Chapter 2.Classical

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Chapter 2: Behavioural Learning Theories

Chapter Chapter 2::

BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING THEORIESBEHAVIOURAL LEARNING THEORIES

Ivan Pavlov was born in Russia and spent most of his time studying physiology (study

of the functions of organisms and their parts such as the physiology of the liver). He

was noted for his work on the physiology of digestion and

was awarded the Nobel Prize for work in this area.

However, he only became interested in psychology in 1900

at the age of 50. In his classic experiment with dogs, he

measured the saliva secreted by the animals when food wasgiven (see Figure 2.1).

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Ivan Pavlov

1849-1936

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2: Behavioural Learning

Theories

Chapter 3: Early Cognitive Theories

Chapter 4: Information Processing

Model

Chapter 5: Constructivism and

Learning

Chapter 6: Metacognition

Chapter 7: Thinking and Learning

Chapter 8: Understanding Individual

DifferencesChapter 9: Emotion and Learning

Chapter 10: Learning and Handling

Text

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Define what is behaviourism

Explain classical conditioning

Explain operant conditioning

Give everyday examples of classical conditioning in daily life

Identify the characteristics of Thorndike’s theory of learning

Describe the principles of operant conditioning

Discuss the application of operant conditioning in teaching and learning

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

2.0 Introduction

2.1 Classical Conditioning

2.2 Classical Conditioning in Daily

Life

2.3 Behaviourism

2.4 Watson’s Experiment with Little

Albert

2.5 Classical Conditioning in the

Classroom

2.6 Connectionism: Edward

Thorndike

2.7 Implication of Thorndike’s

Theories

2.8 Operant Conditioning

2.9 Schedules of Reinforcement

2.10 Shaping

2.11 Applying Operant Conditioning

in the Classroom

2.12 Summary

Key Terms

References

Chapter 2 examines behavioural theories of learning, its origin and proponents of

the perspective. It was proposed by J.B. Watson who was inspired by the works of

Ivan Pavlov. Behaviourism dominated psychology until the 1950s. It emphasised

the need for scientific study of learning focusing on behaviours that was observable.

The main proponents of behaviourism are Watson, Thorndike and Skinner who

essentially worked with animals and applied their theories in explaining human

behaviour. Behaviourism has had a significant impact on teaching and learning in

schools, training organisations and continue to do so.



Bell


Figure 2.1: Dogwith tube insertedin its cheek. Whenthe dog salivates,the saliva iscollected in thetest tube and itsquantity isrecorded on therotating drum

[source: Great Experiments in Psychology. p.5 by H.H. Garrett, 1951. New York: Appleton-

Century-Crofts]

Step 1: Before Conditioning

He gave a hungry dog a bowl of food. The dog is hungry, the dog sees the food and the

dog salivates.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR)

This is a natural sequence of events, an unconscious, uncontrolled, and unlearnedrelationship. Stimulus means something that is given to initiate a response. So

‘Unconditioned Stimulus’ and ‘Unconditioned Response’ simply means that the

stimulus and the response are naturally connected. They just came that way, hard wired

into the brain of the organism. "Unconditioned" means that this connection was already

present in the dog before Pavlov began his experiments. For example, when you see

someone eating something sour such as pickled fruit, you tend to swallow your saliva.

Thus, an unconditioned stimulus (pickled fruit) elicited an unconditioned response

(swallowing your saliva).

Step 2: During Conditioning

Next, Pavlov, presented the hungry dog with food and simultaneously rang a bell, and

the dog salivated.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Unconditioned Response (UR)

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Rotatingdrum

Food Salivation

Food

Salivation




Conditioning Stimulus (CS)

This action (food and bell ringing) was done at several meals. Every time the dog sees

the food, the dog also hears the bell. "Unconditioned" means unlearned, untaught, pre-

existing, already-present-before-we-got-there. "Conditioning" just means the opposite.

Pavlov was trying to associate, connect, bond or link something new with the old

relationship. He wanted this new thing (the bell) to elicit the same response.

Step 3: After Conditioning

This time Pavlov rang only the bell at mealtime, but he did not show any food. Guess

what the dog did. Right.

