CHAPTER 30 Research Writing as a ... - wps.pearsoncustom.com

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How do I choose and narrow a research topic? 30b

CHAPTER 30

Research Writing as a Process

30a What is research writing?Research writing involves three steps: conducting research, understandingand evaluating the results of your research, and writing the research paperwith accurate DOCUMENTATION. Every research project requires these steps.Moreover, research writing, as is true of the WRITING PROCESS itself, oftenmoves forward, loops back, and jumps ahead according to what unfolds asyou work.

Some student researchers use information from primary sources—from direct observations, interviews, surveys, measurements, original docu-ments and records, and so on. However, most students, especially when writing college research papers, use information from secondary sources—from reading, using ANALYSIS, discussing, and reviewing what people withrespected credentials and authority have written. In planning the paper, you choose a suitable research TOPIC; develop that topic into a RESEARCH

QUESTION; use a search strategy to locate and evaluate sources; and takenotes. In DRAFTING and REVISING the paper, you present a SYNTHESIS of yourfindings, supported by QUOTATIONS, PARAPHRASES, and SUMMARIES of your sources.

Many researchers—inexperienced and experienced—feel intimidated atthe beginning of a research writing project. A useful approach is to break itinto manageable chunks. Those chunks construct a series of steps, each ofwhich is explained in this chapter.

30b How do I choose and narrow a research topic?Some instructors assign a specific TOPIC for research (for example, “The fea-sibility of making robots that act like humans”). Others assign a general sub-ject area (“Artificial Intelligence”) and expect you to narrow it to a manage-able topic. Still other instructors expect you to choose a topic on your own(“Write a research paper on a topic of current importance”).

A good research topic is one that your readers will perceive as significantand worthwhile. That is, the topic is important or timely, your insights arefresh, or your SYNTHESIS is clear and skillful.

On a practical level, a good research topic is narrow enough for you toresearch within the constraints of time and length imposed by the assign-ment. Also, you want to determine, before you commit too firmly to a topic,that enough print and online material exists about it to offer you a sufficient

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BOX 30-1 S U M M A RY

Finding ideas for research

■ Get ready. Carry a pocket-size notebook and a pen, or use a PDA(such as a Palm Pilot). Ideas have a way of popping into your mindwhen you least expect them. Jot down your thoughts on the spot, nomatter where you are, so that they don’t slip away.

■ Overcome any block that prevents you from moving ahead.First, look back at section 3b for practical ideas. Second, stop yourselffrom thinking about the “whole” of your research project at once.Instead, break it into chunks, according to the small steps in yourresearch schedule (discussed in 30d).

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number of sources and perspectives to answer your RESEARCH QUESTION andwrite your paper.

The expectation that you will demonstrate CRITICAL THINKING in yourresearch paper is another variable that needs to influence your topic deci-sions. You can use critical thinking in one of two broad ways, each of whichis grounded in your PURPOSE for writing the paper. First, you can choose atopic on which intelligent people have differing opinions. Next, you analyzeyour sources to decide which position appears most reasonable. Your paperwould then take the form of an ARGUMENT that shows readers you have con-sidered the various positions and chosen a reasonable one.

Second, you can choose to write an INFORMATIVE paper in which you syn-thesize several sources related to a complex subject. Writing a synthesismeans pulling together sometimes extensive information on a topic by find-ing connections within it to explain the essential points as you see them. Forexample, after you read a dozen articles on the topic of creating artificialintelligence, you might try to identify three or four key points and then orga-nize information from your reading about these and closely related points.You integrate material from various sources to make each point. Your paper’sgoal is to clarify and create a new whole from complicated or scattered information.

Choosing a topic on your ownWhen you can select any topic that appeals to you, be sure to choose one that’s worthy of research writing. You want a topic that allows you todemonstrate your ability to use critical thinking and to synthesize ideas.

Such freedom of choice pleases some students. For others, it leads to whatcan be called a “research-topic block.” If this happens, rest assured you canovercome it by remaining calm and being proactive by using the suggestionsin Box 30-1. Also, try using the suggestions in Box 3-2 in Chapter 3.


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How do I choose and narrow a research topic? 30b

■ Think actively. Use the structured techniques for gathering ideasdemonstrated in sections 2g through 2i.

