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Research Methods◦ Vote counting
Used in early reviews of studies in sex differences Simple tally
◦ Meta-analysis Commonly used today Statistical, quantitative methods Yields more complex and often different results than
vote counting does
Sex Differences
Preference in toys◦ Boys
Action figures, blocks, guns and swords, trucks, sports collectibles, construction toys
Emphatic masculinity: Hasbro’s G.I. Joe line◦ Girls
Dolls, dollhouses, jewelry, pretend kitchen, tea sets, play houses
Emphatic femininity: Mattel’s Barbie
Children’s Interests & Activities
Play style◦ Boys
Physically aggressive, fighting/mock fighting◦ Girls
Reading, calmer/more domestic activities Digital Divide
◦ Boys View computers as a way to achieve mastery Participate in virtual video games
◦ Girls View computers as a way to accomplish tasks Writing papers and social communication
Children’s Interests & Activities
Household Chores◦ Boys
Typically do more outdoor tasks Are often paid for their chores
◦ Girls Typically do indoor chores such as caretaking,
cleaning, and food preparation Chores are usually done unpaid
Children’s Interests & Activities
Paid Labor◦ Boys
Lawn mowers, busboys, manual laborers◦ Girls
Babysitters, waitresses, food counter workers
Switching interests◦ Girls can more easily show interest in boy-related
activities than boys may show interest in girl-related activities
Children’s Interests & Activities
Aggression◦ Males
Typically exhibit more physical aggression that produces pain than females do
◦ Females Usually engage in more verbal and indirect aggression
A coping mechanism to being less physically aggressive than males
Altruism◦ Males and females help others in areas in which they
feel the most competent Men offer heroic or chivalrous help, while women offer
nurturing or caring help
Adults’ Social Behavior
Skills:◦ Express oneself using the face, body, and voice◦ Assess the meaning of nonverbal cues from
others◦ Recall having met or seen people
Females demonstrate higher nonverbal skills◦ Possibly due to being in weaker or lower status
positions than males, and so they must monitor other’s reactions to themselves
Nonverbal Communication
Broverman study◦ Competence vs. Warmth
Why are gender stereotypes so stable?◦ Self-fulfilling prophecy◦ Learning at a young age they become fixed◦ Help people categorize themselves and others
When may they change?◦ In the face of evidence of changing social roles
Example: Stereotypes of men are more static, because men have experienced less social change than women
Gender Stereotypes
Sandra Bem◦ Challenged the assumption that masculinity and
femininity were completely opposite (1970s)◦ Defined the two traits as independent dimensions
Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI)◦ Measured beliefs about oneself in relation to
traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity
Gender Identity
Interdependent self-construal◦ People of importance are included in your personal
representation (more feminine) Independent self-construal
◦ Others are seen as separate and distinct from yourself (more masculine)
Psychological androgynous ◦ A gender identity with high amounts of both masculinity
and femininity
New Terms: BSRI
Classification of Gender Identity
Femininity Score
High Low
Masculinity Score
High Androgynous Masculine
Low Feminine Undifferentiated
So what is gender identity?◦ Beliefs about the extent to which one possesses
masculine traits and the extent to which one possesses feminine traits
◦ Beliefs about oneself in social relationships
The debate on androgyny: different views1. Conformity with gender stereotypes2. Break from stereotypes, pursue androgyny3. There should be no ideal gendered behavior, be
yourself instead of living up to a standard
Gender Identity
Sexism: prejudice displayed toward members of one sex◦ Hostile sexism◦ Benevolent sexism
What are the implications of each type of sexism?
Sexism
Hostile and benevolent sexism toward women◦ Men scored much higher in hostile sexism◦ Women rejected hostile sexism overall, but often
accept benevolent sexism
Hostile and benevolent sexism toward men◦ Women score higher than men on hostile sexism◦ Women score lower than men on benevolent
sexism
The Global Perspective
Old-fashioned sexism◦ Blatant◦ Associated with endorsement of traditional
gender roles in the workplace◦ Differential treatment of women and men
Modern sexism◦ Denial of existence of sex discrimination◦ Antagonism toward women’s demands of
discontinuing alleged sex discrimination ◦ Lack of support for programs designed to help
women in the workplace
Sexism in the Times
Old-fashioned racism◦ Overt expressions of hostility and antagonism
toward another race Modern racism (“aversive” or “symbolic”)
◦ More subtle◦ Endorses racial equality and avoids obvious acts
of discrimination to maintain a fair and just self-image
◦ Denies the existence of racial discrimination◦ Displays acts of “microaggression”
Avoidance, closed communication, failure to help
Racism in the Times
Why do sex differences occur?◦ Biological forces (nature)
Sex differences in adults and children are innate The view on evolutionary processes Proven biological sex differences come from genes,
hormone levels, nerve cell activity, and brain structure
◦ Social-environmental forces (nurture) Family, peers, media, schools, employers, and
pressures to conform cause sex differences No agreement has been made, yet both
have some effect
Nature and Nurture
How do parents affect gender socialization?◦ Provide opportunity for imitation and
reinforcement Children more often imitate same-sex models
◦ Emphasizing gender stereotypes in household chores and play activities
◦ In their beliefs about gender stereotypes and roles
◦ Employment and workplace experiences The effects of maternal employment: more prevalent
in daughters than sons
Gender Socialization: Parents
How do schools affect gender socialization? ◦ Adult role models in the school
Sex segregation of positions◦ Graduation rates and test scores show that school
systems are successful in educating males and females Differences:
Girls get better grades than boys across the board Females students tend to be more disciplined and
respectful of rules and regulations Boys receive more classroom attention
Gender Socialization: Schools
How does the mass media affect gender socialization?◦ Television
Provides a view of the outside world and affects perceptions of social reality
Educational programming may have positive effects Characterized by mental and physical passivity Teaches children behavior, gender stereotypes, and
racial/ethnic portrayals Commercials and products
Displays diversity
Gender Socialization: Mass Media
Stereotyping causes:◦ An increase of prejudice and discrimination◦ Overgeneralization
A stereotype rarely applies to all members of a group◦ An implication that differences between members
of different groups are a result of their group membership
Limitations of Gender Stereotypes
Female gender role encourages◦ Dependence and surrender of control◦ Self-awareness◦ Expression of feelings
Male gender role encourages◦ Aggressiveness and competitiveness◦ Suppression of feelings and dominance
Mortality and health statistics◦ Women are more likely to experience frequent,
treatable illnesses◦ Men are more likely to experience more life-
threatening diseases and permanent disability
Limitations of Gender Roles
Sex differences Gender differences Gender stereotypes Gender roles Vote counting Meta-Analysis Emphatic masculinity Emphatic femininity Aggression Altruism Nonverbal communications Competent Warm Masculine Feminine Gender identity Interdependent self-construal
Independent self-construal Psychological androgyny Sexism Hostile sexism Benevolent sexism Old-fashioned sexism Modern sexism Old-fashioned racism Modern racism Biological forces Evolutionary processes Social-environmental forces Maternal employment Paternal employment Reflected appraisals model of self-
esteem Competencies model of self-esteem
Chapter 3 Terms