Chapter- 3

China's Conventional Security Cooperation with Pakistan

Chapter-3

China's Conventional Security Cooperation with Pakistan

Introduction

China-Pakistan conventional cooperation represents a unique simplistic

characteristic in terms of arms transfer between the two countries. This is because the

nature of their cooperation can be viewed in relations to their strategic needs. For

Pakistan, the arms acquired from China help in building its defence posture. On the other

hand, for China Pakistan fulfils its strategic interest in the region. In contrast to the

United States which became a major source of arm in the wave of Soviet intervention in

Afghanistan but turned a volt face after the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, China

continued to be the main source of arms donor to Pakistan. Interestingly, the relationship

that Pakistan enjoys with China is totally unique. No matter what the outcome may be,

political, economic or defence, "China continue to assist Pakistan in building up its

military capability."1

A perusal at arms transfer shows that "arms transfer is a powerful political

instrument to exert influence both on allies and opponents and frequently used by major

superpowers."2 Conventional arms race is hardly a novel feature of either the Middle East

or South Asia. 3 It symbolises proliferation as a term given to what are essentially the

results of decisions made by people occupying senior positions in the military and

governmental establishments of developing countries.4 Like in the case of Pakist~ the

army plays crucial role in such decision making. In other words, this reflects to

Lindblom's theory of "disjointed incrementalism" which reflects on implementation of

1 Lawrence Ziring, "Dissonance and Harmony in Indo-Pakistani Relations", in Surendra Chopra, Perspectives on Pakistan's Foreign Policy (Amritsar: Guru Nanak Dev University Press, 1983), p. 190.

2 Yuri Pinchukov, "Arms Trade and the Proliferation of New Military Technologies", in Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp (eds.,), Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia

(London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 18. 3 Christophe Carle, "Mayhem or Deterrence? Regional and Global Security from Non-Proliferation to Post­

Proliferation", in Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp (eds.,), Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia (London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 46.

4 Brad Roberts, "The Strategic Implications of Chemical Weapons Proliferation", in Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp (eds.,), Am1s Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia (London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 31.

109

decisions. 5 China's arms transfer to Pakistan influence in the region is not exception.

This is because the quantitative dimensions of regional arms race have qualitative

features making it more vulnerable and insecure.

To begin with, China-Pakistan courting and subsequent supply of weapons was

not of recent origin. It started way back in the 1960s when Pakistan started to build

bridges with both the "Capitalist West" and the "Communist East."

The strategic ties between Pakistan and China started way back in the 1960s. The

precedent was set in 1965 when the first "defence agreement" was signed between China

and Pakistan. However, it was only after March 23, 1966, the initiative was made public

during the occasion of Pakistan's National Day celebration. It was stated that during the

celebration, "four Chinese T -59 tanks rolled out as part of parade that led the fly-past." It

was later reported that "Pakistan had already acquired from China number of

conventional weapons; 3,000 assault guns, 100 mortars, 5 T-59 MBTs, 40 to 60 MiG-19s

and 10 IL-28 bombers by May 1966 and about "150 Pakistani pilots had received training

for flying MiG-19s in China and returned to active duty in Pakistan."6

Pakistan's military hardware comprising a bulk of Chinese equipment acts as the

backbone of Pakistan's weaponry system. The reason is obvious, during 1960s and 70s

the U.S. along with some Western countries did not show any need to contain China's

assistance to Pakistan.7 Percentile finding indicates that: "China's share was 21 percent

of the total value of arms transferred to Pakistan during 1965, and it increased to 43

percent in 1966" similarly, "19 percent of Pakistan's weapons procurement in 1970 shot

up to reach over 83 percent in 1972 making it the peak period of China's weapons

supplies to Pakistan."8 The above analysis shows that during 1965-66, China's assistance

increased to 22% and similarly, during 1970-72, it increased to 64%, clearly indicating

the depth of its conventional ties. However, Pakistan's dependency on Chinese assistance

alone failed to meet the demand, as Pakistan's needs for new tanks, APCs, aircraft of all

kinds, artillery, radar, fire control system etc were all needed in bulk.

5 David Braybrooke and Charles E. Lindblom, A Strategy of Decision: Policy Evaluation as a Social Process, (London: Macmillan, 1970), pp. 29-61.

6 Tapan Das, China-Pakistan Collusion and US Policy, (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1972), p. 131 7 Anwar Syed, China and Pakistan: Diplomacy of an Entente Condiale, (London: Oxford University Press,

1974), p. 140. 8 Swaran Singh, "China-South Asia: Issues, Equations, Policies", (New Delhi: Lancer's Book, 2003),

p. 186.

110

Therefore, in order to meet the challenges, Pakistan's Defence Production

Division deals with weapons acquisitions from both foreign sources and within the

country. For streamlining the procedures, the Defence Production Division was structured

using the multi-divisional and project oriented approach. The sub-divisions related to

smaller organisation or office located at the Ministry of Defense headquarters and its

field establishments. The field establishments again are of two types. The first category

consists of the two sub-organisations of the director-generals defense procurement and

munitions production. The second type consists of the POFs, Wah, Heavy industries,

Taxila and Pakistan Aeronautical Complex, Kamra, which are directly under the

administrative control of the additional secretaries and are bigger facilities. 9 However,

there is no doubt that China's contribution occupies the top position in Pakistan's arms

acquisition. In order to have a clear understanding about China-Pakistan conventional

security relationship, the whole approach was divided into decadewise. This is done to

avoid the overlapping and the intricacies of the different types of arms delivered at

particular point of time. However, sometimes, while defining the same items recent

information is taken care of in order to make a correlation or to explain the stages of

development.

Conventional Collusion during the 1960s

As mentioned above it was during this period that China and Pakistan signed the

"Defence Agreement" that paved the way for further scope in arms transfer. The major

development during this period includes:

Pakistan Ordinance Factory

Pakistan Ordinance Factory (POF) was established in 1960s with Chinese

assistance to manufacture small arms and ammunition for the military situated at Wah.

POF comprises of fourteen factories producing projectiles, infantry equipment and

ammunition, explosives and even military clothing. The factory produces mainly for the

three services of the armed forces. Apart from these, it also carries out limited production

9 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, Pakistan's Arms Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99, In Search of a Policy, (New York: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 44-45.

111

for exports and commercial sale. 10 These low production figures are understandable as

the facility produced mainly for the national armed forces. For the production of

ammunition, the POF idea was to switch over from 5.56 mm to 7.62 nun ammunition, but

the plan was never put into action and the machinery imported for the purpose was left

lying idle.u It is reported that during 1953-1977, China extended approximately $3.8

billion in aid to Asian states in which Pakistan along with Vietnam, North Korea and

Cambodia were the major recipients. 12 In 1960, Pakistan also introduced its first

supersonic fighter in the region-the F-1 04 Starfighter. 13 The Chinese provided F-6 and

tank rebuild facilities; whereas the French provided Mirage rebuild facility. 14

Gradually, the conventional relationship between China and Pakistan got

transformed into joint ventures. The significance of this move is that it helped Pakistan to

acquire the weapons in bulk. The venture started in 1965 when a factory for the

production of assault rifles was set up at Ghazipur in East Pakistan. However, it became

operational after four years in April 1970. 15 Another important development which

Pakistan acquired with Chinese technical and financial assistance includes the setting up

of an Ordinance Factory near Dhaka. 16 The first joint venture undertaken between

Pakistan and China can be traced back to mid 1950s, when China started to work on

production and manufacture of recoilless gun ammunition at Pakistan's Wah Industrial

Complex (near Karachi). 17

The advantage of this venture is that it helped Pakistan to expand its industrial

base. In other words it acted as the backbone of Pakistan's military power as three new

ordinance factories were added to them at Gadwal, Sanjwal and Havalian-all in the

10 Ibid. p.118. 11 The Muslim, (Islamabad: February 14, 1993). 12 Harry Harding, (ed.,), China's Foreign Relations in the 1980s (New Haven and London: Yale University

Press, 1984), p. 128. 13 Jasjit Singh, "Arms Control and the Proliferation of High-Technology Weapons in South Asia and the

Middle East: A View from India", in Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp (eds.,), Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia (London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 130.

14 Stephen Philip Cohen, "Identity, Survival, Security: Pakistan's Defense Policy," in Surendra Chopra, Perspectives in Pakistan's Foreign Policy (Amritsar: Guru Nanak Dev University Press, 1983), pp. 65-66.

15 Swaran Singh, n. 8, p. 178. 16 Ibid, p.79. 17 Hasan-Askari Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan, 1947-86, (Lahore: Progressive Publishers,

1986), p. 205.

112

vicinity of Wah. 18 This helped Pakistan to acquire lots of ammunition and save time and

transportation cost. It's clear that, Field Marshal Ayub Khan's industrial development

planning was to attain limited self sufficiency in certain types of hardware and to meet

the urgent needs and avoid a complete paralysis in a future military conflict. 19 Inspite of

its much fanfare, the Auditor-General's report published in 1980 pointed out certain

intricacies of POFs. The report stated that; 14.4 per cent of the sten gun ammunition had

remained unsold in 1988-89 alone. 20 The reason is due to inappropriate technology, a

feature common in most Third World Countries.21 Signs of improvement can be seen in

1990s where it is stated that POFs exported goods worth $50 million.22

Table -1 People's Republic of China Major Conventional Weapons Transfers to Pakistan in the 1960s

Year Aircraft Armour/ Artillery Naval Vessels

1965 4 MiG-15 Trainers 80T-59 MBTs Not known

1966 4 IL-28 Bombers 40 Not known Not known F-6 Fighters

Source: As given in http;//www.subcontinent.com/sapralbullitin/96apr-may/si960506.htm

The above table shows China's conventional assistance to Pakistan during 1965-

66. China transferred 4 MiG-15 Trainers and 80 T-59 MBTs in 1965 and in 1966 China

transferred 4 IL-28, 40 F-6 Fighters.

Conventional Collusion during the 1970s

Leaving aside the 1971 debacle, numerous events can be attributed to Pakistan's

advantage during 1970s. As part of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's negotiation with the Chinese

counterpart during the former visit to China on May 1972, China provided 60 MiG-19

fighters and 100 T -54 and T -59 tanks as part of a new $ 300 million economic and

18 Ibid. 19 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 110. 20 The Frontier Pos (Lahore), July 18, 1991. 21 C. H. Kirkpatrick, and F.I. Nixon, T11e Industrialization of Less Developed Countries, (Manchester:

Manchester University, 1983), p. 14. 22 International Defense Review, (June, 1985), p. 939.

113

military aid package. 23 It was also during the same year China's political situation

witnessed the upheaval of Mao's radical bannermen who launched a large-scale

persecution of aircraft designers and engineers. A typical case that got affected was the J-

6 fighter, a version of the MiG-19.24 Another factor concerns China-Vietnamese armed

conflict of 15-20 January 1974.25

Pakistan's poor conventional capability has also been attributed to Bhutto's

nationalisation of industrial units in the 1970s. It completely crushed private

entrepreneurs, and further industrial growth was hindered due to shortage of electricity

and bureaucratic red tape.26 Thus, Pakistan became heavily dependent on China for arms.

China provided "500 T -59 main battle tanks, 25 naval vessels and 300 F-6 combat

aircrafts in a $ 600 million programme" the Chinese also constructed "a tank repair

factory at Taxila and an Air Force repair factory at nearby Kamra.',n It should be noted

that the Chinese made combat tanks Type-59 or T-9 is merely a copy of the Soviet T-54

tank that the Soviet Army first used in the early fifties. 28 It was in this period China

postponed for twenty years, payment on a loan taken in 1970 worth $ 200 million and

wrote off another $ 110 million in earlier loans. 29 Islamabad also increased the number of

aircraft by acquiring about 200 F-6s series from China.30 To institutionalise their defence

ties, Pakistan's President Bhutto signed a protocol on collaboration in defence production

with China in Beijing on May 1974. Within two years in 1976 it was followed by setting

up of a Joint China-Pakistan Military Committee.31

23 Anwar H. Syed, The Discourse and Politics ofZulfikar Ali Bhutto, (London: Macmillan Press Ltd. 1992), p.158.

14 John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai, "China's Search for a Modem Air Force", in Michael E. Brown, eta!, The Rise of China, (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2000), p. 78.

