47

CHAPTER 3

SANSKRIT LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Sanskrit is the prominent language of India. According to Indian

traditions, Sanskrit is the language of Gods1. It has a vast history, which starts

from the Vedas. Sanskrit was fully developed in the Vedic period. Pāṇini gives

it a new shape. The study of language and literature in ancient India mainly

confined to study of Sanskrit and the literature associated with it. Mostly

literature includes writing of many kinds viz stories in prose, poems, plays,

essays, History, Biographies, Epics, Champūs, Philosophy, Poetics, Grammars,

Science, Maths, Astronomy, Astrology, Dharmaśāstras, and Smṛitis etc. are

written in Sanskrit. Those languages of India which belong to the Indo-

European family of languages have passed through three great phases of

development, partly consecutive in time, but partly also parallel2.

I. Initial Glorious Stage

i. Vedic Sanskrit (Old Indo-Āryan)

ii. Classical Sanskrit

II. Middle Indo- Āryan (500 BCE to 1000 CE)

i. Pālī

ii. Prākrit

iii. Apabhraṁśa

III. Modern Indo-Āryan language (After 1000 CE)

Sanskrit is the first literary language of India. In the beginning, we can

generally divide the Sanskrit language into two parts i.e. Vedic and Classical.

Our oldest evidence is the Rig-veda and the language of this great collection of

1 laLd`r uke nsoh okd~A

2 M. Winternitz, HIL, Vol I, p 41.

48

hymns is Sanskrit. Rhys Davids uses the word for this first phase, is “Ancient

High Indian3” in place of Vedic or Vedic Sanskrit. Winternitz also agrees with

the opinion of Rhys Davids.

But, in the beginning, literature was oral and its language is remarkably

uniform. The Vedic literature does not contain any direct reference to any

script but according to some several indications make a case for the currency of

writing system. Some scholars fix the antiquity of the Brāhmi script between

8th

to 6th

centuries BCE. But Buhler brings the date forward on the ground of

the literary evidence shows a widespread use of writing in the 5th

Century BCE

and perhaps in the 6th

BCE as the alphabets of the Aśokan edicts not being a

homogeneous writing was no recent invention in the 3rd

century BCE. But

recent researches during the last two decades have led some scholar to maintain

the Brāhmi was invented just before Aśoka4. According to T. Burrow-The

introduction of writing took place probably about the same time as Pāṇini (4th

Century BCE) was codifying the rules of Sanskrit language5.

This dialect was spoken by the Āryan in the northwestern India before the

invention of script. Teaching was oral in the Rig-Vedic period. In later this was

become the base of literature. The entire sacred literature of Āryan Indian was

written in the Vedic language. From the language of the Rig-Veda, we can

trace a steady development to classical Sanskrit through the later saṁihitās and

the Brāhmaṇas6.

After passing from the Vedic lyrics to the lyrics of classical Sanskrit, it

seems to enter a “new world” due to Pāṇini‟s grammar in the fourth century

3 Buddhist India, p. 153.

4 An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, p. 365.

5 T. Burrow, “ Ancient and Modern Languages” in A.L. Basham (Ed.), A Cultural History of

India, pp. 162-63.

6 A. B. Keith, HSL, p. 4.

49

BC. The milestone in the history of Sanskrit is the Pāṇini‟s grammar named

Āsadhyāyī. His grammar quickly gained universal acceptance, and as a result

of the form of the Sanskrit, language as described by him was fixed for all time

in India. There are lot of difference in Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit,

not only the grammar, vocabulary, metre and style, but also in respect of matter

and spirit. One side, Vedic Sanskrit in literature is almost entirely religious;

other side classical Sanskrit has a profane, but not inferior to the religious

aspect. Vedic Sanskrit differs from the classical Sanskrit in respect of the use of

prefixes also. Sanskrit epic poetry was the next most important development in

the field of secular literature. Sanskrit became one of the greatest languages of

Indian Civilization, and it has been the greatest Vehicle of the Indian Culture.

According to Winternitz- that Sanskrit is a “high language” or “class

language” or “literary language” –whatever we may, call it in contrast to the

actual language of people –the Indians themselves express through the name

“Sanskrit”. For Sanskrit-Sanskritā, as much as “made ready, ordered, prepared,

perfect, pure sacred” – signifies the noble or sacred language, in contradiction

to “Prākrit”-Prākrita, as much as “original, natural, ordinary, common” – which

signifies the “Common language of the people”7 Rites and rituals were

performed in Sanskrit and education was the hands of Brāhmaṇas.

Middle Indo-Āryan (500 BCE -1000 CE) dialects continued to

develop and expand in almost entire India. Prakritism of the Middle Indo-

Āryan period and also ungrammatical forms showing the hand of uneducated

authors8. We can divide Middle Indo-Āryan languages into three major parts,

Viz, Pālī, Prākrit and Apabhraṁśa. This group first came into use as vehicles

7 HIL, Vol I, p. 44.

8 M. A. Mehendale, “Sanskrit Language and Literature” in R. C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of

Imperial Unity, p. 279.

50

for the teachings of Lord Buddha and Swami Mahāvīra, but first examples are

found in the writings of Inscriptions of Aśoka. First language Pālī, its name is

mostly attached with Buddhism, because their main holy text “Tripitaka” is

written in Pālī. The next term is Prākrit in which the founders of Buddhism and

Jainism propagated their faiths among the masses with the help of Prākrits, not

Sanskrit. Sanskrit lost its position as the medium of expression among all

classes of society and was restricted to only the highly educated persons.9

Ardha-magadhī is the language of the Śvetāmbara Jaina canon. The

Māhārāshri (Universally considered the best Prākrit) is also the language of

Jaina literature. The members of lower category society also use Paiśāchī in

Drama. The Brihatkathā of Gunādhya is the best specimen of Paiśāchī in the

last Apabhraṁśa (literally „falling down‟) is the third and final stage of Middle

Indo-Āryan. It stands midway between the Prākrit and Modern Indo-Āryan

language. Its period is roughly CE 600-100010

.

Modern Indo-Āryan languages emerge from the period after c.1000 CE

and produce the literature of their own from the twelfth century CE. From this

period, regional languages start to take the shapes and their history of

development of literature. Its literature is vast and important. The modern

languages of the main block of Indo-Āryan developed very much on parallel

lines, since there were no major geographical obstacles inhibiting mutual

contact. Eventually the following literary language emerged11

.

9 ibid, p. 281.

10 S.K. Chatterji (Ed.), CHI, Vol. V, p. xxii.

T. Burrow, op.cit., p. 165.

11 T. Burrow, op. cit., p. 166.

51

South-west Gujarāti

North-west Sindhī, Punjābi & Rājasthani

North Kāshmirī

North-East Nepalī

East Assamese, Bengāli, Oriya

Central and other parts Hindī

The position of western Hindi was outstanding importance among the

Modern Indo-Āryan languages. We can include (1) Khaḍī Bolī (2) Hariani, Jatu

or Bangru (3) Braj Bhāshā (4) Kanauji (5) Bundeli etc. in the western Hindi12

.

Khaḍī Bolī was the most important in it, and this Boli was used in a large area.

It was mixed with other dialects in Delhi and surrounding are, when Amīr

Khusro called it „Zaban-i-Dehlavi‟ the speech of Delhi.

The first phase of contact of Muslim with India begins in the beginning

of the eighth century CE with Arab invasion of Sindh under the leadership of

Mohammada-Bin-Kāsim in 712 CE13

. By this invasion, Muslims came to close

to Indian and affected the languages of each other‟s. But they were limited to

north-west India. But the second phase of this contact beginning can be seen in

the eleventh century CE when Mahmud Gazanavi attacked Seventeen times on

India. Serious competition with Sanskrit as the language of literature again

arose when the Mohammedans conquests brought Persian into play, and when

the Vernaculars in the period shortly after CE 1000, began first to influence

Sanskrit and then to develop into literary languages14

. Mohammedans invasions

brought a new literary language into prominence.

12 Syed Abdul Latif (Ed.), An Outline of the Cultural History of India, pp. 166-67.

13 Romila Thapar, A History of India, Vol. I, p. 222.

14 A.B. Keith, op. cit., p. 15.

52

In the drama, men of upper classes speak in Sanskrit while men and

women of the lower classes speak various forms of Prākrit. Sanskrit is the

language of Brāhmaṇas and educated persons, not the language of common

people. This is the reality. But we cannot say that it is a dead language. A large

number of people used it, understood it. Mahāyāna main branch of Buddhism

turned to Sanskrit shortly after the Christian era, and composed their scriptures

in Sanskrit. The Jaina scholar also contributed in the development of Sanskrit

language. Buddhist scholar Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese traveler, who visited

India between 630-644 CE, told us that the language, in which official debates

were arranged, was Sanskrit and not any provincial dialect. Sanskrit i.e. the

language of the educated, but is still a popular dialect, but Prākritic dialects,

which arose simultaneously with Sanskrit out of the ancient Indo-Àryan

vernacular15

. But we can not say that Sanskrit was dead language because it

was understood in still wider sections.

3.1 Drama

The origin of Sanskrit drama is a most interesting study in the history of

Sanskrit literature. It is an undeniable fact that Bharata‟s Nayaśāstra, the

earliest extant work on Sanskrit dramaturgy16

. The earliest forms of dramatic

literature are represented by these hymns of the Rigveda, which contain

dialogues17

. According to Bharatamuni, who wrote in his Nayaśāstra that

Brahmā derived prose from the Rigveda, music from the Sāmaveda, dramatic

performance from the Yajurveda and Rasa from the Atharvaveda and thus

composed Natya Veda? Thus, a drama is known as the fifth Veda. The drama

has had a rich and varied development in India. Thus, the Sāhityadarpaṇa of

15 A. Weber, THIL, p. 1.

16 M. A. Mehendale, op. cit., p. 257.

17 A. A. Macdonell, History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 292.

53

„Mirror of Rhetoric‟ divides the Sanskrit drama into two main classes, a higher

(rūpaka) and a lower (Uparūpaka)18

.

Dancing and music were indispensable items in the Nātaka. The Sanskrit

drama is a mixed composition of joy and sorrow. Love is the subject of most

Indian drama. The various characters in Sanskrit Nātaka speak different

dialects, accordance with their social status. Heroes, kings, Brāhamaṇs and men

of high ranks speak Sanskrit while women and men of the lower class speak

Prākrit. The Sanskrit dramas were played on stage and not merely read

privately.

The occasion for the performance of drama was usually some festival or

a royal marriage or victory celebrations. For the purposes of the Theater, the

temple, hall or courtyard of a king‟s palace was used19

. Sometimes even a cave

was used to perform a drama20

. Sūtradhāra or stage manager, according to our

dramas and Nayaśāstra must be a highly cultured man21

. But there was no

special theatre in the middle ages22

, and plays seem to have been performed in

Sańgīta-śālā or Rangśālā of a royal palace. Bhāsha was a great poet and

dramatist but Kālīdāsa is acclaimed as the best of Indian dramatists.

Bhavabhūti is the next great name after Kālīdāsa who is mentioned by Kalhaṇa

in his Rājataraṅgiṇī.

Development of Drama Writings

The well-known king Harsha or Harshavardhana or Śri Harsha, the hero

of Bāṇa‟s Harshacharita, who reigned23

(606-647CE) of Kanauj and

18 Ibid, p. 293.

19 M.A. Mehendale, op. cit.

20 ASI, 1903-1904, p. 130.

21 M. Winternitz, HIL, Vol. III, Part I, p. 188.

22 A. A. Macdonell, op.cit., p. 297.

23 EI, VII, pp. 166-67.

54

Thaneśvara was a man of letter. The drama named Ratnāvalī, Priyadarśikā and

Nāgānanda are ascribed to Harsha. He was the reputed patron of Bāṇabhaa,

Mayūra and Divākara.

The Ratnāvalī, which is Harsha‟s masterpiece, is a naikā (drama) in

four acts, which deals with the story of union of king Udayana and Ratnāvalī,

the daughter of the king Ceylon. The Priyadarśikā is also a drama in four acts,

have a common hero of the Ratnāvalī. Nāgānanda, a nātaka in five acts,

depicts the story of Jimutavāhana. Bāṇa‟ in the metrical introduction to his

Harshacharita refers to Harsha as Adhyarāja (lit. rich king) and his

achievements literary and political (Utsahair)24

.

Mahenderverman, Pallava king flourished in the first quarter of seventh

century CE (c.600-630 CE). He was not only a patron of art but was also

himself the author of a book named the Mattavilāsa-prahasan which is a farce,

described the moral degradations of the contemporary society.

The dramatist Bhavabhūti is the next name after Kālīdāsa. He was a

Brāhmaṇa of Vidarbhā (now Brār) in southern India. His name is mentioned by

Kalhaṇa in Rājataraṅgiṇi25

as a poet in the court of Yaśovaraman king of

Kānyakubja (Kanauj) who reigned during the first half of the eight-century CE.

Full name of Bhavabhūti was Śri- Kaṅatha Nīlkańaa26. Vākpati

27 also

respectfully refers to Bhavabhūti. Bhavabhūti has earned the fame so much as

on account of his skill in dramatic technique, but also on account of his mastery

24 R. K. Mookerji, Harsha, p. 157.

25 dfookZD;kfrjktJh HkoHkwR;kfn lsfor%A

ftrks i;kS ;'kksoekZ rn~xq.kLrqfrofUnrke~AA (Rt. iv, 144)

26 A.B. Keith, Sanskrit Nātaka, p. 191.

27 Gudavaho, v. 799.

55

in the use of Sanskrit language28

. But he could not enjoy any popularity in his

lifetime. He wrote three rupaka/drama i.e. Mālatī-mādhava, Mahāvīracharita

and Uttararāmacharita.

The Mahāvira-charita or the Biography of the Great Hero”, is the first

play29

of Bhavabhūti. The drama is written in seven acts. Subject matter is

related to the Rāmāyaṇa, depicting the heroic achievements of Rama‟s early

life. In this play, Mālyāvān minister of Rāvaṇa played a very important role in

it. Bhavabhūti wrote his drama under the affluence of the Arthaśāstra of

Kauilya.

The best known and the most popular of Bhavabhūti drama is the

Mālatī-mādhava, is a prakaraṇa. The drama of Mālati and Mādhava is in ten

acts. Klein has designated the Mālatī-Mādhava as “the Romeo and Juliet drama

of India30

.

The Uttararāma-charita, the second part of the Biography of Rāma,

written in seven acts, covers the later life of Rāma. Bhavabhūti narrates the

story of Sītā, discarded by Rāma. This play is related to Uttarakāṇḍa of the

Rāmāyaṇa.

Rājaśekhara, a Mahārāshtrian poet/dramatist who went to Kanauj to win

favour and fame, was the reputed teacher of king Mahenderpāla of Kanauj

(893-907). Rājaśekhara calls himself an incarnation of Bhavabhūti in this

verse31

. Rājaśekhara, a great master of words, composed four dramas, viz.,

28 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 258.

29 V.V. Mirashi, Bhavabhūti, p.11.

30 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 263.

31 cHkwo cYehdHko% dfo% iqjk] rr% izisns Hkqfo Hkr`fe.Brke~A

fLFkr% iqu;ksZ HkoHkwfrjs[k;k l orZrs laizfr jkt'ks[kj%AA

(Bālarāmāyaṇa I 16, Bālabharata II. 22).

56

Bālarāmayaņa, Karpūrmañjarī, Viddhaśāla-bhañjika and Bālabhārati. The

Bālarāmāyaṇa is a play in ten acts, narrates the whole story of Rāmāyaṇa the

Karpūrmañjarī was a play (Saaka) in four acts written in Prākrit. “The

Karpūrmañjarī is the (one of the) best comedy (ies) in Indian literature and it is

more remarkable for its style and language”32

. It describes the love story of

Chandrapāla, a king of Kanauj and Karpūrmañjarī the Kuntala‟s princess. The

Viddhaśāla-bhañjika also, a drama in four acts, is based on the five story of

king. The Bālabhārati is an incomplete drama (nataka), the poet left it

incomplete or its two acts are lost forever.

Kshmīśvara was a contemporary of Rājaśekhara in the court of

Mahipāla of Kanauj whose accession on the throne took place in CE 914. He

wrote two dramas, Viz, Naishadhananda and Chaṇḍakauśika. The

Naishadhananda describes the story of Nala and Damayanti. The

Chaṇḍakauśika is a drama in five acts depicting the famous story of king

Hariśachandra and sage Viśvamitra.

The Veṇisanihāra, written by Bhaanārāyaṇa, is a drama in six acts,

based on story of the character of the Mahābhārata, Bhīma who killed

Duśśāsana and tied the hairs of Draupadi with his blood. The Chief sentiments

of this nātaka are Vira (heroic). Bhaanārāyaṇa probably flourished before

eighth century CE because Vāmana and Ānandavardhana quote him. The title

of the play is closely associated with the dragging of Draupadi by her long

hairs.

32 T. Shipley Joseph, Encyclopaedia of Literature, p. 482.

57

Murāri, the author of Anargharaghāva belonged to the end of the eighth

or the beginning of the ninth century CE. The play is written in seven acts,

depicting the story of Rāmāyaṇa. No other later dramatist was able to

dramatize successfully Rāma-episode, after Bhavabhūti had written his

masterpiece33

.

Śaktibhadra, who was the disciple of Śankarāchārya 34

(788-820), wrote

Āścharya-chūdāmaṇī or Chūdāmaṇī, in the beginning of ninth century CE. He

belongs to Kerala. He depicted the story of Rāma in this play. Āścharya-

chūdāmaṇī is the first by a Kerala dramatist for enactment in the local theater35

.

Dāmodaramiśra wrote Mahānāaka or Hanumānnaaka. He was a court

poet under the patronage of Bhoja, king of Mālava who resided at Dhārā. This

play is found in two recessions, Dāmodaramiśra writes old edition, has fourteen

acts. Second edition is written by Madhūsūdana, has nine acts. The plot is

based on Ramāyāņa. According to Luders it is a specimen of shadow plays in

Sanskrit36

.The Ramabhyudaya is another drama written by Yaśovarmana, in six

acts, is based on Rāma story.

Kundamālā, a play, was written by Diṁnāga or Dhīranāga in 1000 CE.