Conditioning Stimulus (CS) Conditioning

Response (CR)

The bell elicited the same response as the sight of the food gets. Over repeated trials,

the dog has LEARNED to associate the bell with the food. The bell has the power to

produce the same response as the food. In other words, the dog has been conditioned to

salivate when hearing the bell.

Conclusion

This is the essence of Classical Conditioning. You start with two things that arealready connected with each other (food and salivation). Then you pair a third thing

(bell) with the conditioned stimulus (food) over several trials. Eventually, this third

thing may become so strongly associated, that it has acquired the power to produce the

old behaviour. The organism is conditioned to respond to the third thing or stimulus.

Pavlov extended his experiment by using bells of different tones. Surprisingly, the

dog still salivated when it heard the different tones. The dog responded even though the

tones of the bells were different or nearly the same. In other words the dog is capable of

generalisation, and able to generalise across different tones. For example, when driving

and you hear the sound of a siren behind you and you immediately move to the side to

give way. You do not discriminate whether it is the sound of the fire-truck, the

ambulance or the police (which may be different) but you react in the same way. Inother words, you have generalised that any sound of the siren, you will respond

similarly.

Pavlov also found that when the tone of the bell that was closer to the sound of the

original bell, the dog salivated. When the tone of the bell was very different from the

sound of the original bell, the dog salivated less frequently. In other words the dog is

capable of discrimination, and able to differentiate among the different tones. The dog

is responds to one stimulus and not to another stimulus. However, when Pavlov

continued ringing the bell and after many trials it was not followed by food, the dog

gradually did not salivate. In other words, extinction took place and the dog did not

salivate after sometime when it realised that food was not forthcoming.

25

Bell Salivation




•

The smell of fresh bread baking makes my mouth water. This is probably theresult of Classical conditioning. In the past the smell of the fresh bread

immediately preceded putting a piece in my mouth, which causes salivation.

Through the mechanism of Classical conditioning the smell itself comes to elicit

salivation.

• After the bad car accident Jeffri had last year, he would cringe and break into a

sweat at the sound of squealing brakes. This is Classical conditioning. The

cringing, which is an unconditioned response to pain or fear, was produced by

the accident and its accompanying pain. That accident was probably preceded

by the sound of squealing brakes, which became a conditioned stimulus for the

conditioned response of cringing.

• To treat alcoholics, we sometimes put a chemical in their drinks that makesthem sick. Eventually, the taste of alcohol becomes aversive. This is Classical

conditioning. The chemical that makes the drinker sick is being paired with the

taste of alcohol so that the alcohol itself becomes the conditioned stimulus for

being sick.

• Classical conditioning works with advertising. For example, many product ads

prominently feature attractive young women. The young women

(Unconditioned Stimulus) naturally elicit a favorable, mildly aroused feeling

(Unconditioned Response) in most men.

2.3 FATHER OF BEHAVIOURISM

John B. Watson was born in 1878 and grew up in South

Carolina in the United States. He entered Furman University at

the age of 16 and graduates with a master’s degree. Later, he

studied at the University of Chicago and earned his Ph.D. in psychology in 1903. He began teaching psychology at John

Hopkins University in 1908. In 1913, he gave a seminal lecture

at Columbia University titled Psychology as the Behaviorist

Views It , which essentially detailed the behaviourist position.

According to Watson, psychology should be the science of

observable behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its

methods, nor is the scientific value of its data. Watson

remained at John Hopkins University until 1920. He had an

affair with Rosalie Rayner, his graduate assistant. He divorced

in first wife, and was asked by the university to resign his

position. Watson later married Rayner and the two remainedtogether until her death in 1935. After leaving his academic

26

Classical conditioning is a pervasive form of influence in our

world. Give examples of classical conditioning in daily life,

in the workplace, in child rearing practices and in the

classroom.

work place

J.B. Watson

(1878-1958)




position, Watson began working for an advertising agency where he remained until he

retired in 1945. He spent his last years living a reclusive life on a farm in Connecticut

and died in 1958.

Watson who subscribed to classical conditional developed by Ivan Pavlov, was

dubbed “The Father of Behaviourism” and strongly believed that human emotion (i.e.

fear, rage and love) was the product of both heredity and experience. Through the

conditioning process, these three basic emotions become attached to different things for

different people. He strongly believed that any human being can be conditioned to do

anything regardless of their attitudes, abilities or experiences. His extreme belief is

reflected in this famous (or infamous) statement he made in 1926:

Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own

specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take

any one at random and train him to become any type of

specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, merchant, chief, and

yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his

ancestors (1926, 10).