25 Lin Hu, Chief ( ed., ) Kongjzm Shi [The History of the air force] (Beijing: PLA Press, 1989), p. 197, as given in John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai, "China's Search for a Modem Air Force", in Michael E. Brown, eta!, The Rise of China (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2000), pp. 77-78.

26 Ron Mathews, "Country Survey IV: Pakistan", Defence and Peace Economics, V, (York: 1994), p. 321. 27 Ian Talbot, Pakistan: A Modern History (London: Hurst and Company, 1998), p. 224. 28 "Military Cooperation with the Middle East", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-021, 16 April 1992,

p. 32. 29 John W. Garver, The Sino-Indian Rivalry in the 20'h Century, (Seattle: University of Washington Press,

2001), p. 235. 30 The Military Balance, I981-82 (London: IISS, 1981), pp. 80, 86. 31 The Times of India (New Delhi), 31 May, 1976, p.l. ·

114

Table- 2 China's Conventional Assistance to Pakistan in the 1970s

Sl. Year Tanks Aircrafts Gunboats No 1 1971-72 110 T-59 MBTs 50 MiG-19s 3 Shanghai-II

gunboats 2 1974 159 T-59 MBTs Squadron ofMiG-19s -

aircraft 3 1974-77 - 60 MiG-19s, 24 F -4s, 2 4 Hu Quan fast

Hai Nan large patron attack hydrofoil craft. torpedo, 5 Shanghai-

II motor _gun boats

Source: Christopher F. Foss (ed.,), Jane's Armour and Artillery 1997-98, (Annual publication by Jane's Information Group}, p. 73.

A close perusal of table-2 given above shows that during the crisis of 1971-72

China's supplies to Pakistan increased tremendously. To name some of the few

conventional weapons transferred by China to Pakistan during this period includes: 110

T-59 MBTs tanks, 50 MiG-19s aircrafts, and 3 Shanghai-11 gunboats. Similarly, in 1974,

Pakistan received 159 T-59 MBTs, Squadron of MIG-19 Aircrafts. The figures also

indicate that in 1971-72, China's supply ofT -59 MBTs increased to almost threefold of

what it had supplied during 1971-72. In the subsequent years China supplemented its

supplies by the deliveries of more 60 MiG-19s, 24 F-4s, 2 Hu Quan fast attack hydrofoil

torpedo, 5 Shanghai-II motor gunboats and Hu Quan fast attack hydrofoil torpedo and

Hai Nan large patron craft. It is always stated that "the vacuum created by the

inefficiency of political leadership was always filled by the military."32 This view was

upheld even by the Supreme Court in Pakistan in a writ submitted in 1977.33

Originally, Pakistan negotiated with the Soviet Union for the delivery of MiG-21

planes. But, Pakistan purchased the MiG-21 from China which was the reproduction of

the Soviet MiG-21.34 The Chinese measure is the direct counter move taken against India.

In other words it was an answer to the Soviet delivery of 100 MiG-21 planes to India and

3~ Gavin Kennedy, The Military in the Third World, (New York: Charles Scribner's 1974), p. 89. 33 Kamal Azfar, "Constitutional Dilemmas in Pakistan", in Shahid Javed Burki and Craig Baxter (eds.),

PaJ..istan under the Military: Eleven Years ofZia ul-Haq, (Boulder: Westview, 1991), p. 69. 34 "Communist China to sell MiG-21 Planes to Pakistan", JPRS, Translations on Communist China, No. 87,

49642,20 January 1970, p. 14.

115

assisting India with the licensed construction of an additional 300 engines for the MiG-21

F1.3s

Table- 3 People's Republic of China Major Conventional Weapons Transfers to Pakistan during the 1970s

Year Aircraft Armour/ Artillery Naval Vessels

1970-73 80 F-6 Fighters 210 T-59 MBTs 53 T- 12 SHANGHAI PBs 63LTs 4 HUCHUAN FACs

1973-76 15 F-6 Fighters 159 T -59 MBTs 200 2HAINANPBs T-531 APCs

1977-79 24 F-4 Fighters 150 T-59 MBTs 200 Not known 130 MM TGs 50 122

MMSPHs

Source: http;//www.subcontinent.com/sapra/bullitin/96apr-may/si 960506.html.

The above table shows China's conventional weapons transfer especially aircraft,

armour/artillery and naval vessels. The table shows that during 1970-72, China supplied

80 F-6 Fighters, 210 T-59 MBTs, 53 T-63 LTs Armours and Artilleries, and 12 Shanghai

PBs 4 Huchuan FACS. And during 1973-76, the Chinese supplied 15 F-6 Fighters, 159

T-59 MBTs 200 T-531 APCs Armours and 2 Hainan PBs Naval vessels. China again

increased the supply during 1977-79, 24 F-4 Fighters, 150 T-59 MBTs 200 130 MM TGs

50 122 MM SPHs Armours. The preference for Chinese Armours as compared to

American tanks by the Pakistani Army was to avoid complications. It is stated that

Pakistan's Army found it problematic to handle and difficult to operate the American

tanks to maximum advantage. 36

Similarly, Table-4, as provided below shows clearly the types and as well as the

total number of different kinds of Chinese arms sales to Pakistan during the time period

of 1970 - 1990. The types of arms sales include Fighter Aircraft, Battle Tank, Armours,

Missile Type and Gunboats.

35 Ibid. 36 Mary Kaldor, The Baroque Arsenal, (London: Andre Deutsch, 1982), p. 164.

116

Table- 4 Main Chinese Arms Sales to Pakistan (1970-1990)

Types and total number of main Chinese arms sales to Pakistan

Aircraft Battle Tank Guns Type Missiles Gunboats Type Type Type Type

120 Jian-7M (F- 1,300 T-59 (T- 200 T-59 (130 Red Arrow 4 Huangfen (Osa) 7M Airguard) 54) main battle nun) field guns (Sagger) anti- missile boats fighter aircraft tanks tank missiles

24 Jian-6 (MIG- 200 T -69 (T -55 200 T-60 (122 HN-5 (SAM- 4 Hegu (Komar) 19) fighter modified) main nun) field guns 5[sic] and HQ-2 missile boats

aircraft battle tanks (SAM-2) anti-aircraft missiles

14 Qiang-5 (A-5) 500 YW-531 200 T-56 (85 HY-2 (CSS-2 4Huchuan attack aircraft armoured nun) field guns Silkworm) torpedo boats

personnel carriers surface-to-surface missiles

40 Jian Jiang-5 T-55 (37 mm) BN-2 (Atoll) and 4 Hanyan (FT-5) combat and T-59 (57 PL-5 air-to-air gunboats trainer aircraft mm) anti -aircraft missiles

guns

T-52 (75 mm) 8 Shanghai anti-tank guns gunboats

Source: "Military Cooperation with Middle East", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-021, 16 April 1992, p. 36.

Weapons Procurement and Joint Ventures

As mentioned above China's military assistance to Pakistan is substituted by joint

ventures· and military collaboration. This opened up the scope for wider future strategic

ties between the two countries. It also made their relationship more transparent.

Pakistan's approach of "learning-by-doing" was considered cost-effective and an

efficient way to progress in local weapons production. This methodology of production

without investing large funds in R&D a strategy adopted by countries where technology

is not sufficiently developed and resources scarce definitely got boosted up due to joint

117

ventures and collaboration. Some of the notable such ventures and collaboration

include.37

Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC)

The Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) Kamra is one of the two

manufacturing facilities of the Air Force. The four independent units of the facility are

dedicated to the overhaul and rebuild of Chinese (F-6 aircraft) and French aircraft in the

P AF inventory, and to manufacture light aircraft and assembly of ground based radar. 38

The idea was conceived in 1972 and formally established in 1980 with Beijing's

technological assistance, and in 1990s the facility was in a position to manufacture 7000

spare parts for the F-6, FT-5, and FT-6 aircraft.39 The factory also has the capacity to

manufacture the propeller driven Swedish Saab MFI-17 aircraft and its derivatives. The

Saab MFI-17 was renamed as "Mushshak" and its improved version as Shahbaz. It is

estimated that in 1980s the factory has the capacity to manufacture 24 such aircraft.40

Although actual production rates can vary, a total of 243 "Mushshaks" were assembled

up to 1994.41 Pakistan also built the largest Aeronautical Complex at Kamra near Attock

for F-6 Rebuild Factory, Mirage Re-build Factory, Kamra Avionics and Radar, Aircraft

Manufacturing Factory and a whole range of ancillary industries through Chinese

assistance. 42

The Chinese aircraft manufacturer CATIC conceived the original idea for the jet

trainer L-8. However, when Pakistan was included into the project the name was changed

to K-8. Thus, Karak:oram-8 or K-8 and Super-7 were the co-development and co­

production of Chinese assistance. 43 Apart from these, Pakistan also tried to acquire

Russians Su-27 Flanker, but failed due to well-entrenched pro-Indian lobby in Moscow.44

However, it was believed that once China got the technology to assemble the Su-30

37 Steven Nahmias, Production and Operations Analysis, (Massachusetts: Irwin, 1999), p. 29; also Tamir Agmon and Mary Ann Von Glinow, Technology Transfer in International Business, (Oxford: Oxford, 1991), p. 89.

38 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 126. 39 Ibid, p. 127. 40 All the World's Aircraft, 1992-93, (London: Jane's, 1993), p. 172. 41 Ali Abbas Rizvi, "PAC KAMRA: A Success in Self-Reliance", Globe, (Karachi: March, 1994), p. 40. 42 Swaran Singh, n. 8, p. 79. 43 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 128. 44 Interviewed with Additional Secretary, Tariq Fatimi (Islamabad: 17/02/98) cited in Ayesha Siddiqa­

Agha, Pakistan's Am1s Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99, In Search of a Policy, (New York: Pal grave, 2001 ), p. 170.

118

aircraft it had acquired from Moscow, it would not be difficult for the PLAto pass it on

to the P AF. 45

Heavy Rebuild Factory (renamed Heavy Defence Industry HDI)

The Heavy Rebuild Factory (HRF) renamed as Heavy Defence Industry (HDI)

located at Taxilla not only provided overhauling facility to Chinese Type-59s but also

upgraded tanks with critical components such as fire control systems, ammunition and

other thermal sight and electronic systems for Pakistan Army.46 The HDI also encouraged

Pakistan in indigenisation to produce large quantity of components and parts. It is

recorded that out of 11,000 total components required to build aT-59 MBT, over 8,000

were manufactured locally by Pakistan. 47 Another Chinese company dealing with

armours production in Pakistan include the Norinco. Since then, it has emerged as the

main force in the manufacture of Chinese MBTs- from T-69 to T-85 II and P-90 MBTs

as also the M-113 Armoured personnel carriers. 48

Heavy Industries- Taxi/a (HIT)

The plan conceived in 1971 aimed at developing the capability to

overhaul/rebuild Chinese T-59 tanks was finally established in 1979 with Chinese help.

Since its establishment, it is stated that approximately 1000 T -59 tanks and tank engines

were overhauled, up-gunned and enabled to manufacture 9000 out of the 11000

components needed for T-59.49 Pakistan also built indigenous tank known as "MBT-

2000" or "Al-Khalid" having a 125 mm gun with APFSDS, HEAT and HE ammunition.

"The design was derived from the marriage of existing blueprints of the Chinese T-85s

and T-69IIs.50 The project was basically initiated to acquire less expensive tanks for the

Army then the American M1A1 Tank. It was in 1979-80, that the Heavy Industries

Taxilla (HIT) started to overhaul and rebuild the Chinese T-59 tanks. 51

~5 Interview with Vice Chief of Air Staff, Air Marshal Aliudin (Rawalpindi: 17/02/98) cited in Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, Pakistan's Arms Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99, In Search of a Policy, (New York: Pal grave, 2001 ), p. 171.

46 Swaran Singh, n. 8, p. 179. ~7 Ibid. 48 Ibid, pp. 179-80. 49 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 120. 50 Ibid. 51 Ibid, p. 147.