The play described the story of Rāmāyaṇa.Vatsrāja was a minister and feudal

of the court of the ruler of Kāliñjar Parmardideva (1163-1203). He was a

scholar and politician. He wrote six dramas named Kirātārjunīya,

Rukminiharana, Tripuradāha, Samudramanthana, Karpūracharita and

Hāsyachuḍāmaṇi.

33 Gaurinath Sastri, CHCSL, p. 112.

34 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, Sanskrit Sahitya kā Alochanātmaka Itihāsa, p. 214.

35 S. Subramonia lyer, Sanskrit Dramas, p .1.

36 Gaurinath Shastri, op.cit., p. 114.

58

The poet Bilhaṇa wrote Karaṇasundarī (nātikā) in the eleventh century

CE. The hero of drama was the Chālukya prince Aṇhilavāḍ Karṇa. The drama

was performed in the temple of Śāntinātha on the festival of Jina Rishabha.

Krishṇamiśra wrote Prabodha-chandrodaya or “Rise of the Moon of

Knowledge” was approximately belongs to the later half of the eleventh

century CE. This play in six acts is one of the most remarkable products of

Indian Literature. He wrote his play for king Kīrtivarmana of Chandela who

ruled between 1050-1116 CE.

Jayadeva, the author of Prasanna-rāghava was a resident of Berar of the

twelfth century CE. This Jayadeva is different from the Jayadeva, famous

writer of Gītagobinda. Prasanna-rāghava, a nāţaka in seven acts, describing

the life of Rāma from his marriage to his return from Lańkā.

A large number of Sanskrit plays were written from seventh century to

twelfth century CE. There are some dramas, which have less importance.

Kshemendra, of the 11th

century CE, wrote a play named Chitrabhārata, which

is not available now. Umāpati-dhara, a contemporary of Jayadeva author of

Gita-gobinda, wrote Pārijātaharaṇa in the twelfth century CE. Rāmachandra

was a Jaina dramatist and pupil of Hemachandra. His two plays are available,

Viz Nalavilāsa in seven acts and Nirbhayabhīma. Harikelināaka is written by

Chāhamāna king Viśaladeva Vigrahrāja of Śakambharī in the twelfth century

CE. This play partially preserved in stone in Ajmer. The Laaka-melaka of

Saṅkhadhara Kavirāja of twelfth century is written during the reign of

Gobinda-Chandra of Kanauj. This play is in two acts. Yaśachandra writes

Mudrita-kumuda-chandra in twelfth century CE. This is a juristic drama.

59

3.2 Lyric Poetry

Poetry is divided into epic, lyric, dramatic etc. in modern time.

Therefore, in Sanskrit works also is so divided. The division of poetry is made

from various points of view. It did not lack in lyrical poetry, known as Gīti or

Khanḍa-Kāvyā in Indian language. Classical Sanskrit literature is very rich in

lyrical poetry. The range of lyrical literature in Sanskrit is very wide. Other

side Prākrit language is also very rich in lyrical poetry. The Sattsai or

Gāthāsaptaśati of Hāla is related to Sātavāhana dynasty, is an outstanding

work of this type. Bāṇa writer of Harshacharita refers to this work in his book.

History of Lyric Poetry starts from Vedas. The hymns of Vedas mostly

related to Gods, sacrificial and magical songs are the oldest example of poetry.

Although the Vedas are essentially religious, we find in them considerable

amount of secular learnings37

. The great lyric poet of Sanskrit is Kālidāsa.

Kālidāsa‟s Meghaduta or the “Cloud Messenger” is a lyrical gem38

, which has

been unsuccessfully imitated many times by later poets. The Ritusaṁhāra

literally means „Cycle of the Seasons‟ is the second lyric of Kālidāsa. It is a

short poem in six cantos, which describes the six seasons of the year.

Growth and Development of Lyric Poetry

Bhartrihāri was an eminent author of three śatakas viz., the Śringāra

śataka, the Nītiśataka and the Vairāgyaśataka. He flourished in the first half of

seventh century CE. He was grammarian, philosopher and poet. Some scholar

doubted his single authorship of these three poems but Indian tradition accepts

that Bhartrihāri writes these three poems. According to I-Tsing, the Chinese

traveler, it can be said that Bhartrihāri possessed a versatile mind39

.

37 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 106.

38 A. A. Macdonell, op.cit., p. 282.

39 M. L. Bhagi, Ancient India and Culture Thought, p. 144.

60

Poet Mayūra probably father-in-law of Bāṇa40

of the Seventh century

CE, was under the patronage of Harsha. The Sūryaśataka written by Mayūra is

a religious lyric in the honour of the Sun. Later on poet like Rājaśekhara

praised the Mayūra‟s work. By Mayūraśataka (eight stanzas by Mayūra), we

find that Mayūra had accurate knowledge of Kāmaśāstra.

Bāṇa, under patronage of Harshavardhana, was a great poet and writer.

He wrote Chaṇḍiśataka in 102 stanzas in honour of the Goddess Pārvatī. This

work of Bāṇa is no as attractive as the others. Many demerits appear clearly in

many stanzas41

.

Amaru or Amaruka wrote Amaruśataka or „Hundred Stanzas of Amaru‟.

But date of Amaru is not certain. Vāmana (c. 800 CE) is the earliest writer that

cites three stanzas from the Amaruśataka without naming its author.

Ānandavardhana (about 850 CE), a great thinker on poetry quotes his name.

Amaruśataka is a living picture of love and sexual joy, through its extremely

refined. This book has found the widest recognition in the hands of Sanskrit

rhetoricians. Amaru points the relation of lovers, and takes no thought of other

aspect of life42

. He had a great place in the Indian Sanskrit lyrical poetry.

According to a teacher of poetics single stanza of the poet Amaru equals a

hundred great poems43

. Kuanīmata of Dāmodaragupta, a minister44

of king

Jayāpida of Kashmir (CE 772-813) is a highly interesting small poem. It is a

representation of Harsha‟s Ratnāvalī.

Bhallaa-śataka of Bhallaa, who wrote under king Saṁkarvarman of

Kashmir, belongs to the ninth century CE. This is a collection of hundred

40 R. K. Mookerji, op.cit., p. 138.

41 A. B. Keith, HSL, pp. 210-11.

42 A. B. Keith, op.cit., p. 184.

43 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 126.

44 Rt, IV, 496.

61

stanzas in different metres. He is a junior contemporary of Ānandavardhana.

This poem contains one stanza of Ānandavardhana.

Ānandavardhana45

, the famous rhetorician of the ninth century CE,

writes also a Devīśataka, hundred highly ornate stanzas. In these hundred

stanzas addressed to goddess Bhavānī, the author, even against his own

theories so ably expressed in his Dhvanyāloka, pays more attention to the

embellishments than to suggestion46

.

The Chaurapañchasika or „Fifty stanzas of the Thief‟ of Bilhaṇa, is a

lyric poem, describing in a simple style a variety of love scenes. The Kashmiri

poet Bilhaṇa belongs to the later half of the eleventh century. According to

tradition, he had secret love of a princess and when this fact came to know, he

was ordered a death sentence. After this, he composed fifty stanzas that pleased

the king to set him free and let him marry to his daughter to Bilhaṇa. But there

is no historical background behind this tale. In the eighteen century CE

Bhāratachandra, a Bengali poet who writes popular poem named „Vidyāsundra‟

was inspired from this great work of Bilhaṇa.

Govardhana, who was a contemporary of the famous author Jayadeva,

writes Āryāsaptaśati, seven hundred Āryā verses. In this poem, we find seven

hundred erotic stanzas. His work is lacking in popularity. But this work of

Govardhana was the model for poet Bihārī Lāla who composed Satsai in Hindi

language47

.

Jayadeva produced the Gītagobinda, in which the transitional stage

between pure lyric and pure drama is represented. Jayadeva is the last great

45 Rt, V, 34.

46 G.V. Devasthali,” Language and Literature” in RC Majumdar (Ed), The Age of Imperial

Kanauj, p. 185.

47 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 135.

62

name in Sanskrit poetry that lived in the court of King Lakshmaṇasena of

Bengal in the twelfth century CE. This poem ranks high amongst Sanskrit lyric

and the poet is a gifted master of poetry. Jayadeva work is a masterpiece, and it

surpasses in its completeness of effect than any other Indian poem48

. This

poetry is the best specimen in the whole of Sanskrit literature of complete

harmony in sound and sense.

Dhoyi, a contemporary of Jayadeva, under the patronage of king

Lakshmaṇasena of Bengal (12th

century CE) wrote the poem Pawandūta in

imitation of the Meghadūta.

There are some lesser lyric poems and anthologies.

Kalyāṇamandirastotra of Siddhasena Divākara, probably of the 7th

century CE,

this poem contains forty-four stanzas. Sarvajñamitra, a Buddhist of the eight-

century CE, wrote Sragdhrāstotra, in thirty-seven stanzas, dedicated to Tārā,

the Buddhist goddess. Mahimnastotra of Pushpadanta is a religious lyric.

Utpaladeva, the teacher of Ābhinavagupta, wrote on Stotrāvalī, a collection of

twenty stanzas in the praise of Śiva in the beginning of the tenth century CE. In

the 11th

century, CE Bilvamangala or Līlāśuka wrote Krishṇakarṇāmrīta,

„Nectar for Krishaṇa‟s Ears‟. There are one hundred ten stanzas on the

glorification of Kṛishaṇa. This work is very popular and graceful in style.

3.3 Prose Literature

Prose literature has a main place in Indian Sanskrit literature. It has been

in vogue since the Vedic age. We find the earliest specimen of prose writing in

the Kṛishṇayajurveda. In the beginning, Sanskrit prose writings were not many

in numbers. After sixth century CE, we find that numbers of books were

48 A. B. Keith, op. cit., p. 194.

63

written in prose. It may be divided in two major categories i.e. fable and

romance.

There are several stages in the evolution of fables a form of literature.

Stories or tales are used as a source of entertainment or amusement. The form

of the fable is essentially dictated by its origin. The story is naturally related in

prose, but moral is fixed in the memory by being put in verse form49

.

The popular tales, beast fables and fairy tales may be three forms of

fables in classification. After short stories, come the longer, more elaborate,

and artificially narrated stories in the works of great master like, Daṇḍin, Bāṇa

and Vāsavadatta etc. These romances either are based on historical facts or are

purely imaginary. According to Amara50

, types of prose romances names are

Ākhyāyikā and Kathā.

49 A. B. Keith, op. cit., p. 244.

50 Amarakośa, I Vi, 5-6.

Prose

Romance Fable

Popular Tales

Ākhyāyikā

(Historical

basis)

Kathā

(Purely Poetic

Creation

Beast fable

Fairly tales

Buddhistic

Non-

Buddhistic

64

Works on Prose

Daṇḍin, a great Sanskrit writer, the author of Kāvyadarśa and the

Daśakumāra-charita was Bāṇa‟s compeer51

. The geographical data in

Dasakumāra-charita also seem to point to a date anterior of Harshavardhana52

.

So Daṇḍin flourished in the seventh century CE. By the study of Kāvyadarśa

and Daśakumāra-charita, it appears that he was an inhabitant of South India.

The Daśakumāra-charita or „Adventure of the ten princesses‟ of

Daṇḍin, a prose romance, is a work of Ākhyāyikā type, while his Kāvyadarśa

is a fine specimen of art in poetry. The scholar of many generations appreciated

him for his exact and clear expression and refraining from use of rhetoric in the

language. His prose produces quite a rhythm. The Daśakumāra-charita is of

great interest for cultural history53

. It contains story of common life and reflects

a corrupt state of society. But this is an incomplete text, its

beginning/introduction (Pūravapītakā) and end/conclusion (uttarapiaka) are

not from the pen of Daṇḍin, yet it ranks among the master pieces of Sanskrit

literature.

Subandhu may have flourished later than Daṇḍin but earlier than Bāṇa.

He wrote Vāsavadatta before CE 608-09, as it is referred to by Jinabhadra54

in a

Bhāshya finished in that year. Subandhu may be placed in the beginning of the

seventh century CE. We know nothing about the life of the writer and not find

his any other work mentioned anywhere. Vāsavadatta, has a brief romantic

theme, relates the story of Prince Kandarpaketu, the son of king Chintamaṇi

and princess Vāsavadatta, daughter of king of Kusumapura. This is a fine

51 V. Raghavan,” Sanskrit Kāvya Literature: A General Survey” S.K. Chatterji (Ed.), op. cit., p.

223.

52 Collins, The Geographical Data of the Raghuvaṁśa and Daśakumāra-chartia, p. 46.

53 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 393.

54 G.V. Devasthali,” Literature” in RC Majumdar (Ed.), The Classical Age, p. 316.

65

Kathā- a story of love and romance. He possesses mastery in the use of words

and expressions having two meanings. Subandhu was a great writer of India

and pre-eminent master of Gadya-Kāvya (prose).

Bāṇa or Bāṇabhaa, the author of Harshacharita and Kādambarī,

which are respectively an Ākhyāyikā and a Kathā. He is the first poet/author,

about whose life and age we know very much. Bāṇa flourished under king

Harshavardhana of Kanauj (606-47). He was a Brāhmaṇa and a court-poet of

Harsha. He wrote Harshacharita55

, the first prose historical Kāvya, is a

biography. This is not only the biography of a king, but also biography of poet

himself and a unique combination of both. This book helps us to know the

social, economical, political and religious condition of India. It seems that this

work is complete after study. It is not probable that this is the actual end of the

work or that the poet left the work incomplete. Rather we are to assume that the

end is lost to us56

. It is a unique work in Sanskrit literature.

The Kādambarī, on the other hand, is a Kathā57

, a story of love and

romance. It remained incomplete due to death of Bāṇa while he was working

on it. However, it was continued and completed by his own son

Bhūshaṇabhaa or Bhaa Pulina58

. The theme of this book is a fascinating

love story of Chandrapīda and Kādambarī, it shows through successive deaths

and re-births. Running parallel with the main story, we also find the love-

episode of Pundarika and Mahāśveta. One-side European scholars criticize the

work of Bāṇa, and other side Indian scholars praise him. Bāṇa‟s appearance in

55 Ed. by P.V. Kane Tr. by E.B. Cowell and F.W. Thomas Hindi Tr. by V.S. Aggarwal.

56 M. Winternitz,op. cit., p. 405.

57 A. B. Keith, op. cit,. p. 319.

58 M. Winternitz,op. cit.

But Pulinda or Pulina according to S.K. Chatterji (Ed.), CHI, p. 223.

66

prose was like Kālīdāsa in poetry and drama59

. As a work of history, the

Harshacharita is of limited value but the Kādambarī is too much value through

many folds with reference to manner and customs of that time in particular to

religious life of Śaiva60

. Indian critic/scholars recognize and appreciate the

extra-ordinarily rich creative work of Bāṇa.

We do not find proper Gadya-Kāvya after Bāṇabhaa, about four

centuries from seventh century to tenth century CE work was done, in

classical-epics not in prose. Anānda, a disciple of Bhaa Vidhyadhara wrote

Mādhavānala-Kāmakandalā-Kathā. This work came, not earlier than 11th

century CE. Probably this work was done in honour of Bhoja61

, during the

period of his reign. However, we know nothing definitely about his time. But it

belongs to the most popular stories of India.

Dhanapāla (c.1000 CE) son of Servadeva62

, wrote the Tilakamañjarī,

prose stories or romance, composed in imitation of Bāṇa's Kādambarī.

Dhanapāla was impressed by his brother Śobhana's advices and became Jaina63

.

He was a court-poet of king Bhoja of Dhārā64

and he tried to impress the king

by teachings of Jaina religion. Vādībhasiṁha, real name Odayadeva, another

Digāmbara Jaina, wrote Gadya-Chintāmaṇi in the eleventh or twelfth century

CE. He closely imitates the Kādambarī of Bāṇa in his work. It describes the

life of king Satyadhara and his son Jivandhara65

. King Chittaraja patronized

59 V. Raghvan, op. cit.,

60 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 409.

61 ibid, p. 375.

62 G.V.Devasthali,”Language and Literature” in R. C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial

Kanauj, p. 187.

63 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, op. cit., p. 276.

64 Ibid, pp. 277-78.

65 M. A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker,” Language and Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.),

The Struggle for Empire, p. 313.

67

Soḍḍhala (eleventh century CE). He wrote Udayasundarīkathā (1025-50)66

.

But none of the later authors had composed anything comparable to the earlier

works of Bāṇa, Daṇḍin and Subandhu.

The fables and fairy tales occupy a very important place in the history of

Indian literature. The old tales are reflected in the Jatakas and Avadāna. These

fables are a treasure house of political and practical wisdom. These tales were

the media of imparting useful knowledge to keep the youngsters away from the

paths of evil. The short stories in Indian literature may be divided in three

major parts i.e. the popular tales, the beast-fables and the fairy tales. The

popular tales again may be sub-divided into Buddhistic and non-Buddhistic.

Guṇādhya's Brihatkathā, an important work among popular tales, is

written in Paiśāchī Prākrit, a dialect spoken in the northwestern parts of India.

A great loss in Indian literature is the disappearance of this book in original

form, a work that was ranked beside the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa67

.

Most probably, he was in the Satavāhana court between the first and fourth

century CE68

. But the story has been preserved in three Sanskrit works -two

Kashmirians and one Nepalese.

One version of the Brihatkathā is the Buddhasvāmin's Ślokasaṁgraha

(composed between the eight and the ninth century CE), the manuscripts of

which are from Nepal. After comparing with other two versions, it shows that

this one is more faithful to the original than the two Kashmiri version69

. But it

is matter of deep regret for us that we do not possess the complete work of

Buddhasvāmin‟s.

66 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, op. cit., p. 279.

67 A. B. Keith, op. cit., p. 266.

68 V. Raghvan, op. cit, p. 227.

69 M. A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit., p. 314.

68

Second of the three versions, Kashmiri Kshemendra's

Brihatkathāmañjarī is based on the story of Brihatkathā. He wrote this work in

about 1037 CE70

. The main story has been given in concise and abridged form.

It contains about 7500 verses71

from original Brihatkathā. The incidents

mentioned by the author in the work, are remarkable for their excellent verse.

But scholars have not very much appreciated the work.

Somadeva, a Brāhmaṇa of Kashmir between 1063 CE to 1081 CE,

writes Kathāsaritsāgara, “ocean of streams of the stories”72

. It is divided into

124 chapters, called taraṅgs or waves73

to be in keeping in mind title of the

work. Independent of these is another division into eighteen books called

lambakas. He states the real basis of this work to have been the Brihatkathā.