■ Browse through textbooks. Pick a field that interests you, and look over atextbook or two (in the bookstore, borrowed from a friend, or—at somecolleges—on reserve in the library). Read the table of contents and majorheadings. Scan the text for material that catches your eye. Note the names ofimportant books and experts, often mentioned in reference lists at the end ofchapters or at the back of the book. See what catches your attention andmakes you want to keep reading.

■ Browse the Internet. Many Web search engines provide topic directories.Click on some general categories and review subcategories until you locatespecific topics that interest you. Then try further subject searches orKEYWORD SEARCHES (31c.4) to see where they lead.

■ Use the Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH). This is amultivolume reference work available in print and electronic format. In manylibraries, it sits on the counter at the research librarian’s station; at others, it’sshelved with the other reference volumes. The LCSH lists every single topic(and the library call number of books on each topic) with many sublists, oftencoded to explain their purpose. Section 31d discusses specifically how theLCSH volumes can help you as a researcher.

■ Browse general encyclopedias. They offer a wide-ranging survey oftopics. Be aware, however, that the articles give you only a general,superficial sense of each subject. These reference works—available as books,CDs, or on the Internet (often through connections to a library database)—come in handy for identifying general topics within areas that interest you.However, the actual content of general encyclopedias is rarely suitable forresearch for a college-level research paper.

■ Browse specialized encyclopedias. These volumes are considered“specialized” because each is devoted to only one specific area (for example,social science, history, philosophy, the natural sciences). Their articles andchapters treat topics in some depth, and the material is usually suitable forresearch for a college-level research paper. Most selections mention namesof major figures in the field, information that comes in handy whenevaluating your sources (31j).

■ Browse through books and periodicals. These are available when yourlibrary has open stacks (fully accessible bookshelves). Browse books andacademic journals, as well as popular magazines, in fields that interest you. Or you might spend some time in a good bookstore or at a publiclibrary.

Finding ideas for research (continued)



Deciding on a workable, worthwhileresearch topic

1. Expect to consider various topics before making your finalchoice. Don’t rush. Give yourself time to think. Keep your mind opento flashes of insight and to alternative ideas. At the same time, becareful not to let indecision paralyze you.

2. Choose a topic that has a sufficient number of appropriatesources available. If you can’t find useful sources—ones that relatedirectly to your topic, and ones that are credible, not simply plentiful—drop the topic. Keep your RESEARCH QUESTION (30c) in mind as youlook over your sources.

3. Narrow the topic sufficiently. Avoid topics that are too broad, suchas “intelligence.” Conversely, avoid topics that are so narrow that youcan’t present a suitable mix of GENERALIZATIONS and specific details. Asyou formulate your research question, you’ll also be narrowing yourtopic.

4. Choose a topic worth researching. Avoid trivial topics that preventyou from doing what instructors and others expect of a studentresearcher: investigating ideas, analyzing them critically, and creating asynthesis of complex concepts.

NO The size of different kinds of carsYES The effect of SUVs on the environment

5 Select a topic that interests you. Your topic will be a companion fora while, sometimes for most of a semester. Select a topic that arousesyour interest and allows you the pleasure of satisfying your intellectualcuriosity.

6. Confer with a professor in your field of interest, if possible.Before the meeting, read a little about your topic so that your questionsand remarks show you’ve prepared for the conversation. Ask whetheryou’ve narrowed your topic sufficiently and productively. Also, ask for the titles of the major books and names of major authorities on your topic.

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Narrowing a general topic into a workable oneWhether you’re working with a topic of your choice or an assigned one, you want to check that it’s sufficiently narrow for the time frame and otherrequirements of your research paper. Also, you want to be sure that the narrowed topic is worthy of a college research project. Box 30-2 offers guidelines.


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What is a research question? 30c

30c What is a research question?A research question about your topic is the controlling question that drivesyour research. Few research paper assignments are phrased as questions.Therefore, most research writing calls on you to figure out a thought-provoking underlying question and then to search for answers to it. Byregarding research as a quest for an answer, you give your work a specificfocus: You can’t know whether you’ve found useful source material unlessyou know what you’re looking for.

Research questions, whether stated or implied, and the strategies neededto answer them, vary widely. Your purpose might be to present and explaininformation: “How does penicillin destroy bacteria?” Or your purpose mightbe to argue one side of an issue: “Is Congress more important than theSupreme Court in setting social policy?” You can then consult varioussources in an attempt to work toward an answer.