119

In a presidential directive issued in 1985, President Zia ordered all anns

acquisitions to be accompanied with the transfer of technology. 52 General Mirza Aslam

Beg, who took over as Army Chief after Zia and who was ambitious about attaining self

reliance in weapon systems, a project was launched for the development and production

of the MBT -2000 also known as "Al-Khalid." This tank was generally compared with

tanks such as the Russian T-72 and American MlAl. Table-3 given below shows the

detailed comparison of the three types of tanks as mentioned above.

Table- 5 Comparison of Pakistan's Main Battle Tank with Top Tanks of the World

MBT-2000 T-72 MlAl

Country Pakistan & China USSR USA

Crew 3 3 4

Combat weight (ton) 48 41 57.172

Power weight (hp/ton) 25-30 19 26.2

Length (longitudinal mm) 6900 7400 7918

Weigh (turret top) 2300 2200 2438

Max road speed (km/h) 62 60 66.8

Main gun caliere (mm) 125 smooth bore 125 smooth bore 120 smooth bore

Muzzle velocity (m/s) 1760 850 905 1615 850 950 1650 1140

Auto loader Yes Yes Yes

Ammunition storage round 39 40 40

Engine power 1200-1500 780 1500

Transmission armour projection Auto-Hyde Composite Auto-Hyde

Cost US$ 1.5-1.7 million N/A US$ 3.5-4.5

Million

Source: Jane's all the World's Armoured, as cited in Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, Pakistan's Arms Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99, In Search of a Policy, (New York: Palgrave, 2001 ), p. 149

52 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 110.

120

F-6 Rebuild Factory

China set up the "F-6 Rebuild Factory" as a turnkey project for the Pakistani Air

Force. 53 This undertaking became operational in November 1980, making Pakistan

capable to operationalise major factory for the Pakistani Air force and at the same time

helping to upgrade its capability. It became cost effective, as a single American-made F-

16 fighter plane costs more than $ 20 or $ 30 million, but a single F-7 plane costs only $

10 million. The cheap price of the F series alone is sufficient to attract quite a few poor

third world countries. 54 The fact is that in the past F-6 aircraft needing overhaul use to be

dismantled and sent to China by sea The whole process including their return,

reassembly and test flight in Pakistan takes 12 to 18 months, making it more time

consuming and costly. 55 But after the building of F-6 Rebuild factory, the time needed for

overhauling became less than six months. 56 This not only made it more convenient and

less time consuming, but also economical.

One major advantage in this period was "unlike the American F-86 Sabres which

occupied significant place in Pakistan Air Force got replaced by the F-6 Sabres during the

early 1980s."57 China also built overhauling facilities for: "The F-6 Shenyang fighter and

for the manufacturing of the Tumansky RD-9B-8II turbojet engines with over 7,000 other

spare parts" and later China expanded this facility to undertake "overhauling FT -5, FT -6

and FT -7s" then with "the phasing out of the F-6s, the facility was diverted towards

maintenance and overhaul of the F-7Ps in Pakistan." 58 Therefore, the main Chinese

fighter aircraft that Pakistan purchased include; 135 A-5's, 150 F-6's, and 20 F-7's.59

China's arms trade shot up to $161 million in the international arms trade in 1981.60 It

53 Hasan-Askari Rizvi, "Factors Shaping Pakistan's Armed Production Programme", Defence Journal (Karachi), Vol. Xiv No. 11 (1988), p. 42.

54 Chang Kuo-Li "Great Leap Forward in China's Foreign Arms Sales", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-038, 5th June 1992, p. 29.

55 Swaran Singh, n. 8, pp. 179-80. 56 Hasan-Askari Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan, 1947-86, (Lahore: Progressive Publishers,

1986), p. 205. 57 Swaran Singh, n. 8, p. 180. 58 Ibid. 59 Chang Kuo-li "Great Leap Forward in China's Foreign Arms Sales", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-

92-038, 5 June 1992, p. 29. 60 The figure is at the constant price for 1975, see SIPRI Yearbook 1986, pp. 324-5.

121

was stated that in 1988, China stood third after the Soviet Union and the United States in

arms sales value to the Third World countries.61

Light Aircraft Manufacturing Factory

Another project undertaken by China to facilitate Pakistan's need in building light

aircraft include the Light Aircraft Manufacturing Factory (LAMF). The project was

started on June 1981 with an objective to produce complete airframes and light combat

aircraft. By September 1983 it began the license production of SAAB Scania MF-17

(locally known as Mushshak). 62 Another deal that Pakistan signed with China during

1980s includes the Chinese MiG-21 (also known as the F-7). Approximately 95 F-7

series aircraft were acquired in two orders: the first for 20 F-7Ps carrying 24 technical

modifications to meet PAF's specifications and the second for 75 F-7MPs to carry more

modifications. However, it is also stated that the Pakistani Air Force was not exactly

satisfied with the Chinese manufacturer of Chengdu' s F-7 also known as the supersonic

sports planeY Thus, Pakistan also inducted high-technology F-16 combat aircraft in

1981.64 Table-6 given below depicts the abbreviation of Chinese aircraft along with the

Chinese name and alternative name.

Table- 6 Full names for Chinese Aircraft Abbreviations

Full name for Chinese Aircraft Abbreviations

Abbreviation Chinese Name Alternative Name F Fighter Plane Combat Plane A Attack Plane Attack Plane B Bomber Bomber H Helicopter Helicopter

MB Marine Bomber None c Cargo Plane Cargo Plane

FT Fighter Trainer Fighter Trainer

Source: Chang Kuo-li "Great Leap Forward in China's Foreign Arms Sales", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-038, 5 June 1992, p. 29.

61 S/PRI Yearbook 1993, p. 444. 62 Swaran Singh, n. 8, p. 180. 63 "Chengdu J-7/F-7: The Supersonic Sports Plane", World Power Journal, (7 Autumn/Winter 1991),

p. 134. 64 Jasjit Singh, "Arms Control and the Proliferation of High-Technology Weapons in South Asia and the

Middle East: A View from India", Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp (eds.,), Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia (London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 130.

122

Table-7 given below shows the major countries where Chinese military aircrafts

especially F-S, F-6, F-7 and A-S were sold. As shown in serial no. 4 Pakistan received

1SO F-6, 20 F-7 and 13S A-S. Ostensibly, Korea occupies the first position in terms of

consistency and total number put together in acquiring Chinese aircraft forcing Pakistan

to stand second.

Table- 7 Major Countries where Chinese Military Aircraft have been sold

S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Maior Countries where Chinese Military Aircraft have been sold Country F-5 F-6 F-7 A-5

BaJJ.gladesh 26 16 Iraq 40 150

Korea 100 160 40 40 Pakistan 150 20 135 Vietnam 70

Egypt 76 52 Somalia 30 Sudan 5 6

Tanzania 3 10 11 Zambia 12

Zimbabwe 48 Albania 30 20

Source: Chang Kuo-li "Great Leap Forward in China's Foreign Arms Sales", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-038, 5 June 1992, p. 29.

As mentioned above, prior to 1982, the P AF' s mainstay was the Chinese, French

and American aircraft of old vintage. Since the induction of F-16s proved vital in

improving the morals of the Pakistan Air Force, Pakistan cancelled deal for 7S Chinese

F-7s worth$ 225 million in 1989.65 In order to cater its procurement objective of a "low­

and-high-mix" two types of Chinese aircraft were procured-the A-Ss and F-7s, and it was

estimated that, about 90 A-Ss were obtained in 1983-84 for a price of $1 million per

aircraft which was a good price for a ground attack aircraft of this quality, the first

overhaul of these aircraft was reported in 1988.66

65 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 141. 66 Jane's Defense Weekly, April 9, 1988, p. 658.

123

Heavy Mechanical Complex

The Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC) at Taxilla was the biggest undertaking

between China and Pakistan. The HMC obtained the technology to make gun barrels for

tanks and to carry out other high-tech mechanical work. 67 Ling Yu summarises various

Chinese designs and models in the 1980s as follows:

The Type "83" 152 mm self-propelled gun-howitzer, Type "83" 122 mm towed gun­

howitzer, Type "83" 152 mm towed gun, WA 021 155 mm towed gun-howitzer, Type

"85" towed howitzer (modeled on the Soviet D-30), Type "81" 40-tube 122 mm rocket

launcher (similar to the Soviet BM-21), Type "82"/ "85" 30-tube 130 mm rocket

launcher, Type "83" 4-tube 273 mm rocket launcher, Type "86" 100 mm smooth bore

high bore pressure anti-tank gun, Type "87" 82 mm mortar, W -90 60 mm mortar, PGZ-

88 twin-mount 37 mm automatic anti-aircraft gun, etc.68

Pakistan acquired T -69 in 1987 and simultaneously ordered for the T -69IIs in

1989. It was estimated that in 1990 Pakistan acquired about 200 T-85s.69

Miscellaneous Conventional Arms Transfer during 1980s

It was all at the backdrop of Pakistan's sour relationship with the U.S. the Carter

administration's offer of 110 A-7 aircraft during Bhutto' s last days was withdrawn

symbolising ceasing of U.S. support to Bhutto's government.70 On the other hand the

Chinese supplied 4 Huangfan Class (OSA-1) missile attack crafts, which were delivered

at Karachi in August 1984 on a Chinese powered barge. 71 Huangfan is the largest and the

latest in China's missile boat inventory. This is in addition to other supplies made earlier

such as Hainan, Hoku Shanghai-II fast attack crafts (FAC) and Huchwan Hydrofoil FAC

(Torpedo). 72

67 Brig. Khalid M. Masud, "Development of Strategic Materials and its Requirement for Defence", Paper presented at the seminar on "Self-Reliance in Defence", organised by the Defence Production Division, MoD (Rawalpindi: 16-17/01/93), pp. 72-73, as cited in Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, Pakistan's Arms

Procurement and Military Buildup, I979-99, In Search of a Policy, (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 114. 68 Ling Yu, "Military Report Reveals New Weapons: The Chinese Communist Military is Presently

Beefing Up" "New Developments in Gun Systems", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-019, 1 April 1992, p. 41.

69 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 147. 70 Hasan-Askari Rizvi, Pakistan and the Geostrategic Environment, (New York: St. Martin's, 1993),

pp. 92-93. 71 The Times of India, New Delhi, 21 September 1984. 72 P.K.S. Namboodiri, "China's Arms Exports: New Initiative", Strategic Ana~vsis, Vol. VIII, No. 11, Feb.

1985, p. 1100.

124

Similarly, in 1984, a deal was signed with China for establishing a new machine­

gun factory and in 1989, another project was launched to manufacture Yasoob truck

project a joint public-private sector venture to produce 1250 6 x 6 (weighing 16-22 tons)

and 1750 4 x 4 trucks (weighing 12-15 tons) with a per unit production cost of $40000

and $29000 respectively. 73 By 1988, 48.8 percent of aircraft, 53.9 percent of aircraft

engines, 42 percent of radar systems, 50 percent of aircraft, 53.9 percent of aircraft

engines, 42 percent of radar systems, 50 percent of HQ-2 surface-to-air missiles, of

disrepair restricted pilot training and further degraded combat readiness was available

through Chinese assistance. 74 According to John W. Garver, Pakistan also received $1

billion aid from China during the mid 1980s.75

Interestingly, President Zia-ul-Haq of Pakistan talking to newsmen after the

inaugural session of a religious convention in Islamabad on 4 January 1984, said " Today

Pakistan has no offensive designed against any country and what-ever weapons now

being acquired are purely for defence purposes" he further stated " it is a fundamental

right of any country to determine the size and requirements of its armed forces according

to its own needs ... Pakistan's acquiring of F-16 and other weapons is for its legitimate

defence needs." 76 However, the move taken by Zia-ul-Haq can be viewed vis-a-vis

India's arms procurement. According to Local Press report, India began exporting arms

in 1982 and earned 270 million rupees although 210 million less than the target set at 480

million rupees.77 China's close ties can also be seen at the backdrop of the upheavals of

the Sino-Vietnamese armed conflict of January 15-20, 1974.78

Table-8 shows People's Republic of China's major weapons transfers to Pakistan

in 1980s. China transferred 20 F-6 Fighters, 42 Q-5 Fighters, 98 Q-5 Fighters and 60 F-7

Fighters; 700 T-59 MBTs, 50 T-60 LTs 50, 122 MM MRS; and 2 HAINAN PBs 4

HEGU FACs, 4 HUANGFEN FACs, and 2 Romeo Class.