Kshemendra and Somadeva worked independently of each other. But

Somadeva in the course of his narration tells much more than what

Kshemendra and Buddhasvāmina did74

.

Brihatkathā occupies a great place in popular tales. This work was very

important, interesting and popular. Daṇḍin, Subandhu and Bāṇa mention the

Brihatkathā as early as seventh century CE. Dhanañjaya writer of Daśarūpaka

has placed the work equallent to the Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata.

Trivikrambha's Nalachampū (915 CE) and Somadeva in his work

Yaśastilakachampū praised this work.75

So many Indian scholars have praised

the work of Guṇadhya.

70 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 352.

71 Gaurinath Shastrī, op. cit., p. 136.

72 Kathā Sarita Sāgara, xxxii.

73 A. A. Macdonell, HSL, p. 319.

74 M. A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit.,

75 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, op. cit., pp. 310-11.

69

The most ancient book of the fable extant76

is the Pañchatantra. This

work, popular collection in narrative form, is a remarkable storehouse of fairy

tales and beast fables. But this work is not available in original form, and the

authorship and the exact date of this work is not known. The Pañchatantra is

the question of Nīti (right conduct) its composition for the instruction of the

sons of a prince77

.

Later on, the Pañchatantra attributed to Vishṇuśarmā, written in five

parts in clear lucid style with a mixture of prose and verse. These parts deal

with Mitra-bheda (separation of friends), Mitra-prāpti (winning of friends),

Sandhi-vigraha (war and peace), Labdha-nasa (loss of one's gain) and

Avarikshita Karya (hasty action)78

. The importance of this work may be judged

from the fact that this book has been translated into over fifty-five language of

the world79

. This is the first book of Indian literature, which was published in

English80

.

The Hitopadeśa is another beast-fable literature written by Nārāyaṇa

Paṇḍita. The author gives his name as Nārāyaṇa, whose patron was Dhavala

Chandra, as one manuscript of the work is dated 1373 CE81

. According to

Keith, its date cannot be later than the eleventh century CE.

3.4 Historical Writings

Although Indian literature was very rich in ancient time but this is a fact

that Historical writings were not as rich as other writings. The charges often

leveled against Indians, that they lacked historical sense. Especially Alberūni

76 A. Weber, op. cit., p. 211.

77 A. B. Keith, op. cit., p. 244.

78 S. C. Raychoudhary, SCEHI (AT), p. 221.

79 Ibid.

80 A. L. Basham, The wonder that was India.

81 op. cit., p. 263.

70

(CE 1030) levelled this charge on Indians. The so-called historical Kāvyās are

more poetical works than historical document. There is no one writer who can

be seriously regarded as a critical historical in the whole of the great period of

Sanskrit literature. There may be so many reasons behind this fact. It may be

political condition of India, national feelings, doctrine of Karma, belief in

destiny, doctrine of the periodical creation and destruction of world, Indian

caste system, belief in magic and miracle and so many.

Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited India in the

reign of King Harshavardhana in the seventh century CE, testifies to the

existence of an official for each province whose task was to maintain written

records of „good and evil events, with calamities and fortunate occurrence.82

So

students of History face the problem of lack of historical sources, lack of

chronological History, difference among the ancient records, mixture of fiction

and facts etc.

It has recently been objected the old charges, leveled on Indians that

India had no historian and no historical sense. It is admitted by all that

Kalhaṇa, writer of Rājataraṅgiṇī, is the most successful of all Indian

historians. This work is the main source of history to know history of Kashmir

and India in systematic and modern way.

The beginning of Indian history is to be traced to the Purāṇas, which

contain historical portions. The inscriptions are an important source of our

knowledge of history. The beginning of the historical kāvya can be traced, to

the gāthās and in the praśastis (eulogies). There is in these compositions a

curious mixture of history, myth legend and imagination. Rāmachandra who

styles himself Kavīśvara composses Praśastis of the eight-century CE. He

82 S. Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, I, p. 78.

71

displays his mastery over language in a poem of fourteen stanzas. A similar

phenomenon is observed in the inscription of Lalitasuradeva in the ninth

century CE83

Following historical writings are main in early medieval India.

Growth and Development

Bāṇathaa‟s Harshacharita is a historical document of seventh century

CE. This narrates in details many of the incidents connected with the life of the

king Harshavardhana. Bāṇa was the court poet of Harsha. Harshacharita

describes the marriage of Rājyaśrī with Grahavarmana, death of Harsha‟s

father Prabhākaravardana, murder of Grahavarmana, imprisonment of his

sister, murder of his brother, how he escapes his sister Rājyaśrī. This book is

very important as a prose romance in the historical literature of India. Daṇdin

praises Bāṇa in his Avantisundarikathā84

.

Vākpatirāja, who describes himself a pupil of Bhavabhūti the great

dramatist, was under the patronage of Yaśovarmana, King of Kanauj. Vākpati

wrote Gaudavāho in Prākrit, a very important historical work in 725 CE, before

the defeat of his patron Yaśovarmana at the hands of Lalitāditya Muktāpida of

Kashmir85

. Kalhaṇa refers to Yaśovarmana, the patron of Vākpati and

Bhavabhūti86

.

Navasāhasańka-charita of Padmagupta or Parimala is the important

historical Kāvya. He was the court poet of Sindhurāja Navasāhasaṅka of

Mālavā. This work is in eighteen cantos, describes the winning of Princess

Śaśiprabhā, and refers to the history of his patron. He belonged to end of the

83 G. V. Devasthali,”Language and Literature” in R. C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial

Kanauj, p. 184.

84 fHkUuLrh{.k eq[ksukfi fp=ka ck.ksu fuO;FkZ% 1 v 19. 85 A. D. Pusalker, “Sanskrit Historics and Chronicles” in S. K. Chatterji (Ed.), op.cit., p.

286. 86 Rt, IV, p. 144.

72

tenth century CE or the beginning of the eleventh century CE, because Bhoja,

Kshemendra and Vardhamāna mention Padmagupta.

Sandhyākara Nandin‟s Rāmacharita (eleventh-twelfth century CE), in

four cantos, describes the story of Rāma and history of Rāmapala of (c. 1084-

1130) of Bengal, who recaptured his ancestral home from Bhīma, a Kaivarta

Chief and conquered Mithila. It is a śleshakāvya (the stanzas having double

meaning). It possesses great historical value as a contemporary record, but fails

as a poetical composition.

Vikramānkadeva-charita of the Kashmiri Bilhaṇa87

is important

historical work in the history. Bilhaṇa, son of Jyeshtha-Kalaśa and Nāgadevi,

was under the patronage of Vikramāditya VI (1076 – 1127CE) a Chālukya

King of Kalyaṇa. Bilhaṇa was born in Kashmir but he left his home perhaps

under Kalaśa reign. He visited Mathurā, Kanauj, Prayāga and Kāśī, after

wandering here and there, he reached the court of Vikramāditya VI. He

received a title of Vidyāpati (Master of Science or director of Education) from

his patron88

. Bilhaṇa glorified his patron by his work in eighteen cantos. In the

beginning of this work, he mentions origin of the Chālukya dynasty, and in the

last gives us an account of the author himself. Bilhaṇa wrote Karaṇasundarī, a

semi historical drama and Chaurpañchasikā a lyrical epic also. This is fact that

he was more a poet than a historian was but his works gives us many historical

facts and helps us to build the history.

After Bilhaṇa, Kashmiri Kalhaṇa is the best of the Indian historians who

flourished in the middle of the twelfth century CE. He wrote Rājataraṅgiṇī, the

chronicles of the King of Kashmir right from the beginning to his own days.

87 ibid , VII, 937.

88 A. B. Keith, op.cit., p. 153.

73

His father Chaṇpaka, doubtless a Brahmin, was a minister of king Harsha

(1089 - 1101)89

Kalhaṇa flourished during the reign of King Jaya Singh (1127-

1149 CE). He started to write this work in 1148 CE and completed in 1150

CE90

.

The Rājataraṅgiṇī is the only reliable book on the history of Kashmir

after the death of King Harsha when the country passed through stormy bloody

days. It is the only work in Sanskrit literate, which approaches history to a

certain extent according to European scholars.

Kalhaṇa was well versed in mahākāvyas and historical Kāvya, work on

astrology, polity, administration, law, poetics, geography, economics, erotic,

and also the epics and legendary love91

. The work is extraordinarily rich

sources of information. “All that we have points, therefore to a mind very

busily in contact with reality, observing intently the process of current events in

lieu of becoming a mere book-work, and endeavoring to find satisfaction for a

keen intellect in recording the events around him and those of earlier days in

lieu of participation in affairs traditional in his family and congenial to his

taste92

.

Hemachandra (1088-1172 CE), a Śvetāmbara Jaina Āchārya, wrote

Kumārapālacharita or Dvyāśrayakāvya in honour of his patron Chālukya king

of Aṇhilvāḍa, Kumārapāla. This work in two languages, partly in Sanskrit and

partly in Prākrit, it proves its author at the same time a poet, a historian and a

grammarian of two languages. This work is in twenty-eight cantos, twenty

cantos in Sanskrit and eight Cantos in Prākrit. This work is very important

89 ibid-, p. 158.

90 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, op.ci., p. 157.

91 A. D.Pusalker, op. cit., p. 288. 92 A. B. Keith ,op. cit., p. 161.

74

from historical point of view, which provides us much information related to

Gujarat and King Kumārapāla etc.

Towards the close of twelfth century CE, probably a product of

Kashmir, (probably by Kashmiri Jayanka), anonymous Prithvīrājavijaya, was

written which is a historical poem. It describes the victories of Chāhamāna

King, Pṛithvīrāja of Ajmer, who defeated the Shīhab-ud-din-Mohammed

Ghaurī in 1191 CE. Jonarāja (c. 1448) of Kashmir is cemented on it.

Minor Historical Kāvya

There are some other minor historical works of this period but none is

comparable with the work of Kalhaṇa. According to Kalhaṇa, Saṅkula wrote

Bhuvanā-bhyudaya (c.850 CE) mentioning the battle of Mamma and Utpala of

Kashmir but unfortunately, we have no source to know this work93

. Sanbhu

(eleventh century CE) wrote Rājendra Karṇapūra in praise of his patron

Harsha, king of Kashmir (1089- 1101 CE). Atula (eleventh century) wrote

Mūśikavaṁśa, in fifteen cantos, described kings, which ruled over the Mūśika

kingdom i.e. South Travoncore. Another Kashmiri, Jalhaṇa mentioned by

Maṅikha as a member of the Sabhā of Alāṁkāra94

, wrote Somapālavilāsa in

honour of the King of Rājapurī. The Kīrtikaumudi, written by Someśvara or

Someśvaradatta (1179-1262 CE) gives us an account of the Vāghela dynasty of

Gujarat. Another work of this poet is the Surathotsava also describes

Vastupāla, a well-known minister of the prince of Gujarat.

3.5 Epics

The earliest writings that have come down to us in Sanskrit, the

Rigvedic hymns are in the form of poetry. The epic has been no exception and

93 Rt., IV , 704-05.

94 A. B. Keith, op. cit., p 172.

75

many scholars have tried to show the germs of the epic can be found in the

Sāmaveda hymns, the dialogue between Pururavas and Urvaśi95

. The oldest

form of prose is also found in Sanskrit, Vedic literature i.e. the Brāhmaṇas.

Sanskrit rhetoricians also regard prose as one of the divisions of Kāvya.

According to them Kāvya is divided into three parts- Gadya, Padya and

Miśra96

.

Writing of epics begins from the Ādikavi Bālmiki. We have two great

epics the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata. The features of epics may be

divided into two parts-essential and non-essential. The plot (Vastu), the hero

(Netri) and the sentiments (Rasa) are essential characteristics to compose an

epic. The non-essential characteristics of an epic are following. They require

1. It should begin with a benediction, salutation or statement of facts,

2. Chapters /sections should be in sarga,

3. The number of cantos should not less than eight and not exceed thirty

and cantos may be small or large.

4. That there should be descriptions of sunrise, sunset, pools, garden,

moon, night, marriage, sports, forest, darkness, hunting, etc.

Viśvanātha in his Sāhityadarpaṇa mentions the characteristics of epic in

detail.97

Works on Epics

Bhāravi, writer of an epic named Kirātārjunīya, who was a friend of

king Kubjavishṇuvardhana (c.608) the founder of the Eastern Chālukya

95 Rig-veda, X 95.

96 Ik|a x|a p fe=a p rr~ f=|So O;ofLFkre~A Kavyadarsa I,II

Agnipurana (337-38) declares the same:

Ik|a x|a p fe=a p f=fo| Le`re~

97 VI, 315-325.

76

dynasty of Vengi98

. Bhāravī name is mentioned along with great poet Kālīdāsa

in the famous Aihole inscription (CE 634) of Pulakeśina II. This epic contains

eighteen cantos, is based on the Mahābhārata. The poem describes how Arjuna

obtained the Divine Missile called paśupata weapon from Śiva after

Tapasya.However, Bhāravī is not as great as Kālīdāsa but he was an

outstanding poet, who left behind in a great mark in the field of literature. In

Indian manuals of poetics, his name always remains among the greatest poets.

According to Indian tradition as a contemporary of Kālīdāsa,

Kumāradāsa whose epic Janakiharaṇa is based on the Rāmāyaṇa. It is

believed that Kumāradāsa was the king of Ceylon (517-26 CE) who might have

been a friend of Kālīdāsa. But he knew Kaśikāvṛitti (c.650 CE) while on the

other hand he must have been known to Vāmana (c.800 CE). Finally, he was

probably earlier than Māgha who seems to echo a verse of his99

. Rājaśekhara

mentions him as a poet of remarkable talent. This epic is in twenty-five cantos.

The poet describes all the incidents of Rāma‟s life in a sweet and simple life.

Kumāradāsa was not only a poet but also a great grammarian whose reputation

made him immortal throughout the ages.

Bhai, the author of Rāvaṇavadha (The Slay of Rāvaṇa) or Bhaikāvya

was a court poet of Śridharasena, king of Vallabhī in the seventh century CE.

We find four Dharasenas in history, the last of whom died in 651 CE and

Bhai flourished this time probably. He is certainly earlier than Māgha and

was known to Bhāmaha100

. He has been identified with Bhartrihari who died in

651 CE by some commentators. This epic is based on story of Rama‟s life in

twenty-two cantos. Indian always held Bhaikāvya as a work of poetry in high

98 V.Raghvan , op.cit., p 216.

99 A. B. Keith , op.cit., p 119.

100 G.V. Devasthali,”Literature” in RC Majumdar (Ed), The Classical Age, p. 312.

77

estimation and include in among their classical poetical works, and infect it

fully deserve the name of a „Mahākāvya‟101

.

On the same lines, not much later Bhai, Bhauma or Bhaumika, or

Bhīma, a Kashmiri poet of considerable merit, composed the Ravanarjuniya or

Arjunaravaniya. This poem narrates the story of Arjuna Kartavirya and Rāvaṇa

in twenty-seven cantos.

Māgha, son of Dattakasavasraya, grandson of Suprabhadeva, was a

meritorious poet, perhaps after Bhāravi. Ānandavardhana, the great rhetorician

(c.850 CE) mentions him. Perhaps Suprabhadeva grandfather of Māgha was a

minister of a king whose name was Varamlata or Varmalakhya etc. We have an

inscription of one king Varamlata of 625 CE. Therefore, that Māgha may be

placed in the latter half of the seventh century CE102

. Māgha wrote the

Śiśupālavadha, or “Death of Śiśupāla” a work of great literary value in twenty

cantos based on a legend of the Mahābhārata. Māgha imitates Bhāravi. So he

has been compared with Bhāravi. Māgha‟s theme is borrowed like that of

Bhāravi from the Mahābhārata, but while Bharavi magnifies Śiva, Māgha does

Vishṇu103

. In the manuals of poetics, this epic is quoted very frequently and the

Indian scholar of poetics held him in high esteem.

Sivasvamina, a Kashmiri Buddhist, during the reign of king

Avantivarmana of Kashmir in the ninth century CE, has given us an epic

named Kapphana-bhyudaya in twenty cantos. This is based on a tale in the

Avadana-śataka. He was highly influenced by Bhāravī and Māgha. He was the

101 M. Winternitz , op.cit., p.78.

102 G.V. Devasthali, op cit., p.311.

103 A. B. Keith , op.cit., p.124.

78

prodigious author of seven mahākāvyas, several plays, songs and eleven

hundred thousand hymns on Śiva104

.

Kashmirian poet named Rajanaka Ratnakara, son of Amritabhanu whose

epic Haravijaya or Victory of Śiva, in fifty cantos, is based on the slaying of

the demon Andhaka by Śiva. Ratnakara tell us that he wrote Haravijaya under

the patronage of Prince Chippaḍe Jayapida and we learn from Kalhaṇa that he

was prominent under Avantivarmana, who began his reign in 855 CE.105

Another work of Ratnakara is Vakroktipañchśika and Dhvanigathapanjika. He

was called Vagiśvara (lord of speech). Bāṇa and Māgha influenced him.

Another Kashmirian Abhinanda, son of Jayanta Bhaa, the logician

who wrote Kādambari-kathāsāra in the ninth century CE. It describes in eight

cantos the story of Bāṇa‟s Kādambarī. He refers to Rājaśekhara as a

contemporary. In Bengal at that time under the patronage of Pala king probably

Dharmapāla, is the author of Ramacharita also named Abhinanda son of

Satananda. This long epic is in thirty-six cantos.

Kashmir in the eleventh century CE produced a writer named

Kshemendra. He wrote two great epics, Rāmāyaṇamañjari and

Bharatamañjari.But Dasāvtar-charitram, which is not strictly a Mahākāvya

nor a religious poem, describe the ten incarnations of Vishṇu. Kshemendra

surnamed Vyāsadāsa, was the son of Prakashendra. His literary activities

extended also to the period of Kalaśa, son and successor of Ananta106

.

Kashmir again produced an interesting writer named Maṅkha. He was a

pupil of Ruyyaka of the twelfth century CE. He wrote Śrikanthacharita in

twenty-five cantos, based on the tale of the destruction of the demon Tripura by

104 V.Raghvan , op.cit., p. 217.

105 M. Winternitz , op.cit., p.77.

106 M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit., p. 299.

79

Śiva. This epic possessing some historical interest as an assembly of learned

men, held under the patronage of the poet‟s brother Alankara, a minister of

Jayasimha of Kashmir (1127-1150 CE). This epic is written in a highly ornate

style.