Attempt is an important word in relation to research. Some researchquestions lead to a final, definitive answer, but some do not. The questionabove about penicillin leads to a reasonably definitive answer (you describehow the antibiotic penicillin destroys the cell walls of some bacteria); thismeans your writing has an informative purpose. The question about socialpolicy has no definitive answer, so you’re asked to offer an informed opinionbased on facts and authoritative viewpoints gathered from your research; thismeans your writing has a persuasive purpose.

To formulate a research question, begin by BRAINSTORMING a list of ques-tions that comes to mind about your topic. Write your list of ideas in yourresearch log (30e).

Suppose, for example, the topic you want to write about is “homeless-ness.” Here are some typical questions you might ask.

■ Why can’t a rich country like the United States eliminate homelessness?■ Who is homeless?■ How do people become homeless?■ Is it true that many families—not just adults—are homeless?■ Is the homeless problem getting better or worse?■ What are we doing to solve the problem of homelessness?■ What is it like to be homeless?

Some questions will interest you more than others, so begin with one ofthose. If a question leads to a dead end, pursue another. Only when you findyourself accumulating answers—or in the case of questions without defini-tive answers, accumulating viewpoints—is it likely you’re dealing with ausable research question. Once you have an explicitly stated research ques-tion, you can streamline your research by taking notes only from thosesources that help you answer your research question.

Stay flexible as you work. The results of your research may lead you tomodify the research question slightly. Actually, such modifying is part of the



Sample schedule for a research project

Assignment received ________ Assignment due date ________

Planning Finish by (Date)

1. Start my research log (30e). __________

2. Choose a topic suitable for research (30b). __________

3. Draft my research question (30c). __________

4. Decide on my purpose and audience. __________

5. Decide what documentation style I’ll use (30h). __________

Researching

6. Decide the kinds of research I need to do:

a. Print sources (31d, 31e). __________

b. Online and/or electronic sources (31c). __________

c. Field research? (31i) If yes, schedule tasks. __________

7. Locate and evaluate sources (31c, 31j). __________

8. Take content notes from sources I find useful. __________

Writing

9. Draft my paper (30j). __________

10. Revise my paper (30j). __________

11. Compile my final bibliography, using the documentation style required (Chapters 33–34). __________

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30d RESEARCH WRITING AS A PROCESS

“moving ahead and circling back” that characterizes research writing. Whenyou’ve finished researching and notetaking based on your final researchquestion, you have a starting place for formulating the preliminary THESIS

STATEMENT for your research paper.

30d How do I set up my schedule for research writing?

Dividing a research project into a series of steps makes the project far lessintimidating. Research takes time, so plan ahead and budget your time intel-ligently. As soon as you get an assignment for a research paper, plan yourschedule, using Box 30-3 as a model. Because no two research paper projects


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What is a working bibliography? 30g

are alike, adapt this schedule to your needs. You might, for example, needonly one day for some steps but two weeks for others. So, while you need tostay flexible, you also want to keep your eye on the calendar.

30e What is a research log?A research log is your diary of your research process. Start your research logas soon as you get an assignment. Use a separate notebook for the log or cre-ate a new folder or file on the computer. Whichever format you rely on,make your research schedule one of the first entries.

Although much of your research log will never find its way into yourresearch paper itself, what you write in it greatly increases your efficiency.A well-kept log traces your line of reasoning as your project evolves, tells whereyou’ve ended each work session, and suggests what your next steps might be.Since college students take several courses at the same time, keeping this sortof record means you’ll waste no time retracing a research path or reconstructinga thought. In your log, always record the date as well as the following elements:

■ Your current step in your search for information; the search strategy youused to find that information; the name, location, and other details of exactlywhere you found the information; the main point of the information youfound; and where you’ve placed your detailed content notes—for example,the exact file or folder name—when it’s time to use them

■ Your suggested next step for when you return to your research

■ Your evolving overall thoughts and insights as you move through the researchand writing processes

■ Your awareness that you’re becoming ready to move away from gatheringmaterial to organizing it; from organizing it to writing about it; and fromdrafting to revising

30f What documentation style should I use?Ask your instructor which DOCUMENTATION STYLE you’re required to use foryour research paper: MLA (Chapter 33)? APA (Chapter 34)? Another?(See 32a.) As you compile your WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY (30g), be sure torecord all the documentation elements the required style demands. Docu-mentation styles vary in their details, and you don’t want to have to trackdown a source again merely to get documentation facts you didn’t writedown on your first pass.