73 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 154. 74 John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai, "China's Search for a Modem Air Force", in Michael E. Brown, et al,

The Rise of China (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2000), p. 84. 75 John W. Garver, n. 32, p. 234. 76 "Pakistan has no offensive designs", China Report, PSMA, JPRS-CPS-84-010, 25th January 1984, p. 18. 77 "India to begin exporting Arms", China Report, PSMA, JPRS-CPS-84-0 10, 25th January 1984, p. 17. 78 Lin Hu, Chief ed., Kongjun Shi [The History of the air force] (Beijing: PLA Press, 1989), p. 197, as

given in John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai, "China's Search for a Modem Air Force", in Michael E. Brown, et al, The Rise of China (Cambridge: The MIT Press,-2000), pp. 77-78.

125

Table- 8 People's Republic of China Major Conventional Weapons Transfers to Pakistan in 1980s

Year Aircraft Tank Submarine

1980-82 20 F-6 Fighters 150 T-59 MBTs 50 T- 2 HAINAN PBs 4 60 LTs 50 122 MM HEGUFACs

MRS 1983-85 42 Q-5 Fighters 150 T-59 MBTs 4 HUANGFEN FACs

1986-88 98 Q-5 Fighters 200 T -59 MBTs Not known

1988-89 60 F-7 Fighters 200 T -59 MBTs 2 Romeo Class

Source: http;//www.subcontinent.com/sapralbullitin/96apr-may/si 960506.html.

Table- 9 World trade in major conventional weapon systems, 1986-90 Figures are values of major conventional weapons systems transferred, in US$m., at €onstant (1985) prices.

Recipient Seller USSR USA France UK China FRG Czech. Netherlands Sweden Italy Others

China 62 120 187 5 - - - - - - 40 India 12474 - 1776 1147 - 383 - 525 603 - 81

Pakistan - 1070 25 125 1202 - - - 167 16 88

Source: Ian Anthony, Agne Courades Allebeck, Gerd Hagmeyer-Gaverus, Paolo Miggiano and Herbert Wulf, "The Trade in major conventional weapons", Table 7.4, S1PRI Yearbook 1991: World Annaments and Disannament, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1991 ), pp. 208-211.

Table-9 as given above shows the comparative data of arms received by China,

Pakistan and India from various sources during the period 1986-90. The table shows that

India received $ 16989 million worth of conventional weapons, China $ 414 million, and

Pakistan $ 2693 million. Since China was the fifth largest exporter of major conventional

weapon systems for the period 1986-90 its import stood third as compared to Pakistan

and India. Besides this, China's export level remained at the reduced level amounting to $

0.9 billion in 1989.79

79 Ian Anthony, Agne Courades Allebeck, Gerd Hagmeyer-Gaverus, Paolo Miggiano and Herbert Wulf, "The Trade in major conventional weapons", SIPRI Yearbook 1991: World Armaments and Disarmament, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1991), p. 217.

126

Total 414

16989 2693

Conventional Collusion during the 1990s: Ongoing Major Joint Ventures

China and Pakistan continued joint ventures under the provisions of June 1990

Memorandum of Understanding signed between the two countries. Some of the major

hallmarks of China-Pakistan engagement in the 1990s are as follows:

Air Weapons Complex (AWC)

Created around 1993-94, the Air Weapons Complex denotes a slight change from

the traditional public-sector facilities in the country and ensures profit maximisation by

adopting a commercial approach. Apart from the Pakistan Ordinance Factories (POF),

Air Weapons Complex (AWC) is another facility to start limited commercial activities

and export due to technological limitations. 80 By the end of 1990s the quality of the

hardware and services of Pakistan's aircrafts was not of standards and dependent

primarily upon Chinese interceptor aircraft.81 AWC is another project started by the Air

Force in 1992-93.82 China's export of both the Model 56 and the Type 56 Sporter is

handled by North Industries Corporation (NORINCO) which is generaliy regarded as a

symbol of China's foreign arms sales. NORINCO appears to be a civilian enterprise, but

actually it falls under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Ordinance of China's State

Council.83

MBT-2000, the Al-Khalid

General Mirza Aslam Beg, who took over as the Army Chief after Zia's death in

1988 followed ambitious defence production plans. The first thing he did was encouraged

a plan whereby Pakistan would focus on developing an MBT with Chinese help.84 It was

on l October, 1988, Pakistan formally announced its Al-Khalid project for the

manufacture of a new MBT-2000 and on January 1991 China and Pakistan signed an

agreement to jointly design, develop and manufacture this tank and after a year in 1992

Pakistan's manufacturing plant at Heavy Rebuild Factory (Taxilla) was completed with

80 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 111. 81 Ibid, p. 191. 82 Ibid, p. 174. 83 Chang Kuo-li "Great Leap Forward in China's Foreign Arms Sales", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-

92-038, 51h June 1992, p. 28.

84 Interview of Army's Chief of General Staff, Lt. General Farrukh Khan (Rawalpindi: 29/03/94), cited in Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, Pakistan's Arms Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99, In Search of a

Policy, (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 175.

127

the collaboration of Chinese Norinco industries. 85 It was expected to produce about 200

vehicles each year and was formally approved by the Defence Committee of the Cabinet

of Pakistan on 16 January, 1990.86 As part of this strategy Chinese T -85s were procured

in 1990. This tank was believed to provide a technological cushion between the less

sophisticated T-59s, T-69s, T-69IIs and the more sophisticated MBT-2000.87 This is the

direct outcome of a contract signed in 1988-89 with the Chinese manufacturer "Norinco."

Under the contract, China agreed to spend the major portion of the total cost of the

project estimated approximately at Rs 25 billion ($1.2 billion) out of which Pakistan

agreed to commit $1 billion. 88 The agreement began to produce serial production at the

HRF and by June 1991 China gave Pakistan its primary prototypes for trials. 89

However, the major drawback is that its repeated trials in Pakistan show that there

occur a number of operational problems in Pakistan due to difficult terrain and high

temperatures.90 By mid 1994 China supplied "Type 69 MBTs to Islamabad with 105 mm

tank gun that was fitted with U.S. GEC Marconi Centure computerised fire control

systems" Pakistan also received a consignment of MBTs delivered from Norinco like:

200 Type 85 II AP MBTs, and it is expected that further 400 such MBTs were to be

acquired by Pakistan in two batches of 200.91 According to reports "a similar technology

transfer is also being worked out for China's Type·-85 MBTs.92

In a weeklong visit to China by Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif in

February 1998, Pakistan's Defence Secretary, Lt. Gen. Iftikhar, was reported to having

held detailed discussions with his Chinese counterparts on "modernisation of facilities

like Heavy Mechanical Complex at Taxila, as also on different aspects of building MBT,

85 Lt.Gen. Syed Tanwir Hussian Naqvi, "Self-reliance in armament manufacture Heavy Industries Taxila", Defence Journal (Karachi) Vol.xix No.ll-12 (1993 ), p. 181.

86 Ibid. 87 Interviewed with the Army's Chief of General Staff, Lt. General Farrukh Khan (Rawalpindi: 29/03/94),

as cited in Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, Pakistan's Arms Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99, In Search of a Policy, (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 175.

88 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 121. 89 Lt.Gen.Syed Tanwir Hussian Naqvi, "Self-reliance in armament manufacture Heavy Industries Taxi Ia",

Defence Journal (Karachi) Vol.xix No.11-12 ( 1993 ), p. 181. 9° Christopher F.Foss ( ed.,), Jane's Armour and Artillery 1997-98, (Annual publication by Jane's

Information Group), p. 74. 91 Ibid, p 73. 92 Ibid

128

Al-Khalid. "93 Apart from China, another third major partner who helped Pakistan in such

project is Ukraine. Ukraine provided "6TD 1200 hp engine of its T -90 IIMs and their

future projections estimated at producing 200 MBTs by year 2005 and another 300 by

2007."94

Karakoram-8 trainer/fighter

The Karakoram-8 (or K-8) trainer/fighter is basically China's L-8 publicly

launched project for a tandem-seat basic trainer and light ground attack aircraft by its

Nanchang Aircraft Manufacturing Company (NAMC). China picked up Pakistan as its

partner (25 percent share) for this joint venture between China's National Aero

Technology Import Export Corporation (CATIC), Nanchang Aircraft Manufacturing

Company (NAMC) and Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) at Kamra.95 The project

popularly termed as "the Karakoram-8 trainer/fighter" after the mountain range forming

part of the China-Pakistan border was designed and built at Nanchang by a team of

engineers provided by the PAC. Since then the Aircraft Manufacturing Factory (AMF) at

Kamra has been collaborating with CATIC and CNAMC of China towards the

pevelopment of the K-8 project.96 Officials in the Ministry were of the view that this

collaboration was vital for Pakistan's defence industry and it insisted upon the Air Force

to buy at least a few K-8s.97

The K-8 project however, faces many imbalances between manufacturing

capabilities, investment and responsibilities.98 Unlike China, Pakistan has no skills in this

area and its main contribution was in terms of the PAF's operational experience.

Therefore, in order to acquaint the Air Force staff, P AFs worked closely with Chinese

designers to find out a design for the K-8, it is stated that Pakistan provided 14

aeronautical engineers to work on the K-8 along with 2000 Chinese engineer. 99 The

93 Umer Farooq, "Li Peng, Sharif discuss ties, issues", The Nation (Islamabad), 12 February 1998, pp.l-15. 94 "AI Khalid MBT-2000", as cited in http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/Pakistan/mbt-2000.htm 95 Swaran Singh, n. 8, p. 182-83. 96 The Stockholm Institute of Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), World Armament and Disarmament: SJPRI

Yearbook, (1984, published by Taylor and Francis Ltd., Oxford University Press, London), p. 411. 97 Interview with Air Marshal (Retd.) Masood Hatif(Islamabad: 04/03/94), as cited in Ayesha Siddiqa­

Agha, Pakistan's Arms Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99, In Search of a Policy, (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 174.

98 "Military Cooperation with Middle East", JPRS China Report, JPRS-CAR-92-021, 16'h April 1992, p. 36.

99 Ron Mathews, "Country Survey IV: Pakistan", Defence and Peace Economics. V, (New York: 1994),

129

maiden flight of the K-8 took place in Novt~mber 1990, just like their MBT Al-Khalid, its

trails have shown some basic problems. 100 To avoid these intricacies, China and Pakistan

signed another agreement under which Pakistan agreed to purchase the K-8 in complete

and only assemble them at their facilities. The prototype was ready by 1994 and the first

batch of six K-8 trainers was delivered to Pakistan. After evaluation and trial the K-8

trainers was finally inducted into Pakistan Air Force's Basic Flying Training Wing by

Prime Minister Ms. Benazir Bhutto on 26 January, 1995.101 Within a span of three years

Pakistan assembled 30 more K-8 trainers during 1994-96 and fifteen more were received

during January 2002.'~102 The speciality ofK-8 is that:

"It has a speed of 800 km/hr and is capable of providing both basic and advanced training

that is required to be more advanced and sophisticate of Air defence. K-8 have the

endurance of 3 hour and 15 minutes with internal fuel and by carrying additional fuel in

its wings, the plane can fly more than four hours continuously. The K-8 also has a

modem two-place cockpit and it has finally obtained the American Garrett engines tmd is

I . d . h d d d . · I · " 103 a so equ1ppe w1t a very mo em ra ar an nav1gat10na equ1pment.

The aeronautical complex in Pakistan underwent a drastic change as a result of

the development of Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC), Heavy Foundry (HF) and the

whole range of auxiliary industries in Pakistan with China's assistance.

