and moved to Miami.Miami.

BAY OF PIGSBAY OF PIGSIn March 1960, Eisenhower In March 1960, Eisenhower gave the CIA permission to gave the CIA permission to secretly train Cuban exiles secretly train Cuban exiles for an invasion of Cubafor an invasion of CubaKennedy learned of the Kennedy learned of the plan only nine days into plan only nine days into his presidencyhis presidencyJFK approved the missionJFK approved the missionIt turned out to be a It turned out to be a disaster when in April 17, disaster when in April 17, 1961, 1,200 Cuban exiles 1961, 1,200 Cuban exiles met 25,000 Cuban troops met 25,000 Cuban troops backed by Soviet tanks backed by Soviet tanks and were soundly defeatedand were soundly defeated

“We looked like fools to our

friends, rascals to our enemies

and incompetents to

the rest”

Quote from U.S. Commentator

ProblemsProblems

Air strike did not work, CIA said it didAir strike did not work, CIA said it did

Troops met 25,000 Cuban troops & Troops met 25,000 Cuban troops & Soviet tanks and jets.Soviet tanks and jets.

Embarrassed Kennedy.Embarrassed Kennedy.

THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISISTHE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

Castro had a powerful ally in MoscowCastro had a powerful ally in MoscowSoviet leader Nikita Khrushchev promised to Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev promised to defend Cuba with Soviet weaponsdefend Cuba with Soviet weaponsDuring the summer of 1962 the flow of Soviet During the summer of 1962 the flow of Soviet weapons into Cuba – including nuclear – weapons into Cuba – including nuclear – increased greatlyincreased greatly

Cuban Missile CrisisCuban Missile Crisis

Soviet Union sent nuclear weapons to Soviet Union sent nuclear weapons to Cuba Cuba Spy planes saw rockets ready to Spy planes saw rockets ready to launchlaunchKennedy demanded the rockets were Kennedy demanded the rockets were removed.removed.If we were attacked, go to war with If we were attacked, go to war with Soviet Union.Soviet Union.

• Kennedy made it clear the U.S. would not tolerate nuclear weapons in Cuba

• When surveillance photos revealed nukes ready to launch in Cuba, JFK said the U.S. would respond to any attack from Cuba with an all-out nuclear retaliation against the Soviets

KENNEDY RESPONDSAmerican president John F Kennedy making his dramatic television broadcast to announce the Cuba blockade during the Cuban Missile Crisis 

13 DAYS13 DAYS

When When more Soviet ships headed more Soviet ships headed

for the U.S. with weapons, for the U.S. with weapons, JFK ordered a blockadeJFK ordered a blockadeThe first break in the crisis The first break in the crisis occurred when the Soviets occurred when the Soviets ships turned backships turned backFinally, Khrushchev Finally, Khrushchev agreed to remove the agreed to remove the nuclear weapons from nuclear weapons from Cuba in exchange for a Cuba in exchange for a U.S. promise NOT to U.S. promise NOT to invade Cubainvade Cuba

For 13 days in October, 1962 the world stood still as the threat of nuclear war gripped the planet

CRISIS OVER CRISIS OVER BERLINBERLIN

In 1961, Berlin, In 1961, Berlin, Germany was a city Germany was a city in great turmoilin great turmoilIn the 11 years since In the 11 years since the Berlin Airlift, the Berlin Airlift, almost 3 million almost 3 million East Germans East Germans (Soviet side) had (Soviet side) had fled into West Berlin fled into West Berlin (U.S. controlled) to (U.S. controlled) to flee communist ruleflee communist rule

SOVIETS SEEK TO STOP SOVIETS SEEK TO STOP EXODUSEXODUS

The Soviets did not like the The Soviets did not like the fact that East Berliners fact that East Berliners were fleeing their city for were fleeing their city for the democratic westthe democratic west

Their departure hurt the Their departure hurt the economy and the prestige economy and the prestige of the USSRof the USSR

Just after midnight on Just after midnight on August 13, 1961 the August 13, 1961 the Soviets began Soviets began construction of a 90-mile construction of a 90-mile wall separating East and wall separating East and West Berlin West Berlin