Watson set the stage for behaviorism, which soon rose to dominate psychology. While

behaviorism began to lose its hold after 1950, many of the concepts and principles are

still widely used today. Conditioning and behavior modification are still widely used in

therapy and behavioral training to help clients change problematic behaviors and

develop new skills.

To demonstrate how inborn emotional reflexes become conditioned to neutral

stimuli, Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) performed an experiment on an 11-month-

old infant Albert adopting Pavlov’s approach (discussed earlier). In the beginning of the

experiment, the infant was shown a white rat (see Figure 2.2).

He reached out and tried to touch the animal. Later, whenever Albert reached

out and tried to touch the rat, Watson took a hammer and struck a steel bar behind the

infant, making a loud noise. Obviously, Albert got a fright and jumped and fell forward.

Again, he tried to touch the rat and the bar was struck, making a loud noise. Albert

jumped violently and cried. A week later when Albert came into contact with the rat hewas more cautious and withdrew his hand. He had developed a strong fear of the rat and

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Figure 2.2

Albert and the white rat




began to cry. He tried to raise himself and crawled away rapidly. Albert had

LEARNED to fear the white rat because of its association with the loud noise.

Before Conditioning

White Rat No Fear

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR)

During Conditioning

White Rat

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Albert cries and avoids touching

Loud Noise Unconditioned Response (UR)

Conditioning Stimulus (CS)

After Conditioning

White Rat Fear

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)

It was also shown that Albert’s fear generalised to a variety of other objects

such as a rabbit, fur coat, and even a Santa Claus mask. In other words, any object thatwas furry brought fear to the infant. The experiment by Watson showed that our

emotional reactions can be rearranged through classical conditioning. Watson

demonstrated that an emotion such as fear could be ‘transferred’ to an organism that

originally that not have such a fear. The finding is significant because it implies that if

fears are learned, it should be possible to unlearn or extinguish them. Unfortunately,

Watson and Rayner never removed Albert’s fears because his mother removed him

from the hospital where the experiment was being conducted shortly after fear was

instilled.

It is the first day in school and suddenly Suzy

hears her teacher Ms. Lim yell “Keep Quiet”

at the top of her voice. Suzy was startled and

terrified and started to cry. In the next few

days, whenever Ms. Lim entered the class she

cried. She had associated the presence of Ms.

Lim with fear. In other words, she has been

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a) Explain how a behaviour can be conditioned

b) What is meant by generalisation, discrimination and extinction

in in classical conditioning?

c) What is behaviourism?



Figure 2.3 Thorndike’s puzzle box


conditioned to respond by crying whenever encountering Ms. Lim even though she had

not yelled, “Keep Quiet”.

• Stimulus Generalisation – Suzy has learned to associate fear with Ms Lim.

Could that fear generalise to other teachers? Stimulus generalisation occurs

when the organism responds to stimuli that are similar or related. If Suzy cried

each time any teacher (other than Ms. Lim) entered the class, than Suzy has

generalised. For example, in Watson’s experiments, Little Albert avoided any

thing that was furry indicating that the child has generalised fear to stimuli that

is similar or related to the white rat.

• Stimulus Discrimination – When other teachers enter the class, Suzy does not

cry but when she encounters Ms. Lim she cries. Apparently, her classically

conditioned response seems to be limited to one stimulus; Ms. Lim. It appears

that Suzy is showing signs of stimulus discrimination.

• Extinction – Suzy has associated Ms. Lim with the yelling of “Keep Quiet”

which terrified her. However, if the stimulus (yelling “Keep Quiet”) is notapplied and the response has not generated over a period of time, then the

probability of conditioned behaviour (crying) may decay. If Suzy had not heard

Ms. Lim yell “Keep Quiet” for some time, it is possible that crying whenever

Ms. Lim appears would gradually become extinct.