FC-1 I Super 7 fighter

A project called "Super-7" for an overall upgrade of the F-7s involving the

installation of Western, mainly West European, avionics in aircraft and to increase the

payload was initiated in 1990s. The projec:t launched in 1989-90 for the development and

co-production of a jet trainer with the Chinese manufacturer CA TIC called K-8 was

publicised as an indicator of growth in Pakistan's aircraft manufacturing capability. 104 It

can be looked at the backdrop of the U.S. unilateral suspension of the Chengdu Super-7

joint project (preliminary design between China's CATIC and Grumman of U.S. signed

in October 1988) following the Tiananman Square crisis. However, this did not dither

p. 325. 100 "Building Security" (Editorial), The News (Islamabad), 27 January 1995, p.7. 101 Swaran Singh, n. 8, pp. 182-83. 102 SJPRI Yearbook 1997-98, (Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 1997), p. 329. 103 "PRC Delegation Holds Talks on K-8 Aircraft", FBIS-NES-95-016, 24 January 1995. 104 The News, (Lahore), 29 September 1992.

130

China, in 1991, China launched it under a new name as Fighter China-1 (FC-1) and after

a year in 1992 the CATIC signed a fresh contract with Pakistan's PAC for collaboration

of this project. 105

Another reason can be attributed to Pakistan finding in difficult to replace its F-

16s fighters by FC-1 as planned to phase out by the end of 1990s due to slow process and

complication. 106 But, the U.S. suspension of the sale of 71 F-16s to Pakistan expedited

China and Pakistan to jointly develop the FC-1 fighter plane thought to be equivalent of

F-16 and fitted with a Russian engine. 107 Ostensibly, the outcome of the project turned

out to be more complicated, numerous problems started to surface. In the words of Air

Marshal Ayaz Ahmad:

"China's lack of interest and Chinese authorities insisting that tooling at the PAC Kamra

and that all expenses in China on this project be borne by Islamabad and the initial costs

of this tooling seems to be in the range of$ 400 million, thus making Pakistan equally

disinterested." 108

The F-10 Fighter Project

The disappointment of FC-1 project was soon overshadowed by another vibrant

joint venture project F-10 fighter project. It was during Nawaz Sharifs visit to China in

February 1998 this project got high-level confirmation. 109 Doubt persist pertaining to its

manoeuvrability, according to Waheed A. Butt "even if this fighter aircraft is finally

produced it would be possibly a technically degraded fighter when compared with what

was aimed for, as China even if willing may not be able to develop state-of-the-art high­

tech aircraft like the ones that may be available to Pakistan from the developed world."110

Indicating the magnitude of recent arms supplies to Pakistan, China has also delivered 77

Qiang-5 (Fantan) fighters. By fitting modem fire control radars and other avionics, as

105 Paul Jackson et al, Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1997-98, (Jane's Information Service, 1997), p.59. 106 Air Marshal Ayaz Ahmed (Retd.), "Mirage 2000-5: The bad deal", The Nation {Islamabad),

September 6, 1997, p.7. 107 B.R. Deepak, "Sino-Pak 'Entente Cordiale' and India: A Look into the Past and Future", China Report,

Vol. 42, No.2, April-June 2006, p. 136. 108 Ibid, n. 106, p.52. 109 "Pak, China to jointly produce fighter aircraft", The Asian Age (New Delhi), 24 December 1997. 110 Air Cdr. (Retd.) Waheed A. Butt, "A cost-effective solution for the PAF", The Muslim (Islamabad),

24 January. 1996.

131

well as modern weapon system like the sidewinder missiles, it is stated that the capability

of Fan tan could be enhanced considerably. 111

Miscellaneous

The Pakistan Air Force possessed 170 Shenyang J-6, 45 Shenyang JJ-5, 69MIG-

17U and 12 Shenyang CJ-6, 150 modernised fighter aircrafts fitted with new western

made engines and advanced American avionics, and also the new Sabre-II. 112 Apart from

these, other supplies include: The largest and the latest in China's missile boat inventory

4 Huangfan Class (OSA-1) missile attack crafts. 113 OSA-1 is an addition to other supplies

made earlier such as Hainan, Hoku Shanghai-II fast attack crafts (FAC) and Huchwan

Hydrofoil FAC (Torpedo). 114 China is believed to have 100 million Type 72A (mine

affected by the CCW protocol) which is possibly more than the rest of the world's

antipersonnel mines combined. 115 Being the world's largest producers of landmine

(estimated to be 110 million) the proliferation within the region is quite visible: South

Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. 116

Acquisition of new weaponry by the Chinese Army like: Type "85 II" MBT, Type

"85" (YW-531 H) family of armoured vehicles, the WZ-501 (modeled after the Soviet

BMP-1), infantry fighting vehicle (IFV), the WZ-523 6 X 6 armoured personnel carrier

(APC), the WZ-551 6 X 6 IFV, and the newest Type 90 APC, 117 increases the prospect

of future proliferation. This is because, China's proliferation of weapons is not only

restricted to Pakistan but also to other countries. For instance, in 1990 China not only

supplied arms to the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia but also provided military assistance. 118

Similarly, China's intensified co-operation in arms production with Myanmar including

111 P.K.S. Namboodiri, n. 72, p. 1099. 112 17ze Tribune, Chandiprh, March 29, 1988. 113 The Times of India, New Delhi, September 21, 1984. 114 P .K.S. Namboodiri, n. 72, p. 1100. 115 Wendy Frieman, China, Arms Control, and Nonproliferation (London: Routledge Curzon, 2004),

p. 116. 116 Mary Wareham, "Anti Personnel Landmine Stockpiles and Their Destruction: Fact Sheet", Relief Web,

December 10, 1999, http://www .reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/O/d6e 16e3 1 a8b6a73dc 1256848003 7 eff6 ?Open Document,

(Accessed August 2003). 117 Ling Yu, "Military Report Reveals New Weapons: The Chinese Communist Military is Presently

Beefing Up", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-019, 1 April, 1992, p. 41. 118 R. Whitaker, "Peking ends arms flow to Cambodia", 11ze Independent, 23 Nov. 1990, p. 13, as cited in

Ian Anthony, Agne Courades Allebeck, Gerd Hagmeyer-Gaverus, Paolo Miggiano and Herbert Wulf, "The Trade in major conventional weapons", SIPRI Yearbook J99I: World Armaments and Disarmament, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1991), p. 21-7.

132

warships and 12 F-6 fighter planes. 119 Pakistan's nexus with North Korea and the former

requests for artillery, multiple rocket launchers, ammunition and a variety of spare parts

is another angle to look upon.120

In 1999 Pakistan ordered from China 100 F-7MG fighter aircrafts. l2l In 2002,

China supplied 40 F-7MG fighter aircrafts out of the estimated order of 80 fighters. It

also supplied 3 Type-347 fire control radars for 3 Jalalat-2 Class FACs produced in

Pakistan, 24 C-802/CSS-N-8 Saccade anti-ship missiles for 3 Jalalat-2 class F ACs, and

agreed to develop 150 FC-1 FGA aircrafts. 122 From 1990-91 to 1996-97 three separate

contracts were signed for the upgrading of the Chinese F-7s and Mirage III and Vs. The

first contract was signed with the French manufacturer Sagem in 1990-91 commissioning

the company to fit "Integrated Navigation Units" in Pakistani Mirage aircraft. The second

deal worth $118 was signed in 1993 to overhaul and upgrade the Mirage IIIOs that had

been acquired from Australian Air Force. Again in 1994 the PAC at Kamra was given

$116 million to overhaul 30 Mirage aircraft. This investment was in addition to $1.5

million spent initially on the Mirage 1110s. 123 Some of the weapons acquired by Pakistan

from the Western firms are given in appendix 4.

Weapons Procurement: Pakistan's Diverse Engagement with China

Ian Anthony's two aspects of arms procurement: Strategic imperative and arms

trade perfectly fits into China-Pakistan's diverse engagement. 124 From a domestic point

of view "action-reaction" along with general defence "decision-making" model as used

by Pervaiz Cheema in explaining Pakistan's arms procurement supports the above

statement. 125 Beijing's assistance was considered vital for developing Pakistan's poor

defense industrial resources and technology. 126 However, Beijing's array of locally rather

119 Ian Anthony, Agne Courades Allebeck, Gerd Hagmeyer-Gaverus, Paolo Miggiano and Herbert Wulf, "The Trade in major conventional weapons", SIPRJ Yearbook 1991: World Armaments and Disarmament, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1991), p. 217.

120 Prakash Nanda, Nuc/earisation of Divided Nations, Pakistan-India-Koreas, (New Delhi: Manas Publications, 2001), p. 65.

121 The Stockholm Institute of Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), 2000, p. 409. 122 The Stockholm Institute of Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), 2002, p. 235. 123 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 171. 124 Ian Anthony, The Arms Trade and Medium Powers: Case Studies of India and Pakistan, /947-1990

(London: Harvester Wheatsheaf: 1992), pp. 21-81. 125 Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema, Pakistan's Defense Policy, 1947-58 (London: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 105-55. 126 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 108.

133

inferior manufactured armaments also need a drastic change in its military strategy based

on "forward projection" as projected by PLA. 127

A perusal of table-1 0 given below depicts the conventional weapons transferred

by China to Pakistan during 1990-95. It shows that China provided 40 fighters in 1993-

94; 125 T-59 MBTs in 1990-92; 132 MBTs in 1992-94 and 82 T-8511 MBTs in 1994-95.

Table -10 People's Republic of China major conventional weapons transfers to Pakistan.

Year Aircraft Armour/ Artillery Naval Vessels

1990-92 Not known 125 T-59 MBTs Not known

1992-93 Not known 97 MBTs Not known

1993-94 40 Fighters 35 MBTs Not known

1994-95 Not known 82 T -85 II MBTs Not known

Source: As given in http;//www.subcontinent.com/sapralbullitin/96apr-may/si 960506.html.

As mentioned earlier, Pakistan looked beyond China to fill the gap and suffice its

demand. Table-11 as given below shows Pakistan's diverse engagement with other major

countries for arms acquisition. The table shows the shares in % age terms of China, U.S.,

France and Britain during 1997-2002.

Table-11

Share of major suppliers of Pakistan's Defence Procurement 1997 and 2002 (share in% age terms)

Name of Main Battle Tank Combat Aircraft Naval Vessels* Supplier 1997 2002 1997 2002 1997 2002

Total 2,120 2,657 459 366 33 31 Numbers

China 78% 67% 63% 46% 30% 29% U.S.A. 17% 21% 12% 9% 15% 3% France - - 23% 35% 30% 35% Britain - - - - 15% 25%

Source: Military Balance (London: The International Institute for Strategic Studies), 1996-1997 and 2002-2003.

*Naval Vessels include Pakistan's Principle Combatants, Submarines and Petrol/ Coastal Combatant.

1 ~ 7 Ibid.

134

The table-11 reveals that out of the total number of 2,120 MBT supplied in 1997

and 2657 in 2002, China's contribution was 78% and 67% respectively. It also indicates

that over a span of five years period supply declined by 11%. The U.S. contribution in the

field of Battle Tank was just 17 and 21% respectively. Similarly, in Combat Aircraft, out

of the total number of 459 and 366 in 1997 and 2002, China contributed 63 and 46 %

respectively much more then the U.S. and other countries. With regard to Naval Vessels,

China contributed 33 % in 1997 and 31% in 2002 indicating 2% decline over a span of

six years.

Table- 12 Major conventional weapons transferred and license by China to

Pakistan 1990

The lists of major weapons on order or under delivery, or for which the license was bought and production was under way or completed during 1990. 'Year(s) of deliveries' includes aggregates of all deliveries and licensed production since the beginning of the contract.