East Germany begins construction on the Berlin

Wall, which becomes a primary symbol of the Cold War and Soviet oppression

EASING TENSIONSEASING TENSIONSBoth Khrushchev and Both Khrushchev and Kennedy began searching Kennedy began searching for ways to ease the for ways to ease the enormous tension enormous tension between the two between the two superpowerssuperpowersIn 1963 they established a In 1963 they established a hot line between the hot line between the White House and the White House and the KremlinKremlinLater that year, the Later that year, the superpowers signed a superpowers signed a Limited Test Ban Treaty Limited Test Ban Treaty that served to ban nuclear that served to ban nuclear testing in the atmospheretesting in the atmosphere

Alliance for ProgressAlliance for Progress

Economic & technical assistanceEconomic & technical assistance

In Latin American countries.In Latin American countries.

THE PEACE THE PEACE CORPSCORPS

One of the first programs One of the first programs launched by JFK was the launched by JFK was the Peace CorpsPeace Corps

The Peace Corps is a The Peace Corps is a volunteer program to volunteer program to assist developing nations assist developing nations in Asia, Africa and Latin in Asia, Africa and Latin AmericaAmerica

The Peace Corps has The Peace Corps has become a huge successbecome a huge success

Emmett TillEmmett Till

14-year-old boy 14-year-old boy visited his uncle.visited his uncle.

Woman accused him Woman accused him of flirting with her.of flirting with her.

2 white men beat him 2 white men beat him & shot him& shot him

Mom had open Mom had open casket funeral.casket funeral.

Freedom RidersFreedom Riders

Activists who rode buses through the Activists who rode buses through the South to challenge segregation.South to challenge segregation.

Buses were normally attacked by angry Buses were normally attacked by angry white mobs.white mobs.

Members of SNCC rode buses, one of Members of SNCC rode buses, one of their buses were firebombed.their buses were firebombed.

Kennedy made Federal Marshals protect Kennedy made Federal Marshals protect the Freedom Riders.the Freedom Riders.

Freedom Riders’ PhotoFreedom Riders’ Photo

Integrating “Ole Miss”Integrating “Ole Miss”

JAMES MEREDITH: JAMES MEREDITH: African American Air African American Air Force veteran who won Force veteran who won a court case to attend a court case to attend University of MississippiUniversity of MississippiGov. Ross Barnett Gov. Ross Barnett refused to let him inrefused to let him inKennedy sent federal Kennedy sent federal marshals to escort marshals to escort Meredith into the Meredith into the college.college.

““Ole Miss” (con’t)Ole Miss” (con’t)

Thousands of white Thousands of white demonstrators demonstrators showed up.showed up.Riots broke out on Riots broke out on campus: 2 deadcampus: 2 deadThousands of soldiers Thousands of soldiers were sent to stop the were sent to stop the riot.riot.Federal officers took Federal officers took Meredith to classes & Meredith to classes & protected his family.protected his family.

BirminghamBirmingham

MLK, Jr. went to Birmingham to help MLK, Jr. went to Birmingham to help integrate the city.integrate the city.Known as the “most segregated city Known as the “most segregated city in U.S.”in U.S.”King & others were arrested on Good King & others were arrested on Good Friday (1963).Friday (1963).Police commissioner “Bull” Connor Police commissioner “Bull” Connor arrested 959 of King’s demonstrators.arrested 959 of King’s demonstrators.

BirminghamBirmingham

May 3, a children’s crusade began.May 3, a children’s crusade began.Police put high-pressured fire hoses Police put high-pressured fire hoses & attack dogs on them.& attack dogs on them.Clubbed those who fell to the ground.Clubbed those who fell to the ground.TV cameras showed the children TV cameras showed the children screaming to millions of viewers.screaming to millions of viewers.Kennedy wanted to pass a civil rights Kennedy wanted to pass a civil rights act.act.

Photos at BirminghamPhotos at Birmingham

KennedyKennedySent troops to force Sent troops to force Gov. Wallace to Gov. Wallace to desegregate the desegregate the University of University of Alabama.Alabama.

After Kennedy made After Kennedy made a speech, that night a speech, that night Medgar Evers was Medgar Evers was killed by a sniper in killed by a sniper in his own drivewayhis own driveway

March on WashingtonMarch on Washington

King marched on King marched on Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. with 250,000 people. with 250,000 people. Gave his “I HAVE A Gave his “I HAVE A DREAM” speech.DREAM” speech.