2.6 CONNECTIONISM - EDWARD L. THORNDIKE

Edward Thorndike (1874 – 1949), whose doctoral thesis entitled Animal Intelligence:

An Experimental Study of the Associative Process in Animals in 1898, formed the basis

for his learning theories. To Thorndike the most basic form of learning was trial-and-

error learning which was based on his experiments which involved putting a hungry

animal in a puzzle box (see Figure 2.3).

The animal (he used cats) would attempt

to escape to get at the food outside the

box. Pressing on the pedal would enable

the animal to escape. Before escaping, the

animal would have to engage in a series of

complex responses. The animal would

squeeze through an opening and claw at

anything it reaches. The animal had to

perform in a certain way before it was

allowed to leave the box.

The animal claws all over the box in an

impulsive struggle to get out of the

confinement. In the process presses the pedal and the door opens. It gets out and eatsthe food. The same cat was put in the box over and over again. Thorndike noted the

29

Food




time it took the animal to solve the problem as a function of the number of trials or

opportunities. The time it took to solve the problem systematically decreased as the

number of trials increased. In other words, the more opportunities the animal had, the

faster it solved the problem. The animal has made a connection between the proper

response and the food the cat received (Stimulus-Response or S-R connection). Based

on his experiments, Thorndike concluded that learning is incremental . In other words,

learning occurs in very small systematic steps rather than in huge jumps.

Based on his experiments, Thorndike proposed the following theories of

learning:

• The Law of Readiness

The law of readiness states that when an organism is ready to act, it will do so.

When it is not ready to act, forcing it to act will be annoying. In other words,

when someone is ready to perform act, to do is satisfying while not doing so is

annoying.

• The Law of Exercise

The law of exercise states that the strength of a connection between a stimulusand a response is determined by how often the connection is established. In

other words, maintaining connection between the stimulus and response

strengthens the connection (Law of Use). The connection between the stimulus

and response is weakened when practice is discontinued (Law of Disuse).

• The Law of Effect

The law of effect states that the strength of a connection between a stimulus and

a response is influenced by the consequence of a response. For example, if a

response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the

connection is increased. If a response is followed by an annoying state of

affairs, the strength of the connection is decreased.

• Thorndike developed the idea of connectionism. He believed that connections

formed between a stimulus and a response (S-R) is the essence of intellectual

development. People of higher intellect formed more bonds between stimuli and

response and formed them more easily than people of lower ability.

• Complex ideas should be broken down into pre-requisite concepts. Positive

reinforcement should be applied as these concepts are learned so that they can

be applied to more complex, higher-level learning activities.

• Transfer of learning.

o The degree of transfer between initial and later learning depends on the

match between elements across the two events.

o Transfer depends on the presence of identical elements in the original

and new learning situations.

o

Transfer is always specific and never general.

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o Transfer from one school task to a highly similar task (near transfer),

and from school subject to non-school settings (far transfer), could be

facilitated by teaching knowledge and skills in school subjects that have

elements identical to activities encountered in the initial context.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born in the small Pennsylvania town of

Susquehanna. He obtained his masters and doctorate in psychology from Harvard

University. He taught at the University of Minnesota and in 1945 moved to become the

chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, he was invited

to teach and do research at Harvard University where he remained for the rest of this

life. He was an active researcher and guided hundreds of doctoral candidates as well aswriting many books. His most famous book was Walden II, which is a fictional account

of a community run by his behaviourist principles.

B.F. Skinner, made his reputation by testing Watson's

and Pavlov’s theories in the laboratory. He rejected the notion

that organisms are passive and have no control whether to act or

not to act. He developed the theory of operant conditioning ,

which states that we choose to behave in a certain way because

particular behaviour brings about certain consequences

(Skinner, 1950). For example, if your girlfriend gives you a kiss

when you give her flowers, you are likely to give her flowers

when you want a kiss. You are acting in expectation of a certain

reward. However, Skinner did not agree that emotions or

feelings play any part in determining behaviour. Our behaviour

is determined by the pleasant or unpleasant consequence of that

behaviour.

SKINNER’S EXPERIMENTS

To demonstrate operant conditioning in the laboratory, a hungry rat was placed

in a box like the one shown in Figure 2.4, which is called the

“Skinner’s Box”. Inside the box was a bar connected to a pellet

(food) dispenser. Left alone in the box the rat moves aboutexploring. At some point in the exploration, it presses the bar and a small food pellet is

released (Skinner, 1954). The rat eats and soon presses the bar again. The food

reinforces bar-pressing, and the rate of pressing increases dramatically.