Recipient/ No. Weapon Weapon Year of Year (s) No. Comments~~ supplier ordered designation description order/license of delivered/

(S) or deliveries produced I~ Licenser

(L) Pakistan 75 F-7 Fighter 1983 1986-90 75 S: China

75 F-7 Fighter 1989

25 Karakoram Jet trainer 1987 8

.. T-59 Main battle (1975) 1978-90 (975) tank

.. HongYing- Portable (1988) 1988-90 (300) ArmingM-5 SAM 113 APCs

L: China .. T-59 Main battle (1989) 1990 20 Deal worth tank $ 1.2 b;

Pakistani designation

P-90 .. Red Arrow- Anti-tank 1989

8 missile

... Data not available; - Negligible figure (<0.5) or none; ( ) uncertain data or SIPRI estimate; SAM: Surface-to-air missile

Source: Ian Anthony, Agne Courades Allebeck, Gerd Hagmeyer-Gaverus, Paolo Miggiano and Herbert Wulf, "The Trade in major conventional weapons", Appendix 78, SIPRI Yearbook 1991: World Armaments and Disarmament, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1991), pp. 264-265.

135

Table-12 as given above shows that China supplied 75 F-7 Fighter although

Pakistan ordered 150; Karakoram-8 deliveries was unconfirmed; 975 T-59 Main Battle

Tank; 300 Hong Ying-5 Portable SAM. Along with this license forT-59 and Red Arrow-

8 was brought by Pakistan from China.

China-Pakistan Naval Co-operation

The dynamics of naval importance and the need to balance the geo-strategic

politics, Pakistan knows that any join venture with China would facilitate to fulfill this

need as well. The Naval Dockyard situated at Karachi is the main facility for Pakistan's

naval weapon production. Started way back in 194 7 to carry out repair work on naval

vessels, now possessed 37 major ships and 14 submarines and also nine different types of

naval vessels were overhauled. 128 However, it was during Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's regime

that the Navy acquired a separate aviation wing and a few surface ships. 129 Traditionally,

Pakistan's Navy relied heavily on western countries for both equipment and training.

Precisely, in 1990s the Pakistan's navy topped the biggest share in equipment

procurement. Pakistan's top Navy's brass Admiral Shamoun Alrun, was of the view that:

A fourth war between the neighbours would be long with India holding Pakistan under

siege through the sea, and about the numerical needs Commander of Pakistan Fleet in

1994 Admiral Shamoun Alam, was of the view that in order to avoid this situation the

service needed a minimum of 12 submarines and over 24 ships. In 1999 the Navy had a

fleet of about six svbmarines and eight frigates.130

Taking into account its long coastline (more than 6,500 large and small islands)

China's Commander of the PRC Navy, rear admiral stated: "The PRC Navy was

developing its surface fleet" and was also "giving serious attention to the development of

submarine fleet, apart from constructing submarines with conventional motive power, the

navy also built submarines moved by nuclear power." 131 But, Pakistan's Navy faces

128 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 130. 129 Interview with the Commander Pakistan Fleet: Rear Admiral (Retd.) Shamoun Alam (Karachi:

03/05/94), cited in Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, Pakistan's Arms Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99, In Search of a Policy, (New York: Pal grave, 2001 ), p. 64.

130 Interview with former COMPAK Rear Admiral (Retd.) Shamoun Alam (Karachi: 03/05/94), as cited in Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, Pakistan's Arms Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99, In Search of a Policy, (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 161.

131 Kuan Ching-fu, "Ziang Lianzhong, Commander of the PRC, Navy, discloses latest movements of the PRC Navy", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-013, 9 March 1992, pp. 22-23.

136

different problems, old fleet of frigates, high cost of upgrading with unavailability of

spare parts makes it worse. Therefore, in order to fill the gap negotiations were conducted

with three other sources: France, Sweden and China. The Swedes had offered their Type-

96 submarines with AlP technology. The Chinese also made an offer to sell their

submarines for approximately $180 million, $83 million less than the French offer. 132

Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works (KSEW)

Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works was established in the 1960s to boost

the naval manufacturing industry, originally controlled by the Ministry of Production was

brought under the Navy's control in the 1980s to ensure proper coordination between the

Navy and the shipyard. 133 Pakistan's navy lacks behind compared to the Airforce and

Army. The economic dimension is that the GOP declined from 6.7 per cent in 1977-88 to

4.3 per cent in 1988-98.134 Another perspective can be occasional training of Pakistani

sailors in China's facilities and no joint venture between them. Contrary to Pakistan

China has "18,000 Km of shore line, over 4 million square km of ocean territory, and

more than 6,000 off-shore islands." 135 It was only in February 1998 during Pakistan's

Prime Minister Nawaz Sharifs visit to China "the Chinese side had reportedly offered

Pakistani Navy a number of Chinese frigates to be given on soft loan on one condition

that they are built in both Chinese and Pakistani shipyards." 136 The construction was

carried out simultaneously at the Naval Dockyard and KSEW (Karachi Shipyard and

Engineering Works), the Chinese providing the technology for the construction of the

platforms, but the boats were fitted with components from the West. 137

To name some of the few weapons type transferred by China to Pakistan include:

Whiskey Class Submarines; Shanghai-II class, Huchuan Hydrofoil, Romeo-Class

Submarines, Luda-class Destroyers, Hegu-class: Fast Attack Craft-Missile, Fuqing- class

AOR, Type P58A Petrol Craft, Type 312 Drone Minesweepers etc. 138 The vital features

132 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, pp. 162-63. 133 Ibid, p. 131. 134 Shahid Javed Burki, Pakistan: Fifty Years of Nationlwod, (Boulder: Westview Press, 1999), p. 103. 135 Li Jing, "Role of Naval Air Units; weapons, equipment, equipment development", China Report PSMA,

JPRS-CPS-84-008, 24 January, 1984, p. 55. 136 "China backs Pak peace efforts", Khaleej Times (Abu Dhabi), 13 February 1998, as cited in Swaran

Singh, "China-South Asia: Issues, Equations, Policies", (New Delhi: Lancer's Book, 2003), p.185. 137 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 9, p. 165. 138 Military Balance (London: IISS), SIPRI Yearbook (Stockholm: SIPRI), both over the years; Anne Gilks

& Gerald Segal, China and the Arms Trade, (London: Croom Helm, 1985).

137

of this period were naval arms acquisitions and its degree for policy-makers started to

consider nuclear option as a panacea for all military strategy and technological problems.

Type 85 II Main Battle Tank (MBT)

The Type "85 II" main battle tank (MBT) was a new generation tank. But the

turret is of welded construction and cast. 139 The battle tank with compound armour

makes it possible to install reactive armour outside the turret improves the survivability

of Chinese tanks. The tank also employs an advanced stable fire control system with an

independently stabilized tandem with the ballistic computer which improved the firing

accuracy and reaction speed of the main gun. It also enables the tank to fire while on the

run upon a moving target. The main armament of the type "85 II" MBT includes one 105

mm rifled gun modeled upon the U.S. M-68. The vehicle can carry 46 rounds, and its full

combat weight is 39 tons.140

New ties: The Gwadar Harbour

As mentioned earlier in Chaper-2 China-Pakistan naval cooperation covered all

aspects from transferring of weapons and equipments to building harbour and port. One

such notable example is the cooperation pertaining to the construction of Gwadar

Harbour in Pakistan. The significance of the harbour can be noticed when the Chinese

Premier Wen Jiabao visited Pakistan in 2005. In his visit he made an appraisal remark

about the project by stating "the main purpose for the visit was to discuss about the

importance of military implications of the Gwadar project."141

The F-22P Frigates contracts

According to reports, "Islamabad and Beijing have signed contracts for the

construction of four F-22P Frigates for the Pakistan navy'' the four new F-22 frigates

were specially designed for "anti-submarine, sea-to-surface and air combat

operations."142 This contract signed between the two on 4 April, 2005 enabled transfers

of technology as well. 143 The agreement involves four separate contracts for the

construction of the state of the art frigates with related equipments/systems with special

139 Ling Yu, "Military Report Reveals New Weapons: The Chinese Communist Military is Presently Beefing Up", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-019, April 1, 1992, p. 40.

1 ~0 Ibid. 141 Vikram Sood, "Lost Identity", Hindus tan Times, New Delhi, April 18, 2005. 1 ~2 P.N. Khera, "Playing to win", Hindus/an Times, Apri127, 2005. 143 "Frigates for Pakistan", Hindustan Times, April 5, 2005.

138

element of Transfer of Technology (ToT). 144 It is said that the frigates were designed to

equip with "helicopters for anti-submarine warfare, surface-to-surface and surface-to-air

missiles and self-defence systems." 145 This deal benefited Pakistan in various ways; apart

from significant transfer of technology, it upgraded the fleet both qualitatively and

quantitatively at a time when Pakistan navy needed the most; another important

dimension was that it was for the first time that China transferred new ships to

Pakistan. 146

On 4 April, 2005, Islamabad and Beijing have signed contracts for the

construction of four F-22 P frigates for the Pakistan Navy. The signing ceremony was

held at the ministry of defence production in Rawalpindi. Secretary Defence Production

Ali Muhammad Jan Aurakzai led the Pakistani side and Mr. Zho Wushent, the Director­

General of the International Cooperation, Commission of Science and Technologies

Industries (COSTIND), the Chinese side. These ships will reportedly not only enhance

the operational capabilities of the Pakistan Navy, but also would help guard the sea

boundaries of Pakistan. These F-22P frigates will also be equipped with organic

helicopters, specially designed for anti-submarine warfare, surface-to-surface-to-air

missiles, and numerous associated self-defence systems. 147

Hindrance and Obstacle

Lack of finance is a major crunch for Pakistan's programme of weapons

procurement. Its three main suppliers are China, France and the USA. The fact is that; the

U.S. has shown little interest in supplying large amounts of weapons, French weapons are

expensive, and Pakistan considers Chinese weapons as second rate. 148 Its plan to counter

its navy with a submarine-launched missiles with nuclear warheads, possibly modifying

SM-39 Exocet missiles supplied by France or UGM-84 Harpoon missiles supplied by the

USA, 149 but the problem is how to assemble and equip. Its plan for 44 Mirage 2000-Ss

144 B. Muralidhar Reddy, "Pakistan to buy Chinese Frigates", 77le Hindu, April 5, 2005. 145 Ibid, n. 143. 146 Ibid. 147 "Pacts with China for worships signed", http://www.dawn.com/2005/04/05/top4.htm 148 "Pakistan Air Force said planning to buy 52 planes, arms, surveillance radars", The News (Islamabad), 5

Sept. 2001, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report-China (FBIS-CHI), FBIS-CHI-2001-0905, September 7, 2001.

149 "Pakistan intends to equip its three armed services with nuclear weapons", Pravda, June 11, 2001, URL http://www.english.pravda.rulworld/2001/06/1117498.html; and "Pakistan's nuclear navy", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 22 Feb. 2002, URL

139

from France were cancelled for financial reasons in 1994. 150 No evidence of whether

Pakistan plans to ann its aircraft with long-range conventional missiles as India plans to

do.l51

Six year ago the PAF has 353 combat aircraft comprising about 150 Mirages

(different variations) 32 F-16s, 40 Old Chinese F-6, 42 A-5s, 77 F-7s and some other

aircraft and heavily dependent upon old refurbished French Mirage aircraft and a larger

number of qualitatively inferior Chinese aircraft. Pakistan inducted a number of F-7

aircraft that are basically the Chinese version of the MiC-21s and is trying to improve the

quality by engaging the airframe with better quality western subsystems like avionics,

ejection seat, look-down shoot-down radar, missiles and others. 152 Chinese Lieutenant

General Lin Hu, Deputy Commander of the Air Force statement of 7 April 1991 stated

that: "Chinese Communists were currently working to build a modem air force and

weaponry and equipment was continually improving" he said "if China can achieve good

progress in the development of aircraft engines and the application of electronic

technology during the Eight Five year plan (1991-1995), it would bolster China's air

defenses and strengthen China's air power ... The Chinese Communists will install this

equipment on the Shenyang "J-8 II" fighter jet and a new generation of light fighter jets

(similar to the F -16) now being in the development stage." 153

Pakistani Air force depended mostly on F-16 supplied by the U.S. The reason is

clear, F-16 has a range of 1600 km, or more it drop tanks are used. It can carry up to 5450

kg externally on one under-fuselage centerline pylon and on six under-wing stations.