30g What is a working bibliography?A working bibliography emerges from your search for and evaluation ofsources. It’s your preliminary list of potentially useful sources for eachresearch project. This list, which is an essential part of your research process,remains fluid in the early stage of your search for sources.


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Think of compiling a working bibliography as a survey process. You wantto find out what is available on a particular subject before you commit toextensive reading and notetaking. To do this, set aside more than one span ofhours to search on a given subject.

As you compile a working bibliography, you want to evaluate the sourcesyou are considering using. Never waste your time looking at unsound orirrelevant sources. First, your sources need to pertain to your topic andRESEARCH QUESTION. Second and more important, they need to be authori-tative and reliable. Unfortunately, a tremendous amount of bad informationexists in print and, especially, online. Expect to add and drop sources as yourefine your research question and locate other sources. Be sure to consultthe guidelines in 31j for evaluating sources.

You can record your working bibliography on 3-by-5-inch note cards oron a computer. Note cards have the advantage of being easy to sift throughwhen you’re adding and discarding sources. Also, you can carry them withyou to the library when you do library research. Their best use is at the endof your writing process, when you can easily sort and alphabetize cards forthe final list of sources you used. Keeping your working bibliography on thecomputer has the advantage of allowing you to alphabetize and organize it,which can save you time as you complete your WORKS CITED (MLA style) orREFERENCES (APA style) final list of sources at the end of your paper. Thecomputer also allows you to delete or rearrange sources easily. Whichevermethod you choose, write only one source per card or clearly separate oneentry from another in your computer document.

When you come across a source that seems to have potential foryour project, write a bibliography card for it immediately, while the sourceis in front of you. Doing this serves as an excellent cross-check to help youevaluate the sources by seeing if expert names, book title, or article titlereoccur, thus suggesting that you’ve found a good source. Include all theinformation you would eventually need to fulfill the requirements of theDOCUMENTATION STYLE your instructor specifies. Record it exactly as it wouldappear in your finished paper. Spending a few extra moments at this stagecan save endless hours of work and frustration later on. If you find that asource is not useful, keep your working bibliography card anyway, and jot onit the reason you rejected it. What seems useless now may become usefulwhen you revise.

As a rough estimate, your working bibliography needs to be about twice as long as the list of sources you end up using. (If your assignment asks for ten to twelve sources as a minimum, you want your set of working bibliography cards to have no fewer than twenty to twenty-fiveitems.)

Don’t be discouraged if your search goes slowly at first. As your knowledge of the topic grows, and your searching skills improve, you’ll find yourself narrowing your search and becoming increasinglyproductive.


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How do I draft a thesis statement for a research paper? 30h

30h How do I draft a thesis statement for a research paper?

Drafting a THESIS STATEMENT for a research paper marks the transition fromthe research process to the writing process. A thesis statement in a researchpaper is like the thesis statement in any essay: It sets out the central theme,which you need to sustain throughout the paper (see section 2m, especiallyBox 2-5). As with any piece of writing, your research paper must fulfill thepromise of its thesis statement.

You might begin thinking of the preliminary thesis statement for yourpaper at some middle point in the research process, although it’s perfectlyacceptable to wait until you’ve completely finished researching. To start your thesis statement, you might try to convert your RESEARCH QUESTION

into a preliminary thesis statement. Of course, because a question is not an assertion, you want to state your thesis as a DECLARATIVE SENTENCE, notas a question. Remember that a good thesis statement makes an assertionthat conveys your point of view about your topic and foreshadows the content of your paper (again, see Box 2-5 in 2m). And not least, rememberthat your research paper needs to support your thesis statement. Ask yourself whether the material you’ve gathered from sources can effectivelygive support. If not, revise your thesis statement, conduct further research,or do both.

As you revise your thesis statement, keep your eye on the research question that guided your research process so that you can point, ingeneral terms, to the question’s answer. Here are examples of subjects nar-rowed to topics, focused into research questions, and then cast as thesisstatements.

SUBJECT rain forestsTOPIC The importance of rain forests

RESEARCH QUESTION What is the importance of rain forests?