31

B.F. Skinner

1904-1990

a) How does Thorndike explain learning?

b) What are the implications of Thorndike’s theories on teaching

and learning? Give specific examples.

Electric

grid

Food cup

To shock

generator

Dispenser tube

Pellet dispenser




Figure 2.4 Skinner’s box

What happens if the rat is not given any more food pellets? Skinner, disconnected the

food dispenser. When the rat pressed the bar, no food was released. The rate of bar-

pressing was less frequent and finally it diminished. That is, the operant response

undergoes extinction with nonreinforcement just as in classical conditioning.

Next, Skinner connected back the pellet dispenser. Pressing the bar again provided the

rat with food pellets. The behaviour of bar-pushing ‘popped’ right back. In fact, the rat

took a lesser time to press the bar compared to the first time it was put in the box. So,

the rat has learned that if it pressed the bar, food will be released.

Skinner varied the experiment by linking the release of food pellets with light. For

example, the food would only be presented when the bar is pressed while the light is on

but not when the light is off. Guess what happened! The rat only pressed the bar when

the light was on. The light has served as a discriminative stimulus that controls

response. The rat is able to discriminate between pressing the bar with the light and pressing the bar without light (Huitt and Hummel, 1998).

Based on this experiment, Skinner introduced the word “operant”. It simply means that

the behaviour “operates” on the environment – the rat’s pressing the bar produces or

gains access to the food pellets. In classical conditioning, the animal is passive; it

merely waits for stimuli. In operant conditioning, the animal is active; its own

behaviour brings on important consequences or results (Skinner, 1998). Thus, operant

conditioning increases the likelihood of a response by following its occurrence with

reinforcer.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

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A behaviour reinforced by a pleasant consequence increases the probability of

that behaviour occurring in the future.

A behaviour no longer followed by a pleasant consequence results in a

decreased probability of that behaviour occurring in the future.



REINFORCEMENT


Thus, reinforcement can be defined as any event that increases the probability of

a response. Skinner distinguished between positive reinforcement and negative

reinforcement, as well as punishment.

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement: A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that increases the

probability of a particular behaviour occurring in the future. For example, water

is a positive reinforcer for getting a thirsty organism to behave in a particular way. The term reward is sometimes used as a synonym for positive

reinforcement (Huitt and Hummel, 1997.

Examples:a) Amy completes her homework so that she can watch her favourite programme

on TV. There is high probability that she will always complete her homework

(behaviour) so that she can watch TV (reinforcer) b) Factory workers who are efficient are given bonuses. There is a high probability

that factory workers will strive to be more efficient (behaviour) so that they will

be given bonuses (reinforcer).

Negative Reinforcement: A negative reinforcer is a stimulus when removed increases

the probability of a particular behaviour occurring in the future. Refer to

Skinner’s Box: Figure 2.4. An electric was introduced and the rat jumped

around. However, when it pressed the bar, the electric shock was switched off.

Guess what happened! The rat pressed the bar (behaviour) more frequently to

avoid the pain or discomfort from the electric shock.

Examples:a) A mother lifts (behaviour) her crying baby because she cannot bear to hear her

child cry (reinforcer).

b) When you enter a car, you put on the safety belt (behaviour) because you want

the sound of the buzzer (reinforcer) to stop.

Punishment: Punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement. The objective of

negative reinforcement is to increase the probability of a particular behaviour

occurring. Punishment has the opposite effect; it decreases the probability of a

behaviour occurring. For example, if the rat is given an electric shock every

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PUNISHMENT




time it presses the bar (behaviour), the frequency of the behaviour occurring

will be reduced and finally diminish.

Examples:a) Farid refuses to help his mother wash the dishes and he is not allowed to play

football.

b) Any student who makes noise in class will have recess time reduced.

The above is a common problem in many classrooms. The functional nature of

reinforcement theory has to be understood. It explains why the theory sometimes

appears to be incorrect. To understand if you have used positive reinforcement

(reward), you must observe its effect. If the consequence increases the behavior you

want to increase, you have introduced positive reinforcement. If the consequence

decreases the behavior you want to decrease, then you have a punishment. Most

teachers have had the unfortunate experience of Mrs. Ragu. They have persisted in

giving a consequence of punishment and the kid keeps doing the bad thing. If the

behavior does not increase or decrease the way you want it to, then you need to rethink

your rewards and punishments. The main point of reinforcement theory is thatconsequences influence behavior. Rewarding consequences increase behavior.