An interesting and characteristic figure of the latest stage of classical

kāvya is Śriharsha‟s Naisadha-charita or Naisadhiya-charita is twenty-two

long cantos. He probably flourished under Jayachandra and Vijayachandra of

Kanauj in the latter half of the twelfth century CE. Muhammad Ghauri in 1194

CE defeated Jayachandra107

. The story of Nala and Damayanti is the central

theme of this Kāvya. This work is counted, as the fifth panch-

mahakavya108

.This is the outstanding work of this period. According to Indian

tradition, Śriharsha‟s name is placed with Kālīdāsa, Bhāravī and Māgha. He is

also author of other works including the Khandana-Khandakhadya. He was a

great scholar of different systems of Indian philosophy and possessed a unique

command over grammar, rhetoric and lexicon.

Some Jaina writers have written some Mahākāvya. They describe the

Jaina legends in poetic garb, as also for historical and biographical accounts.

Among the Jain epics may be mentioned the Harivanśapurāṇa, written by the

Digāmbara Jaina Jinasena, disciple of Virasena of the eight century CE. This

epic is in sixty-six cantos, describing the story of the Mahābhārata in a Jinistic

setting. It contains very valuable information of historical importance. It

mentions the names of the contemporary rulers of the period (composed in 783

CE)109

.

107 K. A. Nilkanta Shastri, Advanced History of India, p. 339.

108 V.Raghvan, op. cit ., p. 217.

109 Gulab Chander Choudhary, Political History of Northern India from Jain Sources, p. 1.

80

Jinasena, disciple of Kirtisena, has given us Parshvabhyudaya, probably

in the ninth century CE. He has incorporated the entire text of Kalidāsa‟s

Meghduta while relating the story of Pashravnātha. Ravisena in 678 CE wrote

Padamapurāṇa, containing a glorification of the first Tirthankara Rishabh.

Yaśodharacharita of Kanakasena Vadirāja, a resident of Dravida country in the

last of the tenth century CE or first quarter of the eleventh century CE. This

epic is in four cantos, describing the legend of king Yaśodhara. Another work

of the same name written by Manikya Suri belongs probably to the eleventh

century. It represents the work of a Svetambara Jain of Gujarat, as opposed to

the Digāmbara version of Vadirāja, but both are independent110

.

Another Tamil Jaina Odayadeva Vadibhasimha (eleventh century CE)

composed the Kshtra-chudamaṇi. Viranandin wrote the Chabdraprabha-

charita in 978 CE. Asaga wrote the Vardhamana-charita or the Mahavira-

charita or the Sanmitra-charita in the tenth century CE. This is the long epic in

eighteen cantos. Lolimbaraja (c 1100 CE) wrote his Harivilasa in five cantos.

He describes the Krishṇa legend.

Superior in merit and extent is the work of Hemachandra (1088-1172)

named Trishashti-śalakapurusa-charita, describes in ten cantos, and handles

the lives of the sixty-three best men of Jain faith, the twenty-four Jinas, twelve

Chakravartins, nine Vasudevas, nine Baladevas and nine Visnudvisas111

. This

epic is long, in simple language. Hemachandra is known as the

Kalikalasarvajña (the know-all of the Kaliyuga)112

. Harichandra of unknown

date, author of the Dharmaśarmabhyudaya, in twenty-one cantos devoting the

life of Dharamanātha, the fifteenth Jaina Tirthankara. Neminirvana is an epic in

110 A.B. Keith, op. cit. , p. 142.

111 Ibid, p. 143.

112 V.Raghvan, op. cit., p. 218.

81

fifteen cantos by the writer on poetics Vagbhaa probably in the twelfth

century CE. This epic is deals with Neminātha‟s life.

3.6 Champū Literature

A particular type of Kāvya, in which the composition is mixed prose and

verse, is called Champū. We find a tendency to use prose and verse together in

earliest time. Originally, this mixed style can be traced in religious and

scholastic writings113

, especially in the Brāhmaṇa. Through the Jatakamālā and

the inscription of Harisena, clear cases of something, this may be deemed fairly

like the Champū114

. Yet the earliest work of this type, written in full Kāvya

style, belongs to the tenth century CE115

. This is a remarkable point that this

type of Kāvyas (Champū) flourished in Southern India116

. The scholars adopted

this way to express their knowledge and erudite. But there was no definite

technique, to form this type of literature. Scholars defined it merely as a Kāvya

in prose and verse.

Nalachampū or Damayanti-Kathā of the poet Trivikramabhaa, is the

most famous and first work in this fashion. He narrates the Nala story in an

ornate style in c 915 AD117

. The Madālasa-champū is another work of

Trivikrama son of Nemāditya. He was a court poet of Rāshrakūa king of

Indra III118

. In the same century, the versatile Digāmbara Jaina scholar

Somadeva Sūri, the author of Yaśastilakchampū composed in śaka 881 (c. 959

CE)119

during the reign of the Rāshrakūa king Krishaṇa III (940-968 CE)120

.

113 Ibid, p. 224.

114 A.B. Keith, HSL, p. 332.

115 G.V. Devasthali,”Language and Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial

Kanauj, p. 188.

116 M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit., p. 313.

117 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, op. cit., p. 313.

118 G.V. Devasthali, op.cit.

119 ibid

120 V. D. Mahajan, op. cit., p. 682.

82

Another Champū produced in south India in this period, Harichandra's

Jīvanadhara-Champū that is based on the Uttarapurāṇa of Guṇabhadra and

cannot be before 900 CE121

. This is not certain, whether this writer is the same

as the Harichandra Digāmbara Jaina who wrote Dharamśarmābhyudaya. There

is no chronological difficulty because that author copies both Māgha and

Vākpati.

The Rāmāyaṇa Champū is ascribed to king Bhoja and Lashmaṇa

Bhaa122 in the eleventh century CE. It narrates the story of Rāma. There is

another Champū named the Bhārata-Champū by Anant, in twelve sections, of

uncertain date. In the last, we may mention the famous champū, the

Udayasundrīkathā of Soddhala of the eleventh century CE. He imitates the

Bāṇa's Harshcharita. He was under patronage of king of Mummuṇirāja of the

Konkaṇ.123

"

121 A.B. Keith, op. cit., p. 336.

122 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 414.

123 A.B. Keith, op. cit., p. 336.

83

PART-II

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

3.7 Grammar

Grammar, science of language124

is one of the most important branches

of Sanskrit literature. Grammar is called Vyākaraṇa, i.e. the law of the

correctness of their speech and etymological rules, by means of which they

acquire an eloquent and classical style in both writing and reading125

.

Vyākaraṇa (Grammar) means analysis, separation of one from another.

According to Ānandavardhana-grammar constitute the foundation of all

sciences126

. This is a unanimous fact that Brahmā was the founder of all

Śāstras. The origin of Sanskrit grammar is mysterious also. The first-ever

mention of it by name is found in Gopatha Brāhmaṇa127

. The beginning of,

study of Grammar can be traced to the period of Brāhmaṇas.

The earliest important work on Grammar is Yāska's Nirukta (a work on

Vedic etymology), a subject included in the six vedāṅgas. Grammar is the most

important of the Vedāṅgas128

. The first most important systematic treatise on

this subject is Pāṇini's Ashadhyāyi (6th

-4th

century BC). Next name in this

field, that follows Pāṇini, is Kātyāyan (c. 3rd

BCE). Kātyāyan was followed by

Patañjali (c. 2nd

BCE) who wrote Mahābhāshya, a great commentary. In ancient

India, grammar was given a prominent place in the world of śastras and was

described “as the mouth of the Vedas”129

.

124 A. Webber, op. cit., p. 216.

125 E.C. Sachau, AI, p. 121.

126 Dhvanyāloka I, 16.

127 I. 24.

128 Patanjali, in the introduction of Mahabhāshya.

129 S.C. Raychoudary , op. cit., p. 227.

84

After that many number of works on this subject, are found in ancient

India. In early medieval India, this subject was very famous and popular and

several works were done on it. Though other grammarians appeared from time

to tome, Pāṇini's sūtras provided the foundations on which they sought to

build130

.

Works on Pāṇini School

After the three sages of ancient India i.e. Pāṇini, Kātyāyana and

Patañjali, we may place the name of Bhartṛihari in this field. He was a

philosopher and grammarian both, flourished in the first half of the seventh

century CE. According to I-Tsing when he says that a great grammarian died in

651 CE131

, this date is considered to Bhartrihari. He wrote a commentary on

Mahābhāshya of Patañjali, thought his commentary has not come down to

us132

. Bhartrihari is known as the author of the Vākyapadīya, a grammatical-

philosophical work in three kāṇḍas i.e. Brahma Kaṇḍa, Vākya-Kāṇḍa, and

Prakīrṇaka (hence, Vākyapadiya is also called 'Trikaṇḍi')

Vāmana and Jayaditya, both Budhhist writers, wrote the Kāśikā-vṛitti133,

a commentary on the Sūtras of Pāṇini. This work is admittedly the best,

because of brevity and clarity, commentary par excellence on the sutras of

Pāṇini.134

The Kāśika was the joint work of both; Jayaditya left it incomplete

(due to his death c. 660 CE). Vāmana gave it the definite and finished form.

But I-Tsing mentioned Jayaditya as it‟s only author. This book was very

popular among the Buddhist scholars of Sanskrit language I-Tsing himself was

taught Sanskrit through this grammar. The Kāśikā-Vṛitti has two important

130 S.R. Sharma, Ancient Indian History and Culture , p. 140.

131 Takakusu, I-Tsing p. 180.

132 G.V. Devasthali,”Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Classical Age, p. 320.

133 Ed. In Banarasa Sanskrit Series.

134 M. Winternitz, HIL, Vol III, part II, p. 433.

85

commentaries. First one excellent and exhaustive commentary called the Nyāsa

or Kāśikavivaraṇapañjika by the Buddhist Jinendrabudhi.

Māgha mentions this work Nyāsa135

. Bāmaha, the great rhetorician,

refers to Jinendrabudhi also. Therefore, he flourished before the eight century

CE. Second commentary is called Padamañjarī, and Haradyātta writes this

kāśika. He was son of Padamakumāra and a resident of south India, probably

flourished in the twelfth century CE. It is an invaluable treatise. Another

Buddhist Saraṇadeva wrote Durgaa-vrītti136

in 1172 CE, dealing with the

difficult passage of Pāṇini's text. In the eleventh century, the Asadhyāyi was

given a form by the Buddhist scholar, Dharmakīrti137

. He rearranged some of

the useful sūtras topicwise.

Kaiyaa, son of Jaiyyaa Upādhyāya probable resident of Kāshmir,

wrote the Pradīpa, a commentary on the Mahābhāshya of Patañjali. Kaiyaa is

one of the most authoritative writer among the school of Pāṇini and flourished

probably in the eleventh century CE.

Purushottamadeva was a great grammarian of the twelfth century CE.

He wrote voluminous works, about twelfth granths138

. His work Bhāsha-vṛītti is

a Vṛītti on the sūtras of Pāṇini and sections on Vedic accent are left out.

The later Schools

Among none Pāṇinean grammarians/schools may be mentioned in the

later schools i.e. Buddhist scholar Chāndragomin: the Chandra Vyākaraṇa

135 Śiśupālavadha II, 112.

136 Ed, by Gaņapatisastri T. S.S. 6, 1909.

137 Satya Vrat Śastrī, Vyākaraṇachārya,”Sanskrit Grammer” in S.K. Chatterji (Ed.), op. cit.,

p. 315.

138 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, op. cit., p. 387.

86

school (fifth century); the Jainendra school (c. sixth Century); The Sākayana

school; Hemachandra school; Kātantra school and many others.

The Śākaāyana School: The Śabdānuśāsana139

by Pālyakirti (ninth

century CE) now goes by the name of Śākaayāna Vyākaraṇa140

. But this

Śākaayāna (the founder of a new school) is totally different from the ancient

Śākaayāna mentioned by Pāṇini. He flourished during the reign of the famous

Rāshrakūa king Amoghavarsha I, who ruled between CE 814 or 815 to CE

877 or 878141

. Śākaayāna was influenced by the work of Pāṇini, Kātyāyana

and Jinendra. It has little originality though at one time it was very popular not

only among the Śvetāmbara Jaina, but also among other non-Jaina authors. He

is also credited with the authorship142

of the Paribhāshasūtras, the Gaṇapatha,

the Dhātupātha, and the Uṇadisūtra etc.

Hemachandra school: The Siddha-Hemachandra or Siddha-hema-

śabdānuśāsana143

or simply called the Haima Vyākaraṇa, is written by

Hemachandra Sūri, the prolific Jaina writer, who flourished144

in the twelfth

century CE. This work based on the Sākayana Vyākaraṇa. However, Kielhorn

has called it, the best grammar of the middle age of India145

this work is a

grammar of Prākrit as well as of Sanskrit. First seven Adhyāyas deal with

Sanskrit grammar while the Adhyāya number eight deals with Prākrit

grammar/languages. He wrote his work on the command of king Jayasiṁha

Siddha-rāja. The work is different from other works on this subject and this

139 Intermediate between lexicography and grammar are the Lingānuśāsana.

140 Satya Vrat Śastrī, “Vyākaraṇachārya” , op. cit., p. 318.

141 EI, VII p. 200.

142 Gaurinath Sastri, op. cit., p. 146.

143 Grammar dedicated to King Siddhrāja and written by Hemachandra.

144 P.V. Kane, HSP, pp. 289-90.

145 WZKM 2, 1988, p. 24.

87

work is a good manual. Hemachandra wrote this work in two versions i.e.

Laghvi and Brihati. He himself wrote a commentary on his work.

Kātantra school: The earliest of the post Paṇinian School is the

Kātantra146

(little treatise) also called Kaumāra or Kālapa. Sarvavarmana, a

Buddhist scholar, is the author of the Kātantra sūtras, probably flourished147

in

the first century CE. Sarvavarmana‟s views are in many places different from

those of Pāṇini and build a new system of grammar. What is certain is that in

Kashmir and Bengal the work had much influence, and that it affected deeply

the Pālī grammar of Kachchayana and the Dravindian Grammarians148

.

Durgasiṁha, who probably flourished in the eight century CE. He wrote

his famous Vṛitti on this grammar. He wrote further a Ṭīka on his Vṛitti

(commentary). We have also another commentary, called Śishyahitānyāsa by

Ugrabhūti (c. 1000 CE). Alberūni also mentions this name149

. Ugrabhūti was

the teacher of Ānandapāla of Kabul who came to throne in 1001 CE.

Vardhamāna commented Durgasiṁha‟s vṛitti in the eleventh century CE.

Prithvīdhara wrote a sub-commentary on the Vardhamāna‟s work150

. Among

the Kashmirian writers may be mentioned Bhaa Jagadhara and

Chichchhubhaa who composed the Bālabodhini and the Laghnvritti

respectively about 1000 CE151

. The Kātantara School has been very popular in

Bengal and Kāshmir. We do not have much work of this school earlier than

that of Durgasiṁha.

146 S.D. Gyani, Agni-Pūraṇa a Study, p. 139.

147 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 439.

148 A.B. Keith, op. cit., p. 431.

149 E.C. Sachau, op. cit., p. 120.

150 Gaurinath Sastri, op. cit., p. 146.

151 G.V. Devasthali,”Language and Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Empirial

Kanauj, p. 191.

88

A number of works on grammar have been written in early medieval

period. The most extensive work on grammar is the Sarasvatī-Kaṇthabharaṇa

written by the Paramāra king Bhojadeva of Dhārā. He was flourished in the

first half of the eleventh century CE152

. Kalhaṇa also mentioned his name153

.

Sarasvati-Kaṇhabharaṇa is a work on grammar and also on Poetics.

Tantrapradīpa of Maitreyarakshita (1100 CE), Gaṇaratna-mahodadhi of

Vardhamāna (c. 1140 CE), eleven chapters154

of Agni-Pūrāṇa are considerable

work on grammar.

3.8 Lexicography

The Sanskrit literature is very vast. In this extensive literature,

Lexicography is one the most important, useful, and attractive section. At the

same time, however this is most neglected branch. Yet knowledge of vocables

is as necessary as knowledge of grammar for systematic study of Sanskrit

words, their origin and development. The beginning of Indian lexicography-

„the second branch of the science‟155

is found in the Vedic Nighaṇtus. Yāska‟s

Nirukta is the oldest commentary on Nighaṇtus, extant lexicographic work that

contains a collection of Vedic terms. Nighaṇtus are separated from the Kośas

or wordbooks, dictionary in many ways. Nighaṇtus are only related to some

particular Vedic texts156

. The Sinhalese Sanskrit Ṭīka of Purushottamdeva‟s

Trikānḍaśesha157

mentions by name (or by the author‟s name) about two

hundred Sanskrit Kośas, published works are few, and big European catalogues

give more names directly or indirectly related to it. But the extant Sanskrit

152 E1, XI, p.181.

153 Rt, VII, 259.

154 Chapters 349-359.

155 A. Webber, op. cit., p. 227.

156 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, op. cit., p. 390.

157 Rāmāvātara Sharma, Sanskrit Lexicography in JBORS, Vol. IX, Part I, p. 40.

89

lexicons great or small a hundred in number and of these less than thirty are of

any value to the student of Sanskrit158

. There are two types of Kośas-

synonymeal and homonymical we have now some standard lexicon i.e. the

Amarakośa by Amarsiṁha, the Abhidhāna-chintāmaṇi and

Anekārthasaṁgraha by Hemachandra, the Medinī-kośa by Medinīkara, some

commentaries on them and a few other works159

.

Works on Lexicography

Nāmalingānu-śāsana of Amarsiṁha, commonly called Amarakośa, the

standard and most popular work in the history of Sanskrit lexicography was

composed before seventh century CE. But numerous commentaries were

written on this work, in later times. The commentary of Bhaa Kshīrasvāmin is

important, who probably flourished in the eleventh century CE. Kshirasvāmin,

in his commentary “the Amarakośadghāana” in which he quotes a very large

number of works and authors, he has not quoted Halāyudha or his kośa160

. His

commentary is a work of considerable merit.

The other important, a Bengali commentator named Sarvānanda

Vandyaghaiya who composed the commentary named the Tīka-sarvasva in

1159 CE. This work is exhaustive and very valuable from the philosophical

point of view. Subhutichandra a Buddhist, wrote the Kāmadhenu between

1062-1172 CE161

. It is probably the earliest known commentary on the

Amarakośa. This is an exhaustive work.