INFORMATIVE THESIS STATEMENT Rain forests provide the human race with many irreplaceableresources.

PERSUASIVE THESIS STATEMENT Rain forests must be preservedbecause they offer the human racemany irreplaceable resources.

SUBJECT nonverbal communicationTOPIC Personal space

RESEARCH QUESTION How do standards for personalspace differ among cultures?

INFORMATIVE THESIS STATEMENT Everyone has expectations concern-ing the use of personal space, but


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accepted distances for that space are determined by each person’s culture.

PERSUASIVE THESIS STATEMENT To prevent intercultural misunder-standings, people must be aware ofcultural differences in standards forpersonal space.

SUBJECT smokingTOPIC Curing nicotine addictionRESEARCH QUESTION What are new approaches to curing

nicotine addiction?INFORMATIVE THESIS STATEMENT Some approaches to curing nicotine

addiction are themselves addictive.PERSUASIVE THESIS STATEMENT Because some methods of curing addic-

tion are themselves addictive, doctorsshould prescribe them with caution.

30i How do I outline a research paper?Some instructors require an OUTLINE of your research paper, either before youhand in the paper or along with the paper. In such cases, your instructor isprobably expecting you to be working from an outline as you write your drafts.Your research log often comes in handy when you group your ideas, especial-ly for a first draft of your paper—and as you make an informal outline for it.An outline can serve as a guide as you plan and write your paper. For direc-tions on composing a formal outline, see section 2n. The material in 2n showsyou how to head your outline with the paper’s thesis statement, and it explainsyour choices in using either a topic outline (a format that requires words orphrases for each item) or a sentence outline (a format that requires full sen-tences for each item). Whatever your choice, never mix the two types. To seea topic outline of Chandra Johnson’s research paper, turn to section 33e.

30j How do I draft and revise a research paper?The processes of DRAFTING and REVISING a research paper are much likethose of drafting and revising any other piece of writing (Chapters 2 and 3),but more is demanded. You need to demonstrate that you’ve followed theresearch steps discussed in this chapter; you’ve used SOURCES correctly,employing QUOTATIONS, PARAPHRASES, and SUMMARIES without PLAGIARISM

(Chapter 32); you’ve moved beyond summary to SYNTHESIS of your varioussources; and you’ve used DOCUMENTATION correctly (Chapters 33 through34). To fulfill these special demands, allow ample time for drafting, thinking,revising, reflecting, and completing your paper.

Expect to write a number of drafts of your research paper. Successivedrafts help you master the information you’ve learned and add it authorita-tively to the knowledge you already had about the topic. In the first draft,organize the broad categories of your paper. Many research writers move


How do I draft and revise a research paper? 30j

material around within a category or from one category to another. Thathappens because the act of writing gives you new insights and helps youmake fresh connections. A first draft is a rough draft. It is a prelude to revis-ing and polishing. Box 30-4 suggests some ways to write your first draft.

Second drafts (and subsequent versions) emerge from reading your first(or a later) draft critically and then revising. If possible, distance yourselffrom your material by taking a break for a few days (or at least for a fewhours, if you’re pressed for time). Then, reread your draft, looking for waysto improve it—something that’s hard to do unless you’ve taken time offbetween readings. You might ask friends or classmates to read the draft and


Suggestions for drafting a research paper

■ Some researchers work with their notes in front of them. They groupmaterial into categories and work according to the subcategories ofinformation that have emerged in the course of their research. Theyexpect this process to take time, but they are assured of a first draft thatincludes much of the results of their research.

■ Some researchers review all their information and then set it aside towrite a partial first draft. This involves a quickly written first attempt atgetting the material under control. This method can help you get abroad view of the material. The second step is to go back and write acomplete first draft, with research notes at hand. When you combinethe two drafts, the pieces begin to fall into place as you move material,add what’s been left out, correct information, and insert in-textreferences.

■ Some researchers write their first draft almost as if FREEWRITING (2h),writing without stopping, just getting the words down on paper.Afterward, or whenever they get a sense of how to proceed, they slowdown and use their notes.

■ Some researchers, when working on computer, use the “Cut” and “Paste”functions to move around the parts of their paper. (If you do this, be sureto save a copy of each draft and partial draft—even random pages—you’ve written so that you can refer to earlier versions later. You neverknow when something you’ve discarded can become useful again.)