Given the weight and size payload constraints of the F-16, if it carried a nuclear bomb it

would probably weigh about 1000kg and be attached to the centerline pylon. 154 Similarly,

the Type "33" Communist submarine equipped with six Yingji-8 anti-ship missiles is

http://www .bullatomsci.orglbulletinwirearchive/bulletin WireO 1 0222.html. 150 Bjorn Hagelin, Pieter D. Wezeman, Siemon T. Wezeman and Nicholas Chipperfield, "International arms

transfers", SIPRI Yearbook 2002: Amzaments, Disarmament and International Security, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2002}, pp. 382-383.

151 Ibid. 152 "353 Combat Planes", POT, Pakistan Series, Vol. XXX, No. 5, January 5, 2002, pp. 89-90. 153 Ling Yu, "Military Report Reveals New Weapons: The Chinese Communist Military is Presently

Beefing Up", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-019, April 1, 1992, p. 42. m Hans M. Kristensen and Joshua Handler, "Appendix lOA. World nuclear forces", SIPRI Yearbook 2002:

Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, {Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2002), p.563.

140

outdated and suspended its production suspended its production and switched to

manufacturing an upgraded version, the Type "35". 155

Pakistan's Navy is also still seeking to acquire advanced combat aircraft. Plans

for 44 Mirage 2000-5s from France were cancelled for financial reasons in 1994.156 But

the plan may be revived. In the 1990s, the air force was supposed to undertake research

on space defense weapons and long-range bombers that could launch cruise missiles. Yet

most R&D programs centered of fighters and fighter-bombers, the HQ-7 surface-to-air

missile, a navigation system for the H-6 medium bomber, new-type radar systems,

unmanned reconnaissance aircraft, and avionics for fighters. 157

The post-Cold War has a broader implication on China-Pakistan relationship.

Pakistan still occupies the top slot in China's radar. In view of security and capability

Xiao Hongping opined that: "Our (China's) Army has always been celebrated as the

"Night Tiger" 158 Hongping statement can be viewed with reference to the advance

technology in night vision. His view also clearly indicate China's ambitious plan to equip

its defense industry with sophisticated weapons. The point is that, China being the fifth

largest exporter of major conventional weapon systems it is obvious that Pakistan

remaining at its top priority, 159 would defmitely be benefited with such advance

technology.

The table 13 includes countries and non-state actor with aggregate imports of

$500 million or more for 1996-2000 from at least one of the five major suppliers. Figures

are trend-indicator values expressed in US $m. at constant (1990) prices. Figures may

not add up because of the conventions of rounding.

155 Ling Yu, "Military Report Reveals New Weapons: The Chinese Communist Military is Presently Beefing Up", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-019, 1st April 1992, p. 42.

156 Bjorn Hagelin, Pieter D. Wezeman, Siemon T. Wezeman and Nicholas Chipperfield, "International arms transfers", S/PRI Yearbook 2002: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2002), pp.382-383.

157 Zhang Tingfa and Gao Houliang, "The Construction of the Air Force Has Entered a New Historical Stage after Bringing Order out of Chaos", in Wang, Kongjwz Huiyi Shiliao, pp. 628-29, in John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai, "China's Search for a Modem Air Force", in Michael E. Brown, eta!, The Rise of China (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2000), p. 83.

158 Xiao Hongping, "Remarks on the Special Characteristics of Modem Night Warfare and our Army's Night Training Reform", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-91-053, September 27, 1991, p. 57.

159 Ian Anthony, Agne Courades Allebeck, tierd Hagmeyer-Gaverus, Paolo Miggiano and Herbert Wulf, n.119,p.217.

141

Recipients

China Pakistan

India

Table- 13 Transfer of major conventional weapons to China, India and Pakistan by five major suppliers in 1996-2000

Recipients Five ma_jor suppliers USA Russia France UK Germany Other Total

China 31 4793 122 26 - 259 5231 India - 3286 91 134 144 603 4228

Pakistan 344 86 611 - - 1585 2626

Source: Bjorn Hagelin, Pieter D. Wezeman, Siemon T. Wezeman and Nicholas Chipperfield, "Transfers of major conventional weapons", S/PRI Yearbook 200/: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2001), p.326.

Table-13 given above depicts five major suppliers of arms to China, India and

Pakistan. China's total up to 5231, India 4228 and Pakistan 2626. Inspite of India's good

relations with Russia, India occupies second position as compared to China, where as

Pakistan comprises of double digit of 86 only.

Table-14

Table- 14 Transfers of major conventional weapons from 10 leading suppliers to China, Pakistan and India, 1997-2001.

Figures are trend-indicator values expressed in US $m. at constant (1990) prices. Figures may not add up because of the conventions of rounding.

10 leading suppliers

USA Russia France UK FRG Ukraine Nether Italy China Othe l-ands Belaru r

s 31 6515 81 26 - 365 - 11 n.a. - 90 147 - 667 - - 1280 38 39 624 78 63 - 3771 78 107 40 123 270 20 - - 300

Source: SIPRI arms transfers database, Bjorn Hagelin, Pieter D. Wezeman, Siemon T. Wezeman and Nicholas Chipperfield, "International arms Transfers", SIPRI Yearbook 2002: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2002), p. 377.

A perusal of table-14 given above highlights the arms procured by China,

Pakistan and India from ten leading suppliers during the span of 1997-2001. The table

shows that China tops the list with 7117. It should be noted that the global value of the

142

Total

7117 2931 4710

trade in major conventional weapons in 1990 is estimated to $ 21726 million ( 1985 US

dollars). 160

China-Pakistan Conventional Engagement after 2000

In a historic, but unannounced dt~velopment, the People's Republic of China

sharply reduced a marked imbalance between the Indian and Pakistan Air Force by

sending five ships-in a space of only 10 days in 2002. Loaded with cargo ranging from

cartons of unassembled brand new combat aircraft and a variety of air force-related

weapons and equipment to the port in Karachi, senior Pakistani officials confirrned. 161 In

more than one occasion during President Musharraf s visit to China in December 2002,

the Chinese leadership reiterated that "China's friendship with Pakistan was deeper than

the oceans and higher than the mountains." this timely assistance from China was

reciprocated with the transfer of several squadrons of brand new Super-7 and F-7 fighter

aircraft. 162 Another batch of 40 Chinese-made F-7 MG medium-tech supersonic aircraft is

expected to arrive soon in Pakistan, while it is stated that some number of these aircraft

has already reached the country. Not only this, Chinese team also arrived in Pakistan to

assist the P AF engineers in the assembling of these aircraft. 163

Supply of arms to Pakistan has no link with the current tense situation in the

region, said Mr. Sun Yuxi, a spokesman for the Chinese Foreign Ministry. He told

reporters at a regular Press briefmg on 10 January 2002, that "China had normal military

trade relations with some countries, including Pakistan" concerning the delivery of the

first batch of 40 Chinese made F-7PG fighters he lamented that "the delivery of the

planes and the deal itself have no connection at all with the current crisis between India

and Pakistan."164 China's built Type WM-80 273-mm Rocket Launcher a completely new

rocket launcher system developed on the basis of the Type 83 273-mm Rocket Launcher

160 Ian Anthony, Agne Courades Allebeck, Gerd Hagmeyer-Gaverus, Paolo Miggiano and Herbert Wulf, "The Trade in major conventional weapons", SIPRI Yearbook 1991: World Armaments and

Disarmament, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1991 ), p. 197. 161 "China Fixes Pak Air Imbalances with India", POT, Pakistan Series, Vol. XXX, No.8, January 9, 2002,

p.l36. 162 "Friendship Deeper than Oceans", POT, Pakistan Series, Vol. XXX, No. 8, January 9, 2002, p. 136. 163 "Another Batch of 40 Chinese F-7 MGs Arriving Soon", POT, Pakistan Series, Vol. XXX, No. 12,

January 14, 2002, p. 242. 164 "Arms Supply has no Link to Stand-off, Says China", POT, Pakistan Series, Vol. XXX, No. 13, January

15,2002, p. 257.

143

with the characteristics of long range, great power, high degree of automation, strong

capability for fast reaction, simple operation and training, rational overall layout,

dependable performance, eye-pleasing contours, good technological performance, and

convenient maintenance and upkeep. It consists of a firing system, command and control

system and maintenance system, 165 is another angle to look on. Besides this Bombers

like: H-6 and Q-5, and China's current development ofH-7, 166 adds to the sophistication

as the H-7 is capable of carrying out nuclear missions with operational radius of up to

3000 kilometers. 167

Table- 15 Transfers and Licensed Production of Major Conventional Weapons by China to Pakistan 2000.

Recipient/ No. Weapon Weapon Year Year(s) of No. Comments supplier or de designation descripti of deliveries delivered/

(S) or red on order/1 produced Licenser icense

(L) Pakistan 3 Type-347G Fire (1996) 1997-2000 (2) For 3 Jalalat-2 S: China control Class F AC: for

radar use with 37mm guns

24 C-802/CSS- ShShM (1996) 1997-2000 (16) For 3 Jalalat·2 N-8 Saccade ClassFAC

L: China .. FC-1 FGA 1999 .. Developed for aircraft Pakistan; status

uncertain .. QW-1 Portable (1993) 1994-2000 (450) Pakistani

Van guard/ An SAM designation za-2 Anza-2

.. RedArrow-8 Anti-tank 1989 1990-2000 (7600) Pakistani missile designation

Baktar Shikan

Source: Bjorn Hagelin, Pieter D. Wezeman, Siemon T. Wezeman and Nicholas Chipperfield, "Register of the transfers and licensed production of major conventional weapons, 2000", SIPRI Yearbook 2001: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2001), p.385.

165 Liu Xiong, "Chinese-Built Type WM-80 273-mm Rocket Launcher System", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-058, 31st July 1992, p. 55.

166 Ch'en Jui-Hsia, "The inside Story on the Development of China's Nuclear Weapons", JPRS Report China, JPRS-CAR-92-025, 29 April 1992, p. 30.

167 Ibid.

144

Table-15, as gtven above shows China's transfer and licensed production of

conventional weapons by China to Pakistan in 2000. The table shows that in 1997-2000

China supplied 2 Type-347 G, although Pakistan ordered 3, and 16 C-802/CSS-N-8

Saccade instead of 24 as ordered by Pakistan. The licensed production includes: FC-1 in

1999, 450 Vanguard/Anza-2 in 1994-2000, and 7600 Red Arrow-8 anti tanks missiles in

1990-2000.

Table -16 Transfers and Licensed Production of Major Conventional Weapons by China to Pakistan 2001.

Recipient/ No. Weapon Weapon Year of Year(s) of No. Comments supplier (S) order designation descriptio order/li deliveries delivered/ or Licenser ed n cense produced

(L) Pakistan (40) F-7MG Fighter (2001) 2001 40 Pakistani S: China aircraft designation F-

7PG; no. ordered could be up to

80. (3) Type-347G Fire (1996) 1997-2001 (3) For 3 Jalalat-2

Control Class FAC Radar

(24) C-802/CSS-N- Anti-ship (1996) 1997-2001 (24) For 3 Jalalat-2 8 Saccade missile Class FAC

L: China (150) FC-1 FGA 1999 .. Developed for aircraft Pakistan;

delivery possibly from

2003 .. QW-1 Portable (1993) 1994-2001 (550) Pakistani

Vanguard/ Anz SAM designation a-2 Anza-2

.. Red Arrow-8 Anti-tank 1989 1990-2001 (8600) Pakistani missile designation

i Baktar Shikan

Source: Bjorn Hagelin, Pieter D. Wezeman, Siemon T. Wezeman and Nicholas Chipperfield, "Appendix 8C. Register of the transfers and licensed production of major conventional weapons", SIPRI Yearbook 2002: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2002), p. 439.

Table-16 as given above shows China's transfer and licensed production of

conventional weapons by China to Pakistan in 2001. Pakistan received 40 F-7 MG fighter

aircraft in 2001, 3 Type-347 G fire control radar during 1997-2001 and 24 C-802/CSS-N-

8 Saccade anti-ship missile during 1997-2001. And licensed production includes: 550

145

QW-1 Vanguard/Anza-2 portable SAM during 1994-2001, and 8600 Red Arrow-8 anti­

tank missile during 1990-2001.