Punishing consequences decrease behavior. No consequences extinguish a behavior.

Finally, a consequence is known by its function (how it operates).

34

a) What is the difference between positive reinforcement and

negative reinforcement?

b) How is negative reinforcement different from punishment?

Reinforcement Theory in the Classroom

Then Bala interrupts the class, Mrs. Ragu stops the class, tells Bala he's a naughty boy who broke Rule 15 and now must go to the p

Reinforcement Theory in the Classroom

Then Bala interrupts the class, Mrs. Ragu stops the class, tells Bala he's a naughty boy who broke Rule 15 and now must go to the p

A five-year old child throws a temper tantrum in front of his

Parents. He embarrasses them and they give him rewards such

as attention, toys, candy, or whatever. Now when this child

goes to school and throws a temper tantrum, he is cruelly

disappointed when the teacher scolds and punishes him.a) Explain the underlying principles of the above event.

b) What do you think the child may learn in the long run?




The reinforcement theory was taken a step further by introducing variation in the

typical operant conditioning situation (Huitt and Hummel, 1998). What will happen

when the schedule of reinforcement is varied according to time or frequency? For

example, instead of rewarding a particular behaviour every time it occurs, the behaviour

is rewarded every 2 minutes; i.e. reinforcement is scheduled or predetermined. Many

different reinforcement schedules have been studied, but most common are as follows:

• FIXED RATIO (FR): According to this schedule, reinforcement occurs after a

fixed number of responses (behaviour). The ratio 5:1 means that after every 5

times the response (behaviour) is exhibited it is reinforced (rewarded) once. For

example, say the rat presses the bar 3 times, it gets a goodie. Or 5 times or 20

times. It is like the ‘piece rate’ method in the clothing industry. You get paid so

much for to many shirts.

•VARIABLE RATIO (VR): This schedule is similar to the Fixed Ratio. Thedifference is that the ratio is not fixed but variable. In other words, the ratio is

changed according to the responses. For example, you may start with

reinforcing every 3 times the response (behaviour) is exhibited; than every 5

times the response (behaviour) is exhibited and so on.

• FIXED INTERVAL (FI): According to this schedule, reinforcement (reward)

is given at the specified time. For example, if the time is fixed as 2 minutes; the

behaviour or response is reinforced (rewarded) after 2 minutes. No further

reinforcement will occur until 2 minutes has passed. Once it has elapsed, the

first response (behaviour) made will be reinforced.

• VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI): This schedule is similar to the Fixed Internal.

The difference is that the interval is not fixed but variable. In other words, the

interval may be changed according to the responses. For example, you may start

with reinforcing every 20 seconds the response (behaviour) is exhibited; than

every 30 seconds the response (behaviour) is exhibited and so on.

Using a schedule of reinforcement, complex behaviours of various organisms can be

shaped. Shaping is a method of successive approximation which involves

reinforcing behaviour that is vaguely similar to the behaviour desired (Skinner,

1954). The procedure of shaping involves administering rewards for response

that are not the required terminal response but that approximate what the

experimenter desires. An organism is reinforced every time it makes a move in

the desired direction until it has learned the desired response, and then not

reinforcing it again (Skinner, . By reinforcing only successively closer approximations to the desired behaviour, it is possible to train an organism to

35




engage in behaviour so complex that would never ordinarily appear in the

organism’s repertoire.

Shaping a Simple Behaviour:

A three year old child was afraid to go down a slide. The

father picked him up and put him at the end of the slide

and asked him if he was okay. He was asked to jump

and he did and was praised by the father. Next, the

father picked the child and put him a foot or so up the

slide and asked him if he was okay, and asked him to

slide down. He did. So far so good! The father did this

again and again, each time moving him a little up the

slide. Eventually, he put the child at the top of the slide

and he could slide all the way down and jump off.