A supplement to the Amarakośa is the Trikāṇḍaśesa of

Purushottamadeva, a Buddhist. This work is a supplement in three parts,

158 Ibid.

159 M.M. Patkar,”Sanskrit Lexicography” in S.K. Chatterji (Ed.) , op. cit., p. 326.

160 RC Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p. 190.

161 M.M. Patkar, op. cit., p. 330.

90

containing 1050 verses to the Amarakośa. Purushottamadeva is also the author

of a small dictionary of 278 verses, the Hārāvali. The work is divided in two

parts-on synonyms and homonyms words, but not in common use. He says that

he had worked on this book for twelve years i.e. during this period he had

collected rare words from literature162

. This work is considered a rare

creation163

. His third important work the Varṇadeśanā, which in prose. The

author was flourished in the twelfth century CE.

The Abhidhāna-ratnamālā of Halāyudha written in c. 950 CE is the

single ancient kośa of which the age can be determined approximately. This

dictionary is very small, contains only 900 verses, and deals mainly with

synonyms, while the last chapter is devoted to homonyms. This Halāyudha has

also been identified with the author of Kavi-rahasya, a grammatical work.

The Vaijayantī-kośa of Bhagavadyādava prakāsa164

(Yādavaprakāśa)

has been identified with the preceptor of Rāmānuja165

. He was a resident of

south India and his time could be considered a century after Halāyuda i.e. c

1050 CE166

. Yādava was originally a staunch follower of Śankara, but later he

was converted to Vaishnavism, in favour of the philosophy of Rāmānuja. The

Vaijantī is a voluminous lexicon in two broad sections-synonymous and

homonymous, which are fuller than the Amarakośa. This work is no doubt the

most comprehensive single volume lexicon of classical India167

. The

distinguishing feature of this work, is homonymous section which arranges the

words in the alphabetical order of their initial letters, and it contains numerous

162 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 457.

163 M. L. Bhagi , op. cit., p. 184.

164 Rāmāvātara Sharma, op. cit., p. 43.

165 R. Sharma, Kalpadrukośa, intd., XXVII.

166 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, op. cit., p. 351.

167 Rāmāvātara Sharma, op. cit., p. 44.

91

words from Vedic literature. But this work was neither commented on by the

author168

himself nor have we so far recovered a Tīka on it by another man.

The Gujarāta polymath Hemachandra, born in Saṁvat 1145 (1088 CE)

and died age of 84 (1172 CE)169

gives a rich variety viz Abhidhāna-

chintāmaṇi-mālā, Anekārtha-saṁgraha, Nighaṇtuśesha and Deśināma-mālā.

The first two deals respectively with synonyms and homonyms, the third is a

botanical glossary in 396 ślokas and last is a Prākrit lexicon. Abhidhāna-

chintāmaṇī contains an introduction, nearly 1542 verses, divides into six

Kāṇḍas, and deals with different word-types. Hemachandra himself wrote a

commentary upon his this work170

. Anekārtha-saṁraha is a homonymical kośa

in seven chapters. The arrangement of words is very practical and is in

alphabetical order. Hemachandra, the Jaina omniscient of Kali age (Kalikāla,

Sarvajña)171

, is the only lexicographer whose separate works both on synonyms

and homonyms have come down to us.

Keśavasvāmina172

of the Vatsa gotra, a member of a family of hereditary

grammarians, was in the service of Chola king Rājarāja II. Keśava wrote

Nānārthārṇava-Saṁkshepa, the biggest homonymous lexicon173

(as known so

far), contains about 5800 stanzas which are divided in six Kāṇḍas. In this work,

words are arranged nicely according to the number of syllables, alphabet and

gender. It is the only Sanskrit lexicon which mentions and criticizes the

168 Ibid, p. 43.

169 P.V. Kane, op. cit., p. 290.

170 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 459.

171 Rāmāvātara Sharma, op. cit., p.45.

172 K.A. Nilankanta Sastri, The Cōlas, p. 686.

173 M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker,”Language and Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The

Struggle for Empire, p. 318.

92

preceding authors even cites difficulties and example from literary works [both

Vedic and post-Vedic] in the very body of versified text174

.

King Bhoja (1050 CE)175

of Dhārā wrote the Nāma-mālika, a small

lexicon containing 626 stanzas. The work was much influenced by the Yādava-

prakāśa‟s Vaijanti. Dhanañjaya, a poet and Digāmbara Jaina, wrote the

Nāmamālā in between 1123-1140 CE176

. It has a synonymous portion in 200

verses. Both Maheśvara and Maṅkha was the great lexicographer to give

special attention to homonyms, but belonged to different schools. Maheśvara177

wrote the Viśvaprakāśa a homonymical dictionary, in 1111 CE, according to

statement of the author himself. His work gained fame even during the century

of its composition. Maṅkha, womb-brother of Alaṁkāra178

belongs to the

Kashmira School, which had developed a very rich Sanskrit literature. Maṅkha,

the author of the Anekārtha-kośa, is identified with his namesake, the author of

the Śrīkaṇtha-charita who lived in the reign of Jayasiṁha of Kashmir (CE

1128-55)179

.

3.9 Metrics

The science of Metrics is called Chhandas i.e. the metrical form of

poetry. A metrical composition is distinguished from prose by means of some

kinds of music or rhythm, which it is associated180

. Most Hindus are

passionately fond of their verses, and always desirous of reciting them, even if

they do not understand the meaning of words. They do not want prose

174 Rāmāvātara Sharma, op. cit., p.45.

175 A. Weber, op. cit., p.228.

176 A.B. Keith, op. cit., p. 414.

177 Gaurinath Sastri, op. cit., p. 157.

178 Rt., VIII, 3354.

179 M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit., pp. 317-18.

180 H.D. Velankar,”Sanskrit Metres: Their Evolution and Principles of Division” in S.K. Chatterji

(Ed.), op. cit., p.303.

93

compositions although it is much easier to understand them181

Chhandas, are

also entitled among the six Vedāṁgas. The most important work of Vedāṁgas

is Pingala‟s Chhandasūtra. Pingala, the earliest known author on prosody, who

gave a sure foundation to this science, Metrics. He is supposed to be the

father182

of Sanskrit Metrics. We find discussions on metrical matters in the

Brāhmaṇas. Nāyaśāstra of Bharata also contains two chapters on metres.

Works on Metrics

Utpala, (900-950 CE) son and pupil of Somānandanātha183

, is the only

important writer on Sanskrit Metres in the tenth century CE. He wrote a

commentary on Varāhamihira‟s Brihat Saṁhita and he gave us about sixty

definitions of the Sanskrit Akshara Gaṇa Vṛittas. But about forty definitions

have taken from Jayadeva work. Utpala also quotes two illustrations from

Prākrit. Bhaotpāla (CE 10th

) in his commentary, by way of explanation, has

referred to a metrical text in which he mentions the author simply as teacher

(Āchārya). Here each metre is defined by means of a stanza composed in the

same metre184

. The Agni-purāṇa describes prosody in eight chapters (328-

35)185

under the title chhandasāra. The Purāṇa devotes eight chapters to the

various topics concerning Metrics. From Kshemendra of Kashmir of the

eleventh century CE, we have the Suvṛitta-tilaka, containing a variety of

classical meters, in three sections. Section III is most important to build the

history of literature, because it gives the data of reputed poets of past.

Hemachandra (born 1088 CE)186

, the famous Jaina Āchārya, versatile writer of

181 E.C. Sachau, op. cit., p.122.

182 H.D. Velankar,”Metrics” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial Unity, pp 271-72.

183 Gaurinath Sastri, op. cit., p. 49.

184 M Winternitz, op. cit., pp. 33-34.

185 Agni-pūraņa.

186 P.V. Kane, op. cit., p. 290.

94

Gujarat, composed his Chhandonu-śāsana about 1150 CE. This is a

compilation and to an original work. But this is a very exhaustive and

important work, on Sanskrit, Prākrit and Apabhraṁśa metres187

.

3.10 Astronomy, Astrology and Mathematics

Indians in ancient times made tremendous progress in the field of

Astronomy, Astrology and Mathematics. Astrology is most unscientific and

Mathematics is most scientific as branch of Astronomy188

. The science of

Astronomy was the most famous among Indians and the affairs of their religion

were attached in various ways with it. If a man wants to gain the title of an

astronomer, he must not only know scientific and Mathematical, Astronomy,

but also Astrology189

.

The growth of Astronomy was the outcome of the worship of planets

and their movement. Observation and study of the heavenly bodies was

associated with Vedic rituals; early traces are found in the Brāhmaṇas, the two

great epics, and the law books of Manu. The Jyotisha-vedāṁga is the first

famous early work in this field in India. But, it still remains an open question

about the knowledge of planets in ancient India. According to Weber-"Whether

the Hindus discovered the planets independently or whether the knowledge

came to them from without can not as yet be determined; but the systematic

peculiarity of the nomenclature points in the meantime to the former view190

.

The founder of Indian Astronomy was Āryabhaa (fifth century CE)191

who

was the first to propound the theory of earth rotating on its axis.

187 H.D. Velankar,”Metrics” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Struggle for Empire, p. 326.

188 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 641.

189 E.C. Sachau, op. cit., p. 139.

190 A. Weber, op. cit., pp. 250-51.

191 P.N. Chopra etc., SCEHI, p. 190.

95

Astrology i.e. jyotisha was very popular from the Vedic period. It has

been studied as a science from very ancient times. Jyotisha was a part of the

Vedaṁga and no rites whether secular or religious could be undertaken without

reference to good or bad omens. According to the Arthaśāstra, astrologers and

fortune-teller, with court bards and purohita's attendants, are included among

the inferior classes of court-employees. They are, however, indispensable, for

example in the beginning of a battle for encouraging the fighters and for

terrifying the enemies as well as for the discovery of auspicious moments and

time192

. Numerous textbooks of Astrology were written before fifth century

CE, but they are not available of present in original form. Varāhamihira, a

reputed teacher of Astrology, wrote Brihatsaṁhita, perhaps the best treatise of

Astrology. Varāhamihira himself divides the science of Jyotisha (Astrology)

into three branches viz.Tantra-the astronomical and mathematical foundations;

Hora- dealing with horoscope; and third Saṁhita- that discussing natural

Astrology193

. His work-the Brihat-Saṁhita, is an encyclopedia of useful

information of Astrology.

Study of Astronomy and Astrology cannot be complete if mathematics

is not dealt with. The Indians have contributed the most to the science. The

decimal system, place notation, number 1 to 9 and the ubiquitous zero are all

major Indian contributions to the world science. In words of Macdonell, “The

Indians invented the numerical figures used all over the world. The influence,

which the decimal system of reckoning dependent on those figures has had not

only on mathematics, but also on the progress of civilization in general, can

hardly be over-estimated. During the eighth and ninth centuries, the Indians

192 Kauilīya-Arthaśāstra V, 3p. 247; X, 3 to 368.

193 A.B. Keith, op. cit., p. 529.

96

became the teachers in arithmetic and algebra, of the Arabs, and through them

of the nations of the west”.194

Works on Astronomy

Brahmagupta (born 598 CE), son of Jishṇu of Bhillamalla near

Multan195

, is a great name in Indian Astronomy. His Brahmasphuta-siddhānta,

composed in Śaka 550 (c. 628 CE) which is based on Brahma-siddhānta as

well as Śākalya-Siddhānta, deals also with Mathematics. His other well-known

work Khaṇḍa-Khādyaka (c. 665 CE)196

is based on a lost work by

Āryabhaa197. This work is on the subject of Karaṇa (eleven divisions of the

day according to Indian Astrology). A commentary is written on it by

Bhaotpāla in the tenth century CE.

Lalla (748 CE)198

who is later than Brahmagupta, from whom we find a

work named Śishyadhī vriddhitantra, treatise to increase the pupil's

intelligence. Bhāskara writes a commentary on it, though tradition makes him a

pupil of Āryabhaa. In the eleventh century CE, we have two writers Bhoja

and Śatananda. Bhoja in 1042 CE writes the Rājamrigaṅka, a karaṅa work.

The Bhāsvati, a karaṇa by Śatānanda, begins its calculations from CE 1099.

The next great name is Bhāskarāchārya (CE 1150), who writes his

masterpiece the Siddhānta-Śiromaṇi, and is divided into four parts: Līlavati and

Bijagaṅita on Mathematics; grahagaṇita and gola on Astronomy. In the gola,

there is a section on astronomical problems, a treatise on astronomical

instruments, and a description of the season199

. A second work of his the

194 A.A. Macdonell, op. cit., pp. 360-61.

195 A.B. Keith, op. cit., p. 522.

196 E.C. Sachau, op. cit., p. 142.

197 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 650.

198 H.J.J. Winter,”Science” in A.L. Basham (Ed.), A Cultural History of India , pp. 153-54

199 A.B. Keith, op. cit., p. 523.

97

Karaṇa-kutūhala, is written in 1178 CE. No progress can be recorded in Indian

Astronomy after Bhāskara.

Works on Astrology

Bhaopāla was famous astrologer who wrote Horā-śāstra, in the tenth

century CE. This work is in seventy-five stanzas. He wrote a commentary (c.

966 CE)200

on Varāhamihira's Brihat-saṁhita, perhaps the best treatise on

Astrology. He also revised a text of treatise on Astrology and a text of

Kalyāṇavarmana, a work of seventh century CE.

There are also many late treatises on Astrology. Among such treatise,

first is the Adbhutasāgara, was begun in 1168 CE by Ballālasena of Bengal and

finished by Lakshmaṇasena201

. Second the Samundratilaka, begun in 1160

under Kumārapāla of Gujarat by Durlabharāja, but was finished by his son

Jagaddeva202

, who also wrote the Svapnachiṅtāmaṇi.

Works on Mathematics

Brahmagupta was very strong as a mathematician. He is famous for his

Brāhmasphuta siddhānta where in the twelfth and eighteen chapters may be

found important mathematical developments203

. His work named Khanḍa-

khādyaka, concerning cyclic quadrilateral, is of high merit204

. Brahmagupta's

work covers very briefly the ordinary arithmetical operations, square and cube

roots, rule of three, interest, progressions, geometry, including treatment of the

rational right-angled triangle and the elements of the circle, elementary

mensuration of solids, shadow problems, negative and positive quantities,

200 H.D.Velankar,”Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of

Imperial Kanauj, p. 200

201 A.B. Keith, op. cit., p. 534.

202 Ibid.

203 H.J.J. Winter, op. cit., p. 155.

204 The Gazetteer of India, Vol. II, p. 248.

98

cipher, surds, simple algebraic identities, indeterminate equations of the first

and second degrees in considerable detail and simple equations of the first and

second degrees which are briefly treated. Special attention is given to cyclic

quadrilaterals205

.

Mahāvīrāchārya, a Jaina who wrote Gaṇita-sāra-sarṁgraha, flourished

during the period of reign of the Rāshrakūa ruler Amoghavarsha (814-878

CE)206

. This work was on Geometry having examples of indeterminate.

Śrīdhara, born 991 CE207

, wrote the Triśatī, deals with quadratic equation of

Algebra. The most important work on mathematics are the two chapters of the

Siddhānta-śiromaṇī of Bhāskarāchārya i.e. entitled the Līlāvati and the

Bījagaṇita, made some lasting contribution of Indian Mathematics in the

twelfth century CE. Brahmagupta (7th

century), Mahāvīra (9th

century) and

Bhāskara (12th

century), great Mathematician of India, discovered so many

things in the field of Mathematics but Europe was unknown about them till

renaissance208

.

3.11 Medicine

The ancient name of Indian medical science is Āyurveda and is also

called Vaidyaśāstra. It literary means science of longevity and its origin dates

back to pre-Āryan times209

. Like other sciences, medicine too has a divine

origin theory. The ancient Āyurveda has been a guide to good health and even

spiritual enlightenment for thousands of generations of Indians. According to

Rig-veda, the founder of Āyurveda are āchārya, sages like Divodāsa Bhārdwaj

205 R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Classical Age, p. 323; A.B. Keith, op.cit., p. 524.

206 V.D. Mahajan, op.cit., p. 680.

207 A.B. Keith, op.cit., p. 524.

208 A.L. Basham, The wonder that was India.

209 The Gazetteer of India, Vol II, p. 252.

99

and Aśwani Kumār etc. as mentioned210

in it. The oldest saṁhita is ascribed to

Charaka. Charaka was, according to Chinese translation of the Buddhist

Tripitaka, the official physician of king Kanishka in the first century CE211

.

According to Sir Prafulla Chandra Ray-there was no proper medicine in India

before Charaka212

. Suśruta, another great teacher of Indian medicine, as

Surgeon, is equally famous to Charaka. Charaka, Suśruta and Vāghabhaa are

the big names in ancient India, which were known for their knowledge in

medical science. The period of rational medicine starts about eight century

BCE and from that time to 1000 CE was the golden age of Indian Medicine213

.

There is no reference to hospitals in the ancient Hindu medical literature214

, but

they evolved with the spread of Buddhism. We find the first example of like

this in the second Rock Edict (c. 256 BCE) of the Mauryan Emperor Aśoka.

Works on Medical

Vāgbhaa is the great medical writer of this period who ranks only next

to Charaka and Suśruta. But we find two writers of this name. Work of both are

important in this field, both were Buddhist; both claim the same parentage in

their works-the Ashaṁga-saṁgraha and the Ashaṁgahridaya-saṁhita. The

first in mixture of prose and verses is associated with Vriddha Vāgbhaa and

second is written only in verses and is cited as the work of the later

Vāgbhaa215. The elder Vāgbhaa or Vriddha Vāgbhaa was son of

Siṁhagupta and grandson of Vāgbhaa and disciple of the Buddhist

210 Rig-veda, 1/12/26.

211 A.A. Macdonell, op.cit., p. 371.

212 The History of Hindu Chemistry, Part I, p.11.

213 The Gazetteer of India, p. 253.

214 H.J.J. Winter, op. cit., p. 150.

215 P.N. Chopra, B.N. Puri, M.N. Das, A.C.Pradhan (Ed.), A New Advance History of India,

p. 152.

100

Avalokita216

. I-tsing‟s reference is important to fix the date of vriddha

Vāgbhaa, therefore may be placed about the beginning of the seventh century

CE. It is not certain whether the younger Vāgbhaa was in any way related to

the elder one. Apparently Vāgbhaa, lived in the beginning of the eight-

century CE.