Tragedy in DallasTragedy in Dallas

Kennedy & his wife traveled to Dallas Kennedy & his wife traveled to Dallas on November 22, 1963.on November 22, 1963.

Rode in limo convertible w/wife, Rode in limo convertible w/wife, Texas Governor, & his wife.Texas Governor, & his wife.

Rifle shots were fired.Rifle shots were fired.

Kennedy shot in the head.Kennedy shot in the head.

Rushed to hospital & died.Rushed to hospital & died.

JFK SHOTJFK SHOT As the motorcade approached As the motorcade approached the Texas Book Depository, the Texas Book Depository, shots rang out shots rang out

JFK was shot in the neck and JFK was shot in the neck and then the headthen the head

His car was rushed to a nearby His car was rushed to a nearby hospital where doctors hospital where doctors frantically tried to revive himfrantically tried to revive him

President Kennedy was dead President Kennedy was dead (11/22/63)(11/22/63)

Kennedy assassinatedKennedy assassinatedAmerica shockedAmerica shocked

Who did this?Who did this?

Why?Why?

Many conspiracy Many conspiracy theories on what theories on what happened.happened.

Photos of assassinationPhotos of assassination

4 Days of Mourning4 Days of Mourning

Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon B. Johnson took the took the presidential oath presidential oath on Air Force One on Air Force One next to Kennedy’s next to Kennedy’s casket.casket.

Jackie on board Jackie on board during the oath.during the oath.

Lee Harvey OswaldLee Harvey Oswald

Charged Charged w/assassinating w/assassinating Kennedy.Kennedy.

Palm print on riflePalm print on rifle

Ties to Ties to CommunismCommunism

Jack Ruby killed Jack Ruby killed Oswald.Oswald.

JFK LAID TO RESTJFK LAID TO RESTAll work stopped for All work stopped for Kennedy’s funeral as Kennedy’s funeral as America mourned its America mourned its fallen leaderfallen leader

The assassination and The assassination and the televised funeral the televised funeral became historic eventsbecame historic events

Like 9-11, Americans Like 9-11, Americans can recall where they can recall where they were when they heard were when they heard the news of the the news of the President’s deathPresident’s death

Three-year old John Kennedy Jr. salutes his father’s coffin

during the funeral

FuneralFuneral

UNANSWERED QUESTIONSUNANSWERED QUESTIONS

The bizarre chain of events The bizarre chain of events led many to believe that led many to believe that Oswald was part of a Oswald was part of a conspiracyconspiracy

The Warren Commission The Warren Commission investigated the investigated the assassination and assassination and determined that Oswald determined that Oswald had indeed acted alonehad indeed acted alone

Recent filmmaker Oliver Recent filmmaker Oliver Stone isn’t so sure – his Stone isn’t so sure – his film, “JFK,” is filled with film, “JFK,” is filled with conspiracy theoriesconspiracy theories

Warren CommissionWarren Commission

People questioned if Oswald was the People questioned if Oswald was the only gun man.only gun man.

WC: investigated the assassinationWC: investigated the assassination

Found Oswald acted aloneFound Oswald acted alone

1979: Possible conspiracy1979: Possible conspiracy

New investigation shows possible 2New investigation shows possible 2ndnd unknown gun man.unknown gun man.

Civil Rights Act of 1964Civil Rights Act of 1964

4 girls were killed when a bomb blew 4 girls were killed when a bomb blew up their church.up their church.

Two months after Kennedy was Two months after Kennedy was assassinated, Johnson signed the assassinated, Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964.Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Could not discriminate b/c of race, Could not discriminate b/c of race, religion, national origin, & gender.religion, national origin, & gender.

Voting Rights Act of 1965Voting Rights Act of 1965

Law that made it easier for African Law that made it easier for African Americans to register to vote by Americans to register to vote by eliminating literacy tests & having eliminating literacy tests & having federal examiners to enroll voters federal examiners to enroll voters denied at the local level.denied at the local level.

Urban ViolenceUrban Violence

New York City riots: July 1964.New York City riots: July 1964.