■ Some researchers like the physical act of working with a printout (orphotocopy) of their first draft. They literally cut up the paper to moveparagraphs and sentences, a kind of “unpacking” of their thinking. If anew and more readable order suggests itself, these researchers tape thepaper together in its new form.

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react. Also, now is the time to begin thinking about the DOCUMENT DESIGN

you want for your paper (see Chapter 35).One key to revising any research paper is to carefully examine the

evidence you have included. Evidence consists of facts, statistics, expertstudies and opinions, examples, and stories. As a reader, you expect writersto provide solid evidence to back up their claims and conclusions. Similarly,when you write, your readers expect evidence that clearly supports yourclaims and conclusions. Identify each of the points you have made in yourpaper; these will include your thesis and all of your subpoints. Then ask thefollowing questions:

■ Is the evidence sufficient? To be sufficient, evidence isn’t thin or trivial.As a rule, the more evidence, the more convincing the argument is toreaders.

■ Is the evidence representative? To be representative, evidence is cus-tomary and normal, not based on exceptions. When evidence is representa-tive, it provides a view of the issue that reflects usual circumstances, not rareones.

■ Is the evidence relevant? To be relevant, evidence relates directly to yourclaim. It illustrates your reasons straightforwardly and never introducesunrelated material. Only if the evidence is important and central to whatyou’re claiming will readers accept your claim.

■ Is the evidence accurate? To be accurate, evidence is correct, complete,and up-to-date. It comes from a reliable SOURCE (31a, 31j). Equally important, you present it honestly, without distorting or misrepresenting theissue.

■ Is the evidence reasonable? To be reasonable, evidence never makesextreme claims by using words like all, never, and certainly. Reasonable evi-dence is logically sound and avoids logical fallacies (5g).

As you work, pay attention to any uneasy feelings you have that hint at the need to rethink or rework your material. Experienced writers knowthat writing is really rewriting. Research papers are among the mostdemanding composing assignments, and most writers revise several times.Once you’ve produced a final draft, you’re ready to EDIT (3d), format(Chapter 35), and PROOFREAD (3e) your work. Check for correct grammar,punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. (No amount of careful research andgood writing can make up for an incorrectly presented, sloppy, error-ladendocument.)

Consult Box 3-5 in section 3c to remind yourself of the general princi-ples of revising, and consult the revision checklist in Box 30-5 to verify thatyou’ve remained aware of all aspects of research writing.

To see one example of the research writing process in action, turn toChandra Johnson’s MLA-style research paper in section 33e. There you’ll


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How do I draft and revise a research paper? 30j

see the final draft of an MLA-style research paper; a narrative of decisionsthat the student made during her research process; and commentary thatgives you insight into specific aspects of her paper.

For an APA-style research paper, turn to Carlos Velez’s APA-styleresearch paper in section 34h. There you’ll see the final draft of the paperand a narrative of the decisions that the student made during his researchprocess.

BOX 30-5 C H E C K L I S T

Revision checklist for a research paper

If the answer to a question is no, you need to revise. The section numbersin parentheses tell you where to find useful information.

1. Does your introductory paragraph lead effectively into the material? (4b)2. Have you met the basic requirements for a written thesis statement?

(2m and 30h)3. Does your thesis statement allude to, or directly address, the research

question upon which you based your research? (30c and 30h)4. Does the content of your paper address your research question(s)?

(30c and 30e)5. Have you discussed the topic of each paragraph fully, using

RENNS? (4f )6. Do you stay on the topic of each paragraph? (4f )7. Have you included appropriate and effective evidence? (4f and 31m)8. Have you deleted irrelevant or insignificant information from your

material? (4d)9. Do your ideas follow sensibly and logically within each paragraph and

from one paragraph to the next? (4g)10. Have you used quotations, paraphrases, and summaries well?

(Chapter 32)11. Have you integrated your source material well without plagiarizing?

(Chapter 32)12. Are the formats for your parenthetical citations correct? (Chapters

33–34) Does each tie into an item in your WORKS CITED (MLA style)list of sources at the end of your paper?

13. Does the concluding paragraph end your paper effectively? (4k)14. Does the paper exactly match the format you’ve been assigned to

follow in terms of margins, spacing, title, name-and-page-numberheadings, and so on? (Chapter 35)


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