Nāgārjuna of Daihaka near Somanātha217

wrote a great comprehensive

work named the Rasaratnākara. He lived in the seventh or eight century CE

according to PC Ray, but according to statement of Alberūni and Winternitz

placed Nāgārjuna in the tenth century CE.

The earliest and most authoritative treatise on Pathology is

Mādhavakara‟s Rugviniśchaya, is called Mādhavanidāna or briefly Nidāna.

Mādhavakara, son of Indukara, belongs to the eighth or the ninth century CE.

The fame of this work is proved by many commentaries, which are written on

this work. The Siddhiyoga (also called Vrindamādhava) is another curious

work belonging to the same period. The author of the work, Vrinda, himself

admits that he follows in its order of decease that of the Rugviniśchaya, and

provides prescriptions for curing a large number of ailments from fever to

poisoning218

. According to some scholar, Vrinda is only a second name of

Mādhavakara, but unproved.

In the eighth or ninth century, Dridhabala son of Kapilabala, was a

Kashmirian, who revised the present text of Charaka. It is certain that we have

no text of the Charaka saṁhita in its original form. Dridhabala completed

216 A.B. Keith,op.cit., p. 510.

217 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 638.

218 A.B. Keith, op.cit., p. 511.

101

about one-third of the work and he revised the text of the whole saṁhita and

prepared an appendix219

.

Chakrapāṇidatta, son of Nārāyana, of Bengal, known as a commentator

of Suśruta, was a successful medicinal author in the eleventh century CE. He

wrote commentaries named Āyurveda-dīpika and Bhānumati respectively on

Charaka and Suśruta220

. He wrote one Chikitsāsāra-Saṁgraha a great work on

Therapeutics221

about 1060 CE222

. This is an authoritative work on the subject.

Niśchalakara and Śivadāsa wrote commentaries on this work223

. Vangasena

(11th

or 12th

century CE), son of Gadādhara, probably an inhabitant of Bengal

wrote a voluminous work under the same title the Chikitsāsāra saṁgraha. He

relied on the works of Suśruta and Mādhavakara to write his Chikitsāsāra-

saṁgraha.

Bhoja wrote a Sālihotra224

in 138 verses in the eleventh century CE. It is

an interesting work, giving information about the horses, their disease and

remedies. There are some medical dictionaries or called Medico-botanical

glossaries. Some of these are Nighaṇtu225

by Indukara father of Mādhvakara;

Dhanvantri-nighaṇtu ascribed to Dhanvantri (the extant work that cannot be

older than about the eighth century CE)226

. Sureśvara or Surapāla, the court-

physician of king Bhīmapāla of Bengal wrote the Śabda-pradīpa, a dictionary

of medical Botany in 1075 CE.

219 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 631.

220 H.D. Velankar, “Medicine” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Struggle for Empire, p. 328.

221 Gaurinath Sastri, op.cit., p. 167.

222 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 636.

223 K.K. Datta, “Scientific Literature in Sanskrit” in S.K. Chatterji, op.cit., p. 355.

224 Munich Catalogue, Compiled by Jolly p. 68.

225 K.K. Dutta, Bengal's Contribution to Sanskrit Literature, p. 39.

226 H.D. Velankar, “Medicine” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p. 199.

102

3.12 Poetics and Dramaturgy

Poetics means Kāvyaśāstra and is called Alaṁkāra-śāstra, Sāhitya-śāstra

and Kāvyamimānsā. We mention merits, demerits of Kāvya and Dramas, Rīti,

Alaṁkara, Rasa, Dhvani etc in it. Kriyakalpa was the name of Sanskrit poetics

in Vātsyāyana‟s Kāmasūtra. He includes Kriyakalpa in the list of 64 arts227

.

Poetics (Alaṁkaraśāstra) has been cultivated in India from a very early date as

a science.

We find traces of early poetics efforts in the Rig-veda, the Śatapatha

Brāhmaṇa, the Upanishads and the Mahābhāshya of Patañjali228

. According to

Rājśekhara in his Kāvya-mīmānsā that the science was propagated by Śiva to

Brāhmā and from Brāhmā it came down to others and was divided into

eighteen chapters (adhikaraṇas) each of which was taught by a particular

teacher229

. The oldest and most important work on poetics230

and dramaturgy is

the Nāyaśāstra of Bharata. Bharata observes eight rasa, namely: the

sentiments excited through love (śringāra), humour (hāsya), pity (karuṇā),

terror (raudra), heroism (vīra), fear (bhayānka), aversion (bībhatsa) and

astonishment (adbhuta)231

.

The poetry of pre-classical period was not guided by any poetical rules.

It was a free product of human feeling. But classical poetry was not so free as

the Vedic one. It was under the certain rules enacted by critical scholar of that

time. By this process, poetry became more musical, beautiful and scientific in

its art232

.

227 P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 342.

228 Gaurinath Shastri, op.cit., p. 149.

229 Gaurinath Shastri , “Sanskrit Poetics” in S.K. Chatterji (Ed.) , op.cit., p. 295.

230 A.A. Macdonell, op.cit., p. 369.

231 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p.10.

232 M.L. Bhagi, op.cit., p. 185.

103

There are four main schools of poetics which maintain different views

with regard to the essential characteristics of poetry i.e. alaṁkāra (figure), rīti

(style), rasa (aesthetic pleasure) and dhvani (suggestions, tone)233

. But dhvani

school is the most important in all schools of Alaṁkāra literature.

Ānandavardhana of Dhvānyāloka is known to be to be the pioneer of this

school. There are many rhetoricians after six century CE who developed this

field of literature.

Works

Bhāmaha, the son of Rakrilagomin234

, probably a resident of

Kāshmira235

, is one of the earliest rhetoricians to take up a systematic

discussion of poetic embellishments after Bharata‟s Nāṭyaśāstra. He flourished

probably in the end of seventh century CE or the beginning of eight century

CE. His Kāvyālaṁkāra is one of the earliest and oldest236

works on the science

of poetry. His work is divided into six chapters and contains about 400 verses

(exactly, 396)237

. He treats the qualifications of a poet, the various forms and

the type of Kāvya etc. Udbhaṭa had written a commentary on Bhāmaha‟s

Kāvyālaṁkāra, which is now lost238

.

Daṇḍin, the author of the Kāvyadarśa or “Mirror of Poetry”, probably in

the seventh century CE, is the precursor of the Rīti School, which was

developed by Vāmana. This is a great work on poetic and Alaṁkaraśāstra is a

very renowned work in verse. There is controversy about the chronological

relation between the two, some holding Bhāmaha to be the earlier and the

233 Gaurinath Shastri, op.cit., p. 295.

234 Kavyalamkara 6. 64.

235 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, op.cit., p. 356.

236 W. K. Lele, Bhāmaha's Kāvyālankara : Stylistical and Methodological Work , p. 17.

237 P.V. Kane , op.cit., p. 81.

238 Gaurinath Shastri, op.cit., p. 296.

104

others the opposite view239

. His main contribution to poetics is the concept of

Guṇa.

Udbhaa wrote Alaṁkāra-saṁgraha in the eight century CE. He was

Sabhāpati of king Jayāpīda of Kāshmira according to Kalhaṇa, and

Ānandavardhana240

. This work is divided into six chapters (called Vargas) and

contains about 79 Kārikās defining 41 alaṁkāras and over 90 illustrations241

.

He was renowned rhetorician and a poet, and his literary achievements

overshadowed Bhāmaha, who was his predecessor.

Vāmana, probably a contemporary and rival of Udbhaṭa, flourished in

the eighth century CE. He was in the court of the king Jayāpīda of Kāshmira

who ruled 779-813 CE242

. His Kāvyalaṁkāra-sūtra is divided into five

Adhikaraṇa, which are sub-divided into twelve Adhyāyas and three hundred

nineteen sūtras243

. He boldly asserted that Rīti is the soul of poetry and that the

ten guṇas are important as far as they constitute Rīti. His work, which full of

quotations, is of capital importance for setting the chronology of many Sanskrit

writers244

. There are a few commentaries on Vāmana‟s Kāvya-laṁkara-sūtra.

The Kāvyalamkāra of Rudraa is an extensive divided into sixteen

adhyāyas and reviews the whole field of poetics245

. He flourished in the first

quarter of the ninth century CE. Probably he was a resident of Kashmir.

Rājśekhara (930 CE) in his Kāvyāmīmansā mentions him by name246

. Rudraa

239 G.V. Devasthali, “Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Classical Age, p. 317; P.V. Kane,

op.cit., pp. 96-125.

240 G.V. Devasthali, “Language and Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial

Kanauj, p. 191.

241 PV Kane , op.cit., p. 133.

242 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 18.

243 P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 140.

244 Ibid.

245 Ibid. p. 151.

246 okdq odzksfDrukZe 'kCnkyadkjks;fefr :nzV% p. 31.

105

was a follower of the Alaṁkāra school. Rudrāṭa was the first to attempt a

scientific classification of figures as based upon certain definite principles247

.

We find following three commentaries on Rudraa of Vallabhadeva,

Namisādhu and Āśadhara. But the commentary of Namisādhu, a Śvetambara

Jaina and pupil of Śālibhadra248

, is the best. Rudraa should be distinguished

from Rudra Bhaṭṭa/Rudra of uncertain date, author of Śriṅgāra-tilaka. One side

Rudraa is a teacher of poetics, other side Rudra is chiefly a poet249

. So, both

are not identical.

Dhvani (suggestion) the most important school of poetics is related to

Ānandavardhana, the writer of Dhvanyāloka, one of the very famous works in

the domain of Sanskrit poetics. Kalhaṇa mentions that he attains fame in the

reign of king Avantivarmana of Kāshmira (855-883 CE)250

. The Dhvanyāloka

is divided into three parts viz., Kārikā, Vritti, Udāharaṇa (example). The last is

derived from the vast field of Sanskrit literature, but there is a controversy

regarding the authorship of the other two251

. But problem is not solved yet.

According to the doctrine of Dhvani, Suggestion is the essence of

poetry. This doctrine, as Ānandavardhana informs us, is very old with its dim

beginning new lost in obscurity252

. By this work that the theory of Dhvani in

rhetoric found its first expression in the clear and definite terms, though it

might have been in the air for sometime before it. This work of

Ānandavardhana becomes the guide for coming writers and shows them the

proper path in the field of poetics. Even a fastidious author like Jaganātha

247 P.V. Kane , op.cit., p. 152.

248 G.V. Devasthali, “Language and Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial

Kanauj, p. 192.

249 Gaurinath Shastri, op.cit., p. 298.

250 Rt , V , 34.

251 P.V. Kane, op.cit., pp. 163-164.

252 Gaurinath Shastri, op.cit., pp. 298-99.

106

declared that Ānandavardhana had settled all the important problems of

poetics253

.

Abhinavagupta is one of the most remarkable personalities in the field of

literary activities in the early medieval India. He was the man of very acute

intellect and was an encyclopedic scholar254

. He flourished in Kāshmira in the

close of tenth century CE and beginning of the eleventh century CE. His two

commentaries on poetics are the Lochana on the Dhvanyāloka of

Ānandavardhana and the Abhinavabhārāti on the Nāyaśāstra of Bharata. The

Lochana and the Abhinavabhāratī are monuments of learning, critical insight,

literary grace and styles255

. He thinks that all suggestion must be of sentiments,

for the suggestion of subject or that of figure may be ultimately reduced to the

suggestion of Sentiments256

.

The Rasa school, another famous school of poetics is attached with the

name Lollaṭa. He is known to be the earliest interpreter of the Rasa School,

flourished in the eight century CE. Unfortunately, this work of Lollaṭa is lost to

us. But we can see, a review of his opinion in the Abhinavabhāratī of

Abhinavagupta and the Kāvyaprakaśa of Mammaa257. Another interpreter of

this school is Śŗi Śankula who has criticized the views of Lollaa and we can

say that he flourished after Lollaa. Another great loss for us that the work of

Śri Śaṅkula also is lost to us. Bhaanāyaka, the most celebrated commentator

of the Rasa school, flourished258

in the end of ninth century CE. His work, the

253 G.V. Devasthali, “Language and Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial

Kanauj, p. 194.

254 P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 236.

255 Ibid, pp. 238-39

256 Gaurinath Sastri, op.cit., p. 153.

257 ibid, p.152.

258 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 21.

107

Hridayadarpaṇa a commentary on the Nāyaśāstra259

, is unfortunately lost. He

has not accepted the views of Lollaṭa and Śri Śaṅkula. It is interesting to note

that Bhaanāyaka has recognized two additional powers of word, viz

bhāvakatva by which the meaning is made intelligible to the audience, and

second power is bhojakatva by which the audience enables to relish the

enjoyment of the poem260

.

Rajaśekhara, author of a number of celebrated works (but not possible to

say how many works Rājaśekhara wrote)261

was a great dramatist and poet of

the tenth century CE as mentioned earlier in the topic of drama. His Kāvyā-

miṁānsā is a handbook for poets, which contains eighteen chapters. This is a

very valuable, interesting treatise on poetics. Instead of dealing with the Rasas,

Guṇas, and Alaṁkāras directly, it treats various topics, which are very useful

to the poet262

. Rājaśekhara knew many languages and he was very fond of

Prākrits263

. Many later writers including Kshemendra, Bhoja and Hemachandra

etc have used this work.

Mukulabhaa, author of the Abhidhāvṛītti-mātrika, flourished probably

in the end of ninth century CE and the beginning of the tenth century CE. He

was the son of Bhaa Kalaa and the teacher of Partihārendurāja264

.

According to Kalhaṇa, Bhaa Kallata was born on earth in the age of

Avāntivarmana265

, king of Kāshmira (855-883 CE) and contemporary of

Rājaśekhara. Abhidhavṛīttimātrika is a work, containing fifteen kārikās with

259 A.B. Keith, op.cit., p. 392.

260 Gaurinath Sastri, op.cit., p. 153.

261 P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 217.

262 G.V. Devasthali, “Language and Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial

Kanauj, p. 195.

263 P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 213.

264 ibid, p. 218.

265 Rt, V, 66.

108

vṛītti three on the two powers of words, viz abhidhā and lakhsaṇā266

. This is a

grammatico-rhetorical work.

Kuntaka or Kuntala, who flourished in the middle of the tenth century

CE, wrote his Vakroktijīvita. He is perhaps the mightiest antagonistic of the

Dhvani school. He is known to be the founder267

of a new theory called

Vakrokti (figurative speech), an offshoot of the Alaṁkāra school. He insists

that Vakrokti, crooked or figurative speech, is the life of poet268

or the soul of

poetry269

. This theory of Vakrokti, he mentions in his work in four parts

(unmeśa). The starting works seems to be his own work but the last being

borrowed from various authors. This work contains Kārikās, vṛitti and Udāhara

as. It contains over five hundred examples. According to him, Dhvani cannot

have an independent existence as the soul of poetry. He includes Dhvani in

Vakrokti. This work has a great value. And this work/theory is quoted and

criticized by later writers.

Dhanañjaya, son of Vishṇu, of the tenth century CE, composed a work

named Daśarūpa or Daśarūpaka. Dhanañjaya and his brother Dhanika, both

were Sabhā-Paṅdita of king Muñja alias Vākpātirāja270

. This work deals with

various theoretical and practical aspects of dramaturgy, rasa theory and allied

topics. It contains about three hundred Kārikās and is divided into four

prakaśas. Dhanika wrote a commentary on this work, which is named

Daśarūpāvaloka. The Daśarūpaka became very popular in later times.

266 G.V. Devasthali, op.cit.

267 Ibid; Gaurinath Shastri, op. cit., p. 300.

268 A.B. Keith, op.cit., p. 392.

269 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 21.

P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 234.

270 Pānḍey and Pānḍey, op.cit., p. 358.

P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 246.

109

Auchitya-vichāra-charchā and Kavikaṇha-bharaṇa are two important

works of Kāshmirian Kshemendra of the eleventh century CE. He was of

wealthy parentage, well educated, and had traveled extensively abroad.

Kalhaṇa mentions his name271

. Kshemendra was the son of Prākaśendra and

the grandson of Sindhu. His family was very rich and his father‟s benefactions

were on a lavish scale272

. Auchitya-vichāra-charchā discusses propriety as

essential to sentiments or the essence of Rasa. This work contains Kārikās with

his own Vritti. According to M. Winternitz, his work is a, “critical Research on

Proprieties in Poetry” and a practical handbook for poets273

. The

Kavikaṇthabharaṇa, gives certain directions to poets about the Guṇas and

doshas of Kāvya and the study of grammar, logic etc. In this work,

Kshemendra advises aspirants to poetic fame to improve their taste by the study

of current theatrical representation274

.

The legendary king Bhoja or Bhojarāja of Dhārā is the owner of mainly

two works of poetics that is Sarasvatikaṇtha-bharaṇa and Śringāra-prākaśa.

Inscriptions of Bhoja‟s reign bear dates ranging from CE 1020 to CE 1047275

.

The Sarasvatikaṇthabharaṇa is a voluminous work, divided into five

parichchhedas (chapters) dealing with the various traditional topics of poetics

and dramaturgy. It quotes over fifteen hundred examples from former poets and

therefore is valuable for the chronology of Sanskrit literature276

. It is an

encyclopedic work containing information about different schools of poetics.

Another work is the Sriṅgāra prākaśa, deals with both Poetics and Dramaturgy.

271 Rt, I, 13.

272 P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 265.

273 HIL , p. 24.

274 Madhusudan Kaul (Ed.),Desopadesa and Narma mala (Kashmir series of Texts and Studies).

275 D.C. Ganguly, “Northern India During the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries” in R.C.

Majumdar (Ed.), The Struggle for Empire, p. 66.

276 P.V. Kane , op.cit., p. 258.

110

This work is also a comprehensive voluminous work, in thirty-six Prākaśas,

larger than any work on Sanskrit poetics. Bhoja was a prolific author and

numerous works are ascribed to him.