Riots in L.A.: August 1965Riots in L.A.: August 1965

34 people died34 people died

1967: 100 riots took place in U.S.1967: 100 riots took place in U.S.

Malcolm XMalcolm X

May 19, 1925 Malcolm Little is born in Omaha, NE.

1946 Malcolm is sentenced to 8-10 years for armed robbery; serves 6 ½ years at Charlestown, MA State Prison.

1948-49 Converts to the Nation of Islam while in prison.

1953 Changes name from Malcolm Little to Malcolm X and becomes Assistant Minister of Nation of Islam's Detroit Temple.

1954 Promoted to Minister of Nation of Islam's New York Temple.

"I believe in the brotherhood of man, all men, but I don't believe in brotherhood "I believe in the brotherhood of man, all men, but I don't believe in brotherhood with anybody who doesn't want brotherhood with me. I believe in treating with anybody who doesn't want brotherhood with me. I believe in treating

people right, but I'm not going to waste my time trying to treat somebody right people right, but I'm not going to waste my time trying to treat somebody right who doesn't know how to return the treatment." who doesn't know how to return the treatment."

-- -- Speech, Dec. 12 1964, New York CitySpeech, Dec. 12 1964, New York City

Islamic minister who Islamic minister who thought that blacks thought that blacks should separate.should separate.NATION OF ISLAM: NATION OF ISLAM: Black Muslims Black MuslimsAfrican Americans African Americans should arm & should arm & defend themselves.defend themselves.

Ballots or BulletsBallots or Bullets

Malcolm X traveled to Malcolm X traveled to Mecca.Mecca.He said that people He said that people should use ballots, should use ballots, not bullets to voice not bullets to voice opinions.opinions.Malcolm thought he Malcolm thought he was in dangerwas in dangerAssassinated on Assassinated on February 21, 1965.February 21, 1965.Shot & killed (N.Y.)Shot & killed (N.Y.)

Black Power!Black Power!Stokely Carmichael: Stokely Carmichael: leader of SNCC, leader of SNCC, became militant.became militant.

Sang “We shall Sang “We shall overrun.”overrun.”

BLACK POWER: BLACK POWER: slogan for African slogan for African Americans to show their Americans to show their pride for their race.pride for their race.

Black PanthersBlack Panthers

Political PartyPolitical PartyFight police Fight police brutality in ghettobrutality in ghettoWanted full Wanted full employment & employment & decent housing.decent housing.Black youths Black youths should not serve in should not serve in Vietnam.Vietnam.

Cassius Clay/Muhammad AliCassius Clay/Muhammad Ali

"No, I am not going 10,000 "No, I am not going 10,000 miles to help murder kill and miles to help murder kill and burn other people to simply burn other people to simply help continue the domination help continue the domination of white slavemasters over of white slavemasters over dark people the world over. dark people the world over. This is the day and age when This is the day and age when such evil injustice must come such evil injustice must come to an end." to an end." —Muhammad Ali—Muhammad Ali

Source: "Muhammad Ali — The Source: "Muhammad Ali — The Measure of a Man." (Spring Measure of a Man." (Spring 1967). 1967). FreedomwaysFreedomways, 7(2), 101-, 7(2), 101-102. 102.

King’s AssassinationKing’s AssassinationKing sensed that he King sensed that he was going to diewas going to dieKing was assassinated King was assassinated on April 4, 1968 in on April 4, 1968 in Memphis, TN.Memphis, TN.Riots happened in Riots happened in African American African American communities.communities.Robert Kennedy Robert Kennedy pleaded for people not pleaded for people not to riot, would not be to riot, would not be what King would want.what King would want.

LegacyLegacyKERNER KERNER COMMISSION: COMMISSION: Johnson wanted Johnson wanted people to study urban people to study urban violence. Main violence. Main cause: white racismcause: white racism

CIVIL RIGHTS ACT CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1968: ended OF 1968: ended discrimination in discrimination in housing.housing.

Robert KennedyRobert Kennedy

Assassinated on June Assassinated on June 5, 1968 5, 1968

Potential Democratic Potential Democratic Candidate for Candidate for PresidentPresident

Favored Civil RightsFavored Civil Rights