Table- 17 Transfers and licensed production of major conventional weapons by China to Pakistan, 2002

Recipient/ No. Weapon Weapon Year of Year(s) of No. supplier ordered designation description order/license deliveries delivered/

(S) or produced Licenser

(L) Pakistan 46 F-7MG Fighter (2001) 2002 46 S: China- Aircraft

11 F-7MG Fighter (2002) 2002 11 Aircraft

L: China (150) FC-1 FGA aircraft 1999 ..

I

.. QW-1 Portable (1993) 1994-2002 (650) Vanguard SAM

.. Red Arrow-8 Anti-tank 1989 1990-2002 (9600) missile

Comments

Pakistani designation

F-7PG; inc16 FT-

7 PG version Pakistani

designation F-7PG

Developed for Pakistan;

delivery possibly frorr:

2004 Pakistani

designation Anza-2

Pakistani designation

Baktar Shikan

Source: Bjorn Hagelin, Pieter D. Wezeman, Siemon T. Wezeman and Nicholas Chipperfield, "Appendix 13B. Register of the transfers and licensed production of major conventional weapons, 2002", S/PRI Yearbook 2003: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2003), pp. 511-12.

Table-17 as given above shows China's transfer and licensed production of

conventional weapons by China to Pakistan in 2002. Pakistan received 46 F-7 MG fighter

aircraft and 11 F-7MG fighter aircraft in 2002, and licensed production includes: 650

QW-1 Vanguard/Anza-2 portable SAM during 1994-2002, and 9600 Red Arrow-8 anti­

tank missile during 1990-2002.

146

Table- 18 Transfers and licensed production of major conventional weapons by China to Pakistan, 2003

Recipient/ No. Weapon Weapon Year of Year(s) No. Comments supplier ordered designation description order/license of delivered/

(S) or deliveries produced Licenser

(L) Pakistan (55) F-7MG Fighter (2001) 2001-2003 (55) F-7PG S: China- Aircraft version;

include 6 or 9 FT-7PG

versiOn 11 F-7MG Fighter (2002) 2003 (11) F-7PG

Aircraft verst on (150) JF-17 FGA aircraft 1999 .. Developed

for Pakistan; incl

assembly in Pakistan; delivery possibly

from 2004 (6) K-8 Jet trainer (2001) 2003 6

Karakoram-8 aircraft 2 Type-347G Fire control (2003) .. For 2 Jalalat

radar Class FAC (16) C-802/CSS- Anti-ship (2003) .. For Jalalat

N-8 Saccade missile Class FAC L: China .. QW-1 Portable (1993) 1994-2003 (750) Pakistani

Vanguard SAM design Anza-2

.. RedArrow-8 Anti-Tank 1989 1990-2003 (10600) Pakistani missile design

Baktar Shikan

Source: Bjorn Hagelin, Mark Bromley and Siemon T. Wezeman, "Appendix 128. Register of the trade in and licensed production of major conventional weapons, 2003", SIPRI Yearbook 2004: Am1aments, Disarmament and International Security, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2004), pp. 518-19.

Table-18 as given above shows China's transfer and licensed production of

conventional weapons by China to Pakistan in 2003. Pakistan received 55 F-7 MG fighter

aircraft during 2001-2003, 11 F-7MG fighter aircraft in 2003 and 6 K-8 Karakoram-8 jet

trainer aircraft in 2003.

Conventional Deterrence

China's direct supplies of arms to Pakistan have been the most visible and

important aspect of China-Pakistan defence ties. Pakistan seeking for conventional

147

deterrence is nothing new. The Pakistani Army, relatively speaking has more power in

matters pertaining to arms procurement and general defense decision-making. 168 On the

contrary compared with the Army the Air Force although smaller in size but its

sophisticated technology makes it more significant. According to the former Chief of the

General Staff (CGF), the Army was conscious that the performance of some facilities was

not up to the mark. 169 According to Lt. General (Retd.) Talat Masood, "The mobility and

even the survivability of the land forces depended to a large extent on air cover and so

does the security of the naval forces. Superior air power is thus vital for the success of

any military engagement. 170

Thus, taking into account the significance of the air power, on 8 October, 2005

when an earthquake stroke Pakistan, President Pervez Musharraf and Prime Minister

Shaukat Aziz postpone the purchase of F-16 fighter jets from the U.S. but ruled out

slashing the country's budget to divert more funds towards quake relief. 171 This fear is

due to New Delhi's eying of acquiring F-16s from U.S. 172 Since than, Pakistan made

enquiries about the purchase of as many as 75 new F-16 C/D Falcon fighter aircraft, once

the Bush administration announced it would resume sales, Air Force Lt. Gen. Jeffrey

Kohler, head of the Defence Security Cooperation Agency, which runs U.S. government­

to-government arms sales stated. 173 The Pentagon said on 26 May, 2005, that Pakistan

wants to buy 86 F-16 fighter jets from the U.S. Of these, 75 would be new F-16C/D

Falcon fighter aircraft while 11 would be used F-16s, head of the U.S. Defence Security

Cooperation Agency, Lt Gen Jeffrey Kohler, told reporters in Washington.174 According

to Congressional Research Service (CRS) report, the F-16 Falcon is a single engine

multi-role aircraft manufactured by Lockheed Martin Corp. Its relatively low cost and

high versatility make the F-16 one of the most exported fighter aircraft in the world. 175

168 Ian Anthony, The Am1s Trade and Medium Powers: Case Studies of India and Pakistan, 1947-90, (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992), p. 19.

169 Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, n. 12, p. 112. 170 The News, (Lahore: 19/03/93) as cited in Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, Pakistan's Am1s Procurement and

Military Buildup, 1979-99, In Search of a Policy, (New York: Palgrave, 2001 ), p. 169. 171 "Pak F-16 purchase on hold, but firms 'No' to defence cuts", The Indian Express. 5 November 2005. 172 Chidanand Rajghatta, "India's F-16 move a big threat to Pak", The Times of India, 9 February, 2005. 173 Jim Wolf, "Pak seeks 75 new F-16s", The Indian Express, 27 May, 2005. 174 Anwar Iqbal, "Pakistan wants 86 F-16s: Pentagon", http: //www.dawn.com/2005/05/27/top5.htm 175 Khalid Hasan, "Pakistan's 71 F-16s likely to be outmatched by India's 126",

http: //www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story _ 21-5-2005 _pgl_ 6

148

Pertaining to the U.S. decision to sell F-16 fighter jets to Pakistan, President

George W. Bush administration on 15 June, 2005, reiterated that it resolve to go ahead

with the deal. 176 U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Christina Rocca said the supply ofF-

16s will make it "easier for Pakistan to take the steps necessary to build a lasting peace

with all its neighbours" the sale "meets Pakistan's legitimate defence needs, making that

country more secure without upsetting the current regional military balance" 177 Rocca

said.

The English daily, Dawn, in a report, said Islamabad intended to invest $3 billion

for acquiring the latest version of F-16. Unofficial estimates based on previous fleet

requirements of the P AF put the figure close to 70 planes; the Dawn quoted P AF officials

as saying. 178 Asserting the U.S. decision to provide F-16s, Pakistan's President Pervez

Musharraf said the jet fighters, along with U.S.- made P-3C Orion surveillance aircraft

and Chinese F-22 frigates will "enhance the offensive punch" of the country's

defences. 179

Speaking at a briefing session on Pakistan Navy's Shamsheer-i-Bahr-II war­

games at the PNS Jauhar, Musharraf remarked that "these state-of-the art platforms

would augment our defence capabilities and play a pivotal role in any future scenario."180

The move was however criticised by India, Defence Minister Pranab Mukheijee said it

would have an "adverse impact" on the Indo-Pak composite dialogue process .. 181 Even the

Air Chief Marshal S.P. Tyagi said that Pakistan's plan to acquire F-16 fighter aircraft

from the U.S. will have an adverse impact on India but it is equipped to face any

challenge.182 At the meeting of Pakistan-U.S. Defence Consultative Group (The group

was set up in 1984 to promote military cooperation) Pakistani officials led by senior

Pakistan army officer Maj. Gen. Ali Baz told their U.S. counterparts headed by Deputy

Director of the Defence Security Cooperation Agency, Richard Millies in Rawalpindi that

176 Chidanand Rajghatta, "F-16 sale to Pak on: U.S." The Times of India, June 16, 2005. 177 S. Rajagopalan, "U.S. debate over F-16 to Pak", The Hindustan Times, June 16, 2005. 178

B. Muralidhar, "Details off-16 deal yet to be worked out: Pakistan", The Hindu, March 24, 2005. 179

"F-16s to enhance Pak punch: Musharraf', The Indian Express, 29 March, 2005; see also "Pakistan defers purchase ofF-16s", The Hindustan Times, November 5, 2005.

180 "F-16s will add to 'offensive punch': Musharrafhails navy war-game, http://www.dawn.corn12005/03/29/top 1.htm

181 "F-16s to Pak ill-timed", The Hindustan Times, March 29, 2005.

182 "Pak's F-16 purchase to impact India: Tyagi", The Indian Express, November 8, 2005.

149

"Pakistan wanted to buy modem American military hardware to boost their country's

defence." 183

Even at the broader sense the superpowers regard arms transfer as a powerful

political instrument and have used them to exert their influence both on allies and

opponents.184 Pakistan's air force on 4 September, 2005, launched the largest exercise in

10 years titled "Highmark 2005", according to official statement, President Pervez

Musharraf and Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz watched the exercise, where, F-16, Mirage,

F-7, avionics, weapons systems, radars along with manpower were put into test. 185

Pakistan's Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz vowed that efforts would be made to strengthen

its nuclear and conventional capabilities by saying that Pakistan was the only Muslim

country with nuclear capability.

While addressing officers and workers of the Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POP)

Mr. Aziz said that the POP was not only meeting Pakistan's defence requirements but

also that of around 29 other countries as well. The POP exported arms worth Rsl130

million during the past three years. 186 Speaking at the roll-out ceremony of the first

indigenously overhauled T -56 engine for the C-130 transport aircraft of the Pakistan Air

Force, Mr. Aziz said "A strong defence is the best deterrent for any country and the best

guarantee for peace", further stated that "Pakistan's defence was not only vital for the

country's security but was also crucial to the regional peace and stability."187

However, Ahmad Faruqui opined a different point of view, according to Faruqui,

P AF faces one of the best-equipped air forces in Asia, this analysis he made in relation to

IAF. The IAF outnumbers the P AF by 6:1 in frontline aircraft; the Indian army much

better equipped and double the size than Pakistan, and similarly, disparity persist as

compared between the two navies.188 In Pakistan it is actually the military establishment,

183 "Pakistan seeks modem military hardware from U.S.", http://jang.com.pk/thenews/feb2005-daily/02-02-2005/main!main3.htm

184 Yuri Pinchukov, n. 2, p. 18. 185 "Pakistan air force launches exercise", The Hindu, September 5, 2005. 186 "Defence, stability top priority, says Aziz", http: //www.dawn.com/2005/01/ll/top3.htm 187 "Defence vital for regional peace, says Aziz", http: //www.dawn.com/2005/0l/14/topl.htm 188 Ahmad Faruqui, "F-16s and Pakistani military strategy",

http://dailytimes.com.pk.print.asp?page=story _15-4-2005 _pg3 _2&ndate=4/15/2005 5:58:57

150

particularly the senior echelons of the armed forces that set the defense policy and arms

procurement agendas. 189

Conclusion

Thus, the conventional relationship between China and Pakistan nurtured way

back in the 1950s continued to grow even today. It is clear that China often provided

assistance to Pakistan as grant or at extremely very low prices commonly known as the

friendship price. China's contribution to Pakistan also covered all the three wings of the

Pakistan's Arm forces capability. The transfer or supply is carried out basically through

joint ventures and collaboration. The whole scenario is also carried out at the backdrop of

regional security. However, impediments do persists. As long as China-Pakistan

collaboration and arms transfer continues, arms race is going to be a major obstacle for

peace in the region.

189 Mehnaz Isphani, "Pakistan: Dimensions oflnsecurity", Adelphi Papers 246 (London: IISS, Winter 1989-90), p. 32.

151