A great deal of human behaviour is modified directionally in small steps byreinforcement. It has often been observed, for example, that as previously reinforcing

activities become habitual and less rewarding, they tend to be modified. For example, a

motorcyclist derives some considerable reinforcement from the sensation of turning a

sharp corner at high speed – but eventually the sensation diminishes and the excitement

becomes less. And perhaps, too, as the reinforcement begins to decrease, his speed

increases, imperceptibly but progressively. This is a clear illustration of shaping

effected through the outcomes of behaviour (Lefrancois, 1982). In the classroom, peer

approval or disapproval, sometimes communicated in a very subtle, nonverbal way, can

drastically alter a student’s behaviour. The classroom ‘clown’ would probably not

continue to be a ‘clown’ if no one paid any attention to her. Indeed, he might never

have been shaped into a ‘clown’ had his audience not reinforced him in the first place.

Biehler and Snowman (1986) in their book Psychology Applied to Teaching , suggested

the following classroom practices based on the principles of operant conditioning.

• When students are dealing with factual material, do your best to give

FEEDBACK frequently, specifically and quickly.

o After giving a problem, go over the correct answer immediately

afterward.

o Have pupils team up and give each other feedback.

36

a) Identify the schedule of reinforcement represented by

following examples:

Joe gets his salary weekly

Susie gives Zack a kiss when he rubs her back for an average of 10 minutes

Bill continues to play at a gambling machine

Rosli gets a bonus after every ten items produced.

b) Give other examples from daily life where schedules of

reinforcement have been used to shape or modify

behaviour.




o Meet with students in small groups so that you can give each pupil more

individual feedback.

o When you assign reading or give a lecture or demonstration, have a

short self-corrected quiz or an informal Q&A session immediately

afterward.

• When older students are dealing with complex and meaningful material,

DELAYED FEEDBACK may be more appropriate

o Hand back and discuss all exams even though they may have sat for the

exam two weeks ago.

o Give comments are papers written by students besides a grade or marks.

o After having submitted an assignment you could ask your students the

following: “If you realised after you completed your work that you had

made a mistake, make a note of it and mention how you would correct it

if you were to do the assignment over again now. Then we can see if

your evaluation agrees with mine”.

• Use SEVERAL KINDS OF REINFORCERS so that each retains its

effectiveness.

o When a student gives a correct answer, makes a good point in class

discussion or doe something helpful, say things like: “Good”. “That’s

right”. “Terrific”. “Great”. “Very interesting point”. “I hadn’t thought of

that”. “That was big help”.

o Walk over to stand near and smile encouragingly at a pupil who seems

to be working industriously.

• Use awareness of EXTINCTION to reduce the frequency of undesirable forms

of behaviour.

o If a student exhibits undesirable behaviour to arouse attention, pay no

attention and continue with the lesson.

o If a student says something undesirable in class discussion, do not

comment, and immediately call on someone else.

• Using different SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT, encourage persistent

and permanent learning.

o When students first try a new skill or type of learning, praise almost any

genuine attempt, even though it may be inaccurate. Then, as they become more skilful, reserve your praise only for correct and accurate

answers.

o Avoid a set pattern or predictable way of commenting on student work.

o Make favourable remarks at unpredictable intervals.

• Use reinforcement to MOTIVATE students to learn material that is not

intrinsically interesting.

o Announce to students that if they complete the ‘boring’ task, they will

be rewarded with something they like to do. e.g. read a book of their

choice, work on an art or craft project, work on homework for another class.

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o Make a contract with students on the amount of work to be completed

before they are entitled to the reward.

o Withhold reinforcement and calling attention to rewards that will follow

completion of a task. If that does not work, consider the possibility of

taking away a privilege or resorting to punishment.

• Use the principles of PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION. Skinner argued that in

a typical classroom situation, a teacher cannot supply reinforcement quickly

enough or often enough. He recommended the use of teaching machines or

programmed instruction.

o State clearly what is to learned i.e. the terminal behaviour (e.g. to be

able to compare X and Y)

o Break down the facts, concepts and principles and arrange them in a

sequence designed to lead the student to the desired end result.

o These series of small linear steps or frames are written to maximise the

likelihood that students will supply the correct answer for each frame.When students do supply the correct answer for one step or frame, they

are reinforced by discovering they are right and motivated to move on to

the next.

• Use programmed approaches