One of the most famous works on poetics is the Kāvya-prākaśa of

Mammaa, the great rhetorician of Kāshmira of the eleventh century CE. This

work contains 142 Kārikas (often called Sūtras). The work comprises the

Kārikā, Vritti and Udāharaṇas, is divided into ten Ullāsas (Chapters) and

covers the all topics of poetics except dramaturgy. The greatest merit of the

work is that, it combines fullness of treatment with conciseness277

. According

to Mammaa the best poetry is that which implied meaning of dhvani. It is

disputed that the whole work was not written by Mammaa. According to

some, scholars, he wrote up to the Parikara-alaṁkāra, and the remaining

portion was written by Allāa or Alāa278 or Alaka. Mammaa gives sixteen

Pada Doshas, twenty-one Vākya Doshas under the variety Śabda Doshas

twenty-three Artha Doshas and ten Rasa Doshas279

. He is an ideal compiler and

a sound critic. He criticizes many renowned fore runners of poetics filed i.e.

Bhāmaha, Udbhaa, Rudrāta, Vāmana etc. But he was influenced by the

writings of Ànandavardhana and Abhinavagupta. The numerous commentaries

that were written on this work, proved its popularity.

Another Kashmirian rhetorician Rājanaka Mahimabhaa, the son of

Śridhairya and the pupil of Śyamala a great poet, is related to the second half of

the eleventh century CE. In his work named Vyaktiviveka, he severely criticizes

the Dhvani theory of Ānandavardhana of Dhvanyāloka. This work is divided

into three vimarśas (chapters) and contains sagacious discussions on the

277 ibid, p. 266.

278 Gaurinath Sastri, “Sanskrit Poetics” in S.K. Chatterji , op.cit., pp 300-301.

279 S.D. Gyani, op.cit., p. 87.

111

possibility of including Dhvani under inference. His work is one of the

masterpieces of the Alāṁkāra Literature and deserves to be saved from the

unmerited oblivion in which it has fallen280

. Ruyyaka wrote a commentary on

this work. But Mahimabhaa‟s work failed to improve later scholars.

Ruyyaka or Ruchaka, the teacher of Maṅkha281

, who flourished in the

twelfth century CE, wrote Alaṁkāra-sarvasa, a standard work on figures of

speech. He advocates the Dhvani School and briefly summarizes the views of

Bhāmaha, Udbhaa, Vāmana, Rudraa etc. This work is divided into three parts

and consists of Kārikās and a Vṛītti. According to some scholars, Ruyyaka

wrote the Kārikās and Maṅkha wrote the Vṛītti. Ruyyaka‟s credit lies chiefly in

the fact that he adopts the scientific style, and he was well disciplined in

philosophical literature282

.

Hemachandra‟s Kāvyanuśāsana, of the twelfth century CE, is divided

into eight chapters, discusses several topics of poetics. The work is written in

the form of Sūtra and Vritti along with author‟s commentary called Viveka.

Another has borrowed from the writings of the Rājaśekhara, Ānandavardhana,

Abhinavagupta, Mammaa and others. Hemachandra is the brightest star283

in

the galaxy of Jain writers. He was a great writer of numerous branches of

study.

There are some other important works, written on poetics and

dramaturgy. We find the following writings in the twelfth century CE.

Vāgbhaāṁkara written by Vāgbhaa I, is divided into five parichchhedas

which contain 260 verses. The author was a Jaina. He was living in saṁvat

280 P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 254.

281 A.B. Keith, op.cit., p. 396.

282 M. Winternit , op.cit., p. 26.

283 P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 289.

112

1179 and 1213 (i.e. 1123-1156 CE)284

. The Bhāvaprakāśana of Śaradātanaya,

flourished between 1175-1250 CE285

. This is an extensive work dealing with

Rasa, Bhāvas and Dramaturgy. The author was one of the later writers on Rasa

and much influenced by the works of Bhoja. The Nāya-darpaṇa, jointly

authored by Ramachandra and Guṇachandra, is a work on dramaturgy differing

widely from the Nāya-śastra of Bharata.

3.13 Erotic

Erotic (Kāmaśāstra), “the science of sexual love” or „Art of Love‟ was

specially studied in Ancient India. There are four aims of human life i.e.

Dharma, Àrtha, Kāma and Moksha. Kāmaśastra deals with Kāma, which is

another important aspect of human life. Kāma means desire and fulfillment of

carnal pleasure. Biologically, this is the basic requirement of human beings

from starting. We find ample examples of erotic even in the Vedic literature.

This topic is related to all (man and woman both), common person to a king.

According to ancient sages of India a physician without the knowledge

of herbs, an accountant without the knowledge of Arithmatic and a married

person without the knowledge of Kāmaśāstra are creatures of no worth286

.

Other side some sages say that Kāma is an obstacle in the way of spiritual

development of human beings. As mentioned in the Gītā287

- Kāma has always

been the enemy of the scholars. The knowledge of people remains covered by

Kāma. As fire never gets satiated, similarly Kāma is insatiable. That is way

Kāma is compared to fire.

284 ibid, p. 287.

285 M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit., p. 324.

286 M.L. Bhagi, op.cit., p. 180.

287 vko`ra Kkuesrsu Kkfuuks fuR;oSfj.kkA

dke:is.k dkSUrs; nq"iwjs.kkuysu p AA III, 39AA

113

Kāmasūtra of Mallanāga Vātsyāyana is first great treatise on this topic,

wrote his work probably in the third century CE. It is not mere a text on

sexology or eugenics, but a serious and scientific treatment of Kāma or Eros in

all its different aspect, social and humanistic288

. The author says that „all is fair

in love and war289

‟. Vātsyāyana may be designated as a „Machiavelli of

love290

.‟ The work does not claim to have been the first to be written on this

subject. This work became the base of coming generation.

Minor works on Erotics

Padamaśri, possibly a Buddhist of the tenth century CE wrote a work

called Nāgara-sarvasva. Jyotiriśvara Kaviśekhara of Mithilā291

wrote a work

called the Pañchasāyaka. He knew Kshemendra. Therefore, he flourished after

Kshemndra, probable in the twelfth century CE. The work is divided into five

chapters, called sāyakas that allude to the five arrows of the Love-god of Indian

mythology292

.

Kokkaka, Kukkoka, or Koka Pandit wrote the Ratirahasya or

Kokaśastra before twelfth century CE. He stands next to Vātsyāyana in this

field of literature. Ratirahasya is divided into ten chapters. The author boasts

that has collected together not only the teachings of Vatsyāyana, but also the

teaching of former teachers like Nandikeśvara and Goṇikāputra have been

taken into consideration293

.

288 K.K. Datta, op.cit., p. 364.

289 A.B. Keith, op.cit., p. 467.

290 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 621.

291 Prabhat Chandra Chakravarti, “The Spiritual Outlook of Sanskrit Grammer” in S.K. Chatterji,

op.cit., p. 324.

292 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 625.

293 Ibid.

114

3.14 Civil and Religious Law

The word Dharmaśāstra is called so many names in Indian history as

smritis, law literature etc. They have played a very important role in the life of

Hindus more than last two thousand years. According to Gautam Dharmasūtra,

Vedas are the root of Dharma294

. According to Apastamba, those who know

Veda and even their views are Dharma295

. Vedic literature is root of Dharma296

,

according to Manusmriti. Although the Vedas are regarded as the ultimate

sources of Dharma, in practice it is the Smṛiti works to which the Hindus all

over India turn for the real exposition of religious duties and usages297

.

The Dharmasūtra, treated as the beginning of legal literature in India,

but they were not meant as codes for the use in the law court. The Pūraṇa298

mentions twenty writers of Dharmaśāstra viz. Manu, Vishṇu, Yājnavalkya,

Hārita, Arti, Yama, Aṅgirasa, Daksha, Saṁvartta, Śaatapa, Parāśara,

Āpastamba, Uśanas, Vyāsa, Kātyāyana, Bṛihaspati, Gautama, Śaṅkha and

Likhita. It (smriti) is the literature on law299

. Smṛiti literature is dealing mostly

with the details about the daily life of the people, and their duties of all kinds

viz. the daily ritualistic and funeral rites. Legal topics viz. code of criminal law,

institution of lawsuits, inheritance, debts, witnesses, etc. are also mentioned.

The Dharmasūtra are written in sūtra style.

According to Dharmaśāstris, Vedas are root of Dharma, this is universal

acceptable fact; from the Vedas, Dharma came in sūtra-granths and flourished

294 osnks/keZewye rf}nk p Le`fr’khys 1&1&2

295 vkiLrEHk /keZlw=&/eZKle;% izek.ka osnk’p 296 osnks·vf[kyks /keZewye 2@6

297 M.A. Mahendale, “Sanskrit Language and Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of

Impeirial Unity, p. 254.

298 Agni-purāṇa, 162/1-2.

299 E.. Sachau, op.cit., p. 717.

115

after that this was fully developed in Smritis. The Smṛitis were declared to be

of divine origin300

. The most outstanding, oldest and popular work on

Brāhmaṇical law is the Mānava-dharmaśāstra or the Manu–smṛiti or Code of

Manu. Though the author of this work is generally known to be Manu, still the

present text is said to have been work of Bhrigu301

or one student of Bhrigu.

Manu was one of the greatest of seers who gave the Manusmṛiti, which left a

permanent value in the field of social, political and moral ethics. Century after

century, the system, first formulated by the Manusmṛiti, was accepted through

out the country, never by force of arms, less by royal fiats than the sanction

implied in the belief that, „God gave it and the ancestors obeyed it302

. There are

many other smritis-Vishṇu, Yājñavalkya, Nārada, Brihaspati and Kātyāyana,

are more important works than others as sources of law and social customs.

Important works on Law

The large numbers of commentaries have been written on Manusmriti.

Medātithi is the oldest commentator on Manusmriti, named Manubhāshya. He

was probably a Kāshirian and flourished between 823-900 CE303

. He quotes

Asahāya and Kumārila by name. According to this commentator on Manu, the

supremacy of the common law and authority of custom was above the rule of

law304

. The commentary, that is characterized by high accuracy and is

important for explanations of difficult possesses305

, is that of Gobindarāja.

Gobindarāja, son of Mādhayabhaa, wrote a commentary on Manusmriti and

300 M.A. Mahendale, op. cit., p. 255.

301 Gaurinath Sastri, CHCSL, p. 159.

302 R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Struggle for Empire, p. IX.

303 P.V. Kane, KHDS, I, p. 275.

304 P.N. Chopra etc. (Ed.), op.cit., p. 169.

305 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 557.

116

Smriti mañjari306

dealing with all principal topics of Dharmaśāstra. He

flourished between 1080-1140 CE307

.

The Yājñavalkya-smriti, the Dharmaśāstra of Yajñavalkya, that in

respect of antiquity, importance and authority stands next to the Manu Smriti. It

is probably based on white Yajurveda. This work is related to probably 3rd

and

4th

century CE. There are many commentaries on the Yājñāvalkya-smriti too.

The Mitakshara of Vijñāneśvara is most famous commentary on Yajnāvalkya-

Smriti. Vijñāneśvara was a South Indian and flourished in the eleventh century

CE. He belongs to Bhāradvaja gotra, was the son of Padmanābhabhaa, and

the pupil of Uttma308

. It early attained the position of a standard work, not only

in Deccan but even in Banārasa and a great part of North India. Colebrooke‟s

version309

of the section on inheritance, acquired the greatest importance in

English courts in India. Viśvarūpa (c 800-850 CE)310

and Apāraka or

Apāraditya (12th

century CE) wrote commentaries on the Yajñāvalkya-smriti.

Later on, some scholars commented on the Mitakshra also, in an interesting

manner, emphasizing the claims of women311

to property rights. In addition to

this Yājñavalkya, we find mention of Vriddha Yājñavalkya, yoga Yājñavalkya

and Brihad Vājñavalkya.

The Nārada Smriti is the first to limit dharma to law in the strict

sense312

. In Bāṇa Kādambarī (7th

century CE), we find in detail about this

306 M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, “Language and Literature”, in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The

Struggle for Empire, pp 331-32.

307 P.V. Kane, op.cit., III, xviii.

308 M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit., p. 333.

309 Two Treatises on the Hindus Law of Inheritance.

310 S.K. Mitra, “Political and Economic Literature in Sanskrit” in S.K. Chatterji (Ed.), op.cit., p.

343.

311 A.B. Keith, op.cit., p. 447.

312 A.A. Macdonell, op.cit., p. 365.

117

work. Asāhaya wrote a commentary on Nārada Smriti in the eight century CE.

Medhātithi quoted Asahāya.

The Brihaspati Smriti313

, a supplementary work on the Manu-smriti, is

extant only in fragments, and in quotations in Medieval Indian jurists. His work

had a close relation with “Manusmriti” but it had a new revolutionary

development in the system of Sati. Its date may be assigned to the sixth or

seventh century CE.

Bhavadevabhaa, son of Govardhana, was a resident of Bengal. He

flourished in the eleventh or the twelfth century CE. He was the famous

minister of king Harivarmana314

of south Bengal. Bhavadevabhaa was a great

scholar and composed several valuable works on Dharmaśāstra.

The Digest of Law

In the field of Dharmaśāstra except Smritis, a great importance of that

Granths which is called Vidhigranths, also called Nibandhas or Dharma-

nibandhas (digests), they are very systematic and partly very voluminous

treatise on Dharma. We find the general tendency to write these digests rather

than commentaries from the eleventh century CE315

. These digests were

composed on the order of kings. Digests were not written in school of dharma

unlike Smritis, but they were written by jurists, ministers and similar other

personalities under the order of kings.

One of the oldest of these work, is the Smritikalpataru or

Krityakalpataru of Lakshmidhara, occupies a unique place among digests.

Lakshmidhara son of Bhaa Hridyadhara was the minister of king

313 Tr. by J. Jolly, SBE, Vol. 33.

314 Gaurinath Sastri, op.cit., p. 161.

315 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 567

But according to A.B. Keith and R.C. Majumdar twelfth century AD.

118

Gobindachandra (1105-43) of Kanauj. He was well read in Smritis, Pūrāṇas,

Mīmāṁsa and all branches of Vedic learning and was a critical and

conscientious compiler who evaluated his sources and selected the correct

text316

. He includes religious as well as civil and criminal law and the law of

procedure.

In the twelfth century CE, Halāyudha, the jurist, writes Brāhmaṇa-

sarvasa for king Lakshmanasena of Bengal, deals with the daily duties of

Brāhmaṇa. The next important work in this filed is Smritichandrikā of

Devaṇṇabhaa (c. 1200 CE).

In spite of above-mentioned literature on civil and religious law, we

have various works, directly or indirectly are related to this topic. First, we can

mention the name of Śankarāchārya and Kumārila who quote the Manu-Smriti

in their works repeatedly. Śaṅkara quotes the Manusmriti many times, in his

work Vedānta-Sūtra-Bhāshya. Dhāreśvara or king Bhoja of Dhārā (eleventh

century CE), seems to have written on Dharmasastra317

and is quoted by the

Mitakshara as a Dhāreśwara. The Agni-pūrāṇa is also an important source for

the social and culture history as well as history of Dharmaśāstra literature in the

post Gupta period.

The works of Smriti authors of this period with their place of origin and

approximate dates according to Kane (KHDS, I 296; IV x-xi) are given

below318

:

316 M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit., p. 332.

317 P.V. Kane, HSP, pp. 260-61.

318 M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit., p. 295.

119

Name of Author Name of work Place of Origin Date

Jīmūtavāhana 1. Vyavahāramātrika Bengal Bt 1100-1150 AD

2. Dāyabhāga

Kullūka Manvarthamuktāvalī Bengal Bt 1150-1300 AD

Gobindarāja Manuika North India Bt 1080-1110AD

Dhāreśvara Unknown Mālavā Bt 1000-1050AD

(Bhoja I, King of Paramāra dynasty of Mālavā)

Lakshmidhara Karityakalptaru

(Rājanītikā da)

Middle Ganga

Valley

Bt 1100-1300AD

Vijñāneśvara Mitakshara Mahārāshra Bt 1080-1100AD

Apāraka Yājñavalkyadharma

Śastranibandha

Koṅkaṇ Bt 1110-1130AD

Devaṇṇabhaa Smriti-chandrika Bt 1200-1225AD

Gopāla Kāmadhenu Bt 1000-1100AD

It should be noted that the Indian Smritis are not on the same footing as

the law-books of other nations, but are the work of private individuals;

Brāhmaṇas also wrote them for Brāhmaṇas, whose caste pretentious they

consequently exaggerate. It is therefore important to check their statements by

other evidences319

also.

3.15 Philosophy

We find many types of philosophical literature in Sanskrit. It is as vast

as it is diverse. Philosophy is considered as the second branch of the scientific

319 A.A. Macdonel, op.cit., p. 366.

120

Sanskrit literature as mentioned by A. Weber. According to Winternitz,

philosophy is most closely by Ānvīkshiki or Ānvīkshaki that is to say „the

science of demonstration or search‟320

. Vedas, Upanishads, six Darśana, two

great epics etc are full of with orthodox philosophy (who believes in Vedas).

To challenge the orthodox system, there are vast literature on the heterodox

system (not believes in Vedas), like the Buddhist, Jaina, Lokāyata etc.

According to S.N. Das Gupta-one may divide the philosophical development of

India into three stages Pre-logical upto the beginning of the Christian era;

logical up to the Mohammedan domination of India CE 1000 or 1100; ultra

logical, CE 1100-1700321

. It is originated in the speculations of the Vedic sages

and reached its final fruition in the Advaita Vedānta of Śaṅkara and his

followers322

. The Upanishads thus lay the foundation of all later Hindu

philosophy. Religion and philosophy are co-related to each other. While

religious was rooted in philosophy, philosophy itself was rooted in

experience323

.

Works on Philosophy

Six System of Philosophy

Nyāya of Gautama: Gautama is the founder of the Nyāyadarśana and

author of Nyāya sūtras in the third century BCE. Nyāya means an argument, a

method of reaching to a conclusion. This was school of logic, maintaining the

view that clear thinking was an essential preliminary to salvation324

, the

attainment of Moksha through philosophical enquiry into knowledge.

320 HIL, p. 466.

321 S.N. Das Gupta, “Philosophy” in A.L. Basham (Ed.), op.cit., p. 111.

322 The Gazeteer of India, p. 196.

323 S.R. Sharma, Ancient Indian History and Culture, p. 126.

324 S.N. Das Gupta, op.cit., p. 117.

121

Uddyotakara wrote Nyāya-vārtika in the seventh century CE325

. According to

Winternitz Uddyotakara, poet Subandhu and Dharmakirti were contemporaries.

The greatest name in Philosophy in the ninth century CE is Vāchaspatimiśra,

the versatile and erudite genius who touches the every branch of the orthodox

systems of Indian philosophy, i.e. Advaita, Vedānta, Sāṁkhya, yoga and

mimāṁsā. He wrote Nyāya-vārttika-tāparyaīka, a supper commentary on the

Nyāyavārttika of Uddoyotakara and gave a sufficient stimulus to the orthodox

line of thought by writing his Nyāya-sūchīnibandha (CE 841) Nyāya-

sūtroddhara326

.

After Vāchaspatimiśra, we have a big name of Udayana, both Nyāya and

Vaiśesika School who got the fame in the tenth century CE. Udoyana wrote a

commentary name Tattva-suddhi (Nyāyavārttika tātparya-pariśuddhi) on the

Vāchaspati‟s Nyāyavarttika-tatparya-tikā, in CE 984. He also wrote

Kusumāñjali or Nyāyakusumāñjali and in this work, which deals with the two

systems Nyāya, and Vaiśesika conjointly. Because, by Udayana‟s time the

Nyāya and Vaiseśika system had come close to each other327

, and philosopher

of one school often wrote works on the other. He is also authorship of many

works.

Jayanta Bhaa, probably a Bengali by origin, who wrote a independent

commentary i.e. Nyāya-mañjarī, on the Nyāya-sūtra. It may be taken as a

landmark in the History of Indian Philosophy as it contains reference

practically to all the philosophic thoughts current at the time328

. He belongs to

the last quarter of the ninth century CE329

.

325 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 524.

326 Gaurinath Sastri, op.cit., p. 175.

327 Kalidas Bhattacharya, “Philosophical Literature” in S.K. Chatterji (Ed.), op.cit., p. 377.

328 Ibid.

329 G.V. Devasthali, “Language and Literature” in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial

Kanauj, p. 205.

122

Gaṅgeśa Upādhyāya is the father of new school of the Nyāyasystem

(Navya-Nyāya) flourished in the last quarter of twelfth century CE. He wrote

Tattva- chintāmaṇi, a standard text of the modern Nyāya School. The work

mentions the four means of knowledge admitted in the Nyāya School. This

work becomes the foundation for coming philosophers.

Vaiśeshika of Kaṇāda: The Vaiśika philosophy (also called Aulūkya

Darśana) was based on a system of atomism. The first systematic explanation

of a theory of Vaiśeshika philosophy is found in the Vaiśeshika-sūtra of

Kaṇāda (Kuṇabhaksha, Kaṇabhuk or Kāśyapa). The time of Kaṇāda is

uncertain but considered later than third century BCE. This school of

philosophy is closely akin to the Nyāya-darśana. Padārtha-dharma-saṁgraha

of Paraśastapāda (4th

or 5th

CE) is a commentary on Vaiśeshika-sūtra of

Kaṇāda. Following are four noted commentaries on Praśastapāda‟s work: 1.

The Vyomavati by Vyomaśivacharya or Vyomaśekhara (probably 9th

or 10th

century CE) 2. The Nyāya-Kandali of Śridhara belongs to 991 CE330

. This is

first work in which theism seems to have been formulated first time. 3. The

Lakshaṇāvali by Udayana is written in 984 CE. It is a short manual on

Vaiśeshika. 4. Nyāya-līlāvati by Vollabhāchārya or Śrīvatsa (probably belongs

to 11th

century CE). Saptapadārthi by Śivaditya is another important work on

Vaiśeshika and contains Nyāya theory. He was lived before 12th

century CE,

probably in the 11th

century CE.

Sāṁkhya of Kapila: The Sāṁkhya Darśana is probably the oldest

system of Indian philosophy. Rishi Kapila is the founder of this school. His

successors were Āsuri, Pañchaśikha, Gārgya and Ulūka. The original work

written by Kapila, is now lost. The earliest known work of this system is the

330 A.B. Keith, op.cit., p. 485.

123

Sāṁkhyakārika of Īśvara-krishṇa (probably 3rd

or 4th

century CE). We have the

famous commentary on this work is Tattva-kaumudi of Vachaspati Miśra. He

was the versatile genius who flourished in the ninth century CE. Tattva-

kamaudi is the most popular work of this school.

Yoga of Patanjali: The yoga system is near to Sāṁkhya system and

closely allied as a philosophy to each other. One side Sāṁkhya system signifies

theory, and other side the yoga signifies practice. The yoga-sūtra of Patañjali is

the oldest treatise of the yoga system. It has four chapters i.e. Samādhi

(concentration), Sadhana (practice), Vibhūti (supernormal power) and Kaivalya

(nature of liberation). Vyāsa wrote a commentary on yoga sūtra in the fourth

century CE. Vāchaspati wrote a glossary on Vyāsa‟s Bhāshya called the

Tattvavaiśaradī in the ninth century CE331

. Bhoja wrote an excellent

commentary on the Yoga sūtra, named the Rājamārtaṇḍa in the eleventh

century CE.

Pūrvamīmānsā of Jaimini: The Pūrvamīmānsā is called briefly also

Mīmānsā, is a system of Hindu philosophy. The Pūrvamīmānsā was originally

only a system of maxims (nyāyas), formulated for correct exposion of the

Vedic texts (Mantras and Brāhmaṇas) and connected with religious

performances332

. It deals with the nature of dharma as propounded in the

Karmakāṇḍa of the Vedas. The earliest literature on the Pūrvamīmānsā is the

Pūrvamīmānsā sūtra of Jaimini in the 4th

or 2nd

century BCE. Śabara wrote a

commentary on it in probably first century BCE. Prabhākara (probably 7th

century CE) wrote a commentary Brihati on the work of śabara. Prabhākara‟s

school is mentioned as gurumata (theory of the teacher) and he, therefore, is

331 Radhakrisnan, Indian Philosophy, II, p. 342.

332 M. Winternitz , op.cit., p. 472.

124

considered the teacher of Kumārila. Śālikanātha wrote a commentary

Rijuvimalā on Brihati in the ninth century CE. His, another important work the

Prakaranapandika, is a popular manual of the Prabhākara system.

Kumārila, reputed to be a great Champion of Hinduism, lived in south

India. He flourished before Śankara probably in the seventh century CE. His

work is divided in three parts, i.e. Ślokavārttika, Tantrāvarttika and Ṭupika.

Maṇdana Miśra, a follower of Kumarila is the author of Vidhiviveka and

Mīmānsānukramaṇi. He is earlier than Vachaspati (CE 850), who expounds the

views of Vidhiviveka in his Nyāyakaṇika333

. A third school (Miśra School) of

Mīmānsā is attached with the name of Murārimiśra. He flourished in the

eleventh or twelfth century CE.

Uttarmīmānsā of Bādarāyaṇa: The Uttarmīmānsā or the Vedānta is the

most important school of Indian Philosophy. The „Vedānta means literally the

end of the Veda‟. The Vedānta teaches in a systematic way the philosophy of

Upanishads. The Uttarmīmānsā of Bādarāyaṇa describes the Philosophic-

theological views of the Upanishads334

. The primary work of Uttara-Mīmānsā

is the Vedāntasūtra or the Brahmasūtra attributed to Bādarāyaṇa, probably

composed in BC century.

The greatest thinker on monistic Vedānta is Śankarāchārya (788-820

CE). He was a Nambudri Brāhmaṇa, born at Kāladi (Mālābāra) and died young

at the age of 32 years at Kedāranātha. He was the chief Vedānta Philosophers

and the exponent of Advaita doctrine. Śankara wrote many commentaries on

Upanishads, the Bhagavad-Gītā and Vedānta-sūtra. His main work is

commentary on the Vedāntasūtra, the Śarīrakabhāshya. He wrote Gītābhāshya

333 Radhakrishnan , op.cit., p. 377.

334 ibid, p. 430.

125

or a commentary on the Bhagwad-Gītā. He also wrote Viveka Chuḍamaṇi,

Ātmabodha etc. He worked for revival of Hinduism. Supreme as a philosophers

and a dialectician, great as a man of calm judgment and wide toleration,

Śankara taught us to love truth, respect reason and realize the purpose of life335

.

Viśishtādvaita of Rāmānuja: Rāmānuja, a Tamil Brāhmaṇa, is another

great commentator on the Brahmasūtras who flourished in between the last

quarter of the eleventh century CE and the first half of the twelfth century CE.

Son of Keśava and Kāntimatī, he studied at Kāñchī, learnt Vedānta from

Yādava Prakāśa, but abandoned his teaching for that of Yāmuna, the teacher of

his teacher. Rāmānuja laid great emphasis on Bhakti Mārga. He wrote a

commentary on the Brahma-sūtra, known as Śrī-bhāsya. His other works are

Vedārtha-saṁgraha, Vedānta-sāra, Vedānta-dīpa, Gītā-bhāshya (a

commentary on the Bhagavad-Gītā), Gadya-traya, and

Bhagavadārādhanakrama336

. His influence is seen throughout the later history

of Hinduism.

Nimbārka: Nimbārka, a Telugu Brāhmaṇa of Vaishnava faith, whose

age is not determined337

accurately, but who must lived a little after Rāmānuja.

Nimbārka, is reputed a pupil of Rāmānuja. Nimbārka wrote a commentary on

the Brahma-sūtra, named the Vedānta-pārijāta-saurabha. He advocates the

doctrine of dualistic non-dualism (Dvaitādvaitavāda). He is known to be the

author of many works.

3.16 Arthaśāstra

The science of Arthaśāstra (politics) was well known to the people in

Vedic period. It was known by several names like Rājadharma (Duty of king),

335 ibid, p. 658.

336 Amiya Kumar Majumdar, “Philosophical Literature” in S.K. Chatterji, op.cit., p. 383.

337 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 496.

126

Rājanīti (king‟s politics), Nitiśastra (Science of Guidance or Government),

Daṇḍanīti (Punishment politics) and Arthaśāstra (science of economics and

politics) etc. The Agni-pūraṇa embodies two different versions of the

Rājadharma. The first is quite elaborate338

called Pushkara-nīti; the second is

concise339

and called Ramokta-nīti. The Vedas, the Brāhmaṇas, the Buddhist

and Jaina texts contain valuable information regarding this field. Śānti-parva in

the Mahābhārata, Kauilya‟s Arthaśāstra and Smritis are related to political

theory. According to Max-muller- the systematic cultivation of all Indian

Śastras had begun in the Vedic school. The development of Arthāśastra is

associated with the three aims of life (trivarga), and so it offers three aims to

human being; dharma (performance of religious and customary duties); Artha

(useful acquisition and possession of property and gold); and Kāma (enjoyment

of sexual pleasure)340

.

Āchārya Janamejaya in his work Nīti-parkāśika mentions regard fully

name of Scholars341

who wrote on Rājadharma before Kauilya. But the first

most outstanding work is Kauilya‟s Arthaśāstra342

. Kauilya or Vishṇugupta

or Chāṇakya was the Prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya. Scholars

recognize Kauilya as the Machiaveli of India and a scholar describes his work

as „a library of ancient India‟343

. A number of treatises dealing with

Rājadharma were written during this period.

338 Chapter 218-37.

339 Chapter 238-42.

340 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 570.

341 cãk egs’oj LdUn’psUnz% izkpsrlks euq%A

o`gLifr’p ’kqdz’p Hkj}ktks egkrik%AA

osnkO;kl’p Hkxoku rFkk xkSjf’kjk eqfu%A

,rs gh jkt’kkL=k.kka iz.kksrkj% ijar;kA

tuest;&^uhfr&izdkf’kdk*

342 First published by. R. Sharma Śāstri, Mysore, 1909.

343 Gaurintah Sastri, op.cit., pp. 162-63.

127

Works on Arthaśāstra

The Nītisāra of Kāmandaka or Kāmadaki is the most important political

treatise after Kauilya‟s Arthaśāstra. It is written in verse with the character of

a Kāvya. The work is based on the Arthaśāstra and the author acknowledges

Kauilya as the innovator of the Politics344

. But it is not merely a redaction of

the Arthaśāstra. The Nītisāra is divided into twenty cantos and thirty-six

prākaraṇas. Vāmana (c. 800 CE) mentions Kāmandaki Nīti in a stanza. Even

Daṇḍin seems to be unaware of it. So we may place this work in between 700-

750 CE345

.

Nītivākyāmṛita (nector of the Science of polity) by Somadevasūri, a

Jaina writer of the tenth century CE, is another Nīti treatise and also a

colourless summary346

of the earlier works. Somadeva was also writer of

Yaśastilaka-champū (c.959 CE). Nītivākyāmrita is a mixture of ethics and

politics in short sūtras or aphorism. It may be placed in the rank after the

Kauilya‟s Arthaśāstra and Kāmandaka‟s Nītisāra. The work of Kanilya is a

pure Arthaśāstra in which Dharma is recognized only in so far as it may also

help the acquisition of arthā, while in the Nītivākyāmrita the term Nīti is used

not only in the sense of Political wisdom but also „moral conduct‟347

. The work

aims at instructing rulers on the conduct required in administering the state and

in achieving a position of pre-eminence in the inter-state circle348

. Somadeva‟s

style is his own and the language of work is simple and clear.

344 Kāmandaka-Nītisāra, I 5-7.

345 M. Winternitz, op.cit., p. 597.

346 S.K. Mitra, op.cit., p. 344.

347 Gulab Chandra Choudhary, Political History of Northern India from Jaina Sources (c. 650

AD -1300 AD), p. 7.

348 S.K. Mitra, op.cit.,

128

Hemachandra (1088-1172 CE)349

, a Jaina, was a voluminous writer on

numerous branches of study. His Guru was Devachandra350

. Hemachandra

writes the Laghuvar „a small manual of politics‟ for Jaina, but it does not rank

very high in the literature on polity. This work has more the character of a

Dharmaśāstra (law) than that of Nītiśāstra (polity). But the main topics of the

Nītisāra proper are generally found here351

. The work is written in ślokas in

Prākrit, deals with war, punishment, law (vyavahāra) and penances.

The Mānasollāsa or Abhilashitārtha-chintāmaṇi is attributed to the

Western Chālukya king Someśvara352

, surnamed Bhūlakomalla and

Satyāsrayakula-tilaka. King Someśvara is the son of Vikramaditya VI and his

period of reign is 1127-1138 CE. The date of composition of this work seems

to be 1131 CE353

. It is a voluminous work extending to about 8000 Granths and

is divided into five Viṁśatis, each containing twenty Adhyāyas or chapters of

the unequal length, some chapters again including several sub-sections. The

second Viṁśati opens with an enumeration of the necessary qualifications of

the king. The chapters on polity give complete though brief, information about

the royal policy. This work takes on the character of an encyclopaedia354

.

In spite of these works above mentioned on polity, we have large

number works on this topic, which were written in early medieval India and

played a very important role in the field of literature and politics. Nītisūtras of

Brihaspati is written in the same type of short prose sentence just like others

349 A.B. Keith, op.cit., p. 464.

350 P.V. Kane, op.cit., p. 290.

351 Gulab Chandra Choudhary, op.cit., p. 7.

352 Mānasollāsa, s. 9.

353 ibid, s. 61.

354 Romila Thapar, The Penguin Hisotry of Early India from the Origins to AD 1300, p. 393.

129

after the sixth or seventh century CE. Agni-pūraṇa also contains some chapters

(218-42) on this topic.

Here we can also mention the name of king Bhoja of Dhārā (Paramāra

dynasty)355

in the eleventh century CE, who wrote Yuktikalpataru, a Nīti text of

little merit. Bhoja is the greatest Indian critic available to us provides the

largest number of quotations and references and showing a very fine taste in

selection and comment356

.

3.17 Music

Music, the greatest art of India, has played a very important role in the

society from the beginning. It has the unique quality of appealing directly to the

hearts and minds of men. The traditional accounts, archaeological and literary

evidence show that music and dance formed an important part of religious and

secular life in ancient India. This was a source of recreation also; Gandharva-

veda (upveda of Sāmaveda) is related to Saṅgīta.

Sangīta-makaranda357

is written by Nārada in the eleventh century

CE358

. It deals with music and dance in two separate parts. The Mānasollāsa of

Someśvara contains some verses on music and musical instrumentals.

Chālukya king Someśvara, is the son of Vikrmāditya VI. The date of

composition of this work seems to be 1131 CE359

. King Someśvara is an

eminent authority on music as can be seen from the introductory stanzas of

355 E1, XI, p. 181.

356 A.K. Warder, “Classical Literature” in A.L. Basham (Ed.), op.cit., p. 174.

357 Ed. GOS, XVI.

358 According to R.C. Majumdar (Ed), The Struggle for Empire, this work belongs to eleventh

century AD., at page n. 329.

359 Mānasollasa, Vol.I Vi.

130

Saṅgitaratnākara360

and the first śloka of the second Adhyāya of Saṅgīta

samayasāra361

.

Jayadeva, the celebrated poet of the Gitagobinda, was a poet musician in

the court of king Lakshmaṇa sena of Bengal (12th

CE), and he was a devout

worshipper of Krishṇa. In character and feeling, the Gitagobinda has been

compared with the Song of Solomon. It was published as the Indian Song of

Songs when Sir Edwin Arnold translated it into English362

.

The most comprehensive treatise on the subject is the Saṅgītaratnākara

of Śārangadeva (1210-47)363

, a Brāhmaṇa from Kāshimra364

. He lived in

Daulatabad (Devagiri) under the patronage of Yādava king Siṅghana of

Devagiri; Sāraṅgadeva was a musician at his court. The Sangīta-ratnakara

occupies a most important place in the Indian music. The work is in seven

chapters, deals with musical notes, technical terms, melodies, measures of time,

musical instruments, acting, dancing etc. Saraṅgadeva‟s Saṅgītaratnākara,

therefore, forms a bridge; but more than that, it can be called the first modern

book on Indian Music365

. Śarangadeva contemporary Parsvadeva, son of

Ādideva and Gauri, a Jaina who is the author of the Sangīta Samayasāra, deals

with all aspects of music.

360 :nzVks ukU;Hkwikyks HkkstewoYyHkLr;kA

ijenhZ p lkses’kks txnsd eghifr%AA

laxhrjykdj v. A&18

361 Hkk.MhdHkk"k;ksfN"Vk Hkkstlkses’ojk fnfHk% A

xs;rnk.kr% dsfpn` o{;Urs y{;lEHkok% AA

laxhr le;lkj 2&1

362 Regnald & Jamila Massey, The Music of India, p. 41.

363 Ibid.

364 Ibid.

365 Ibid, p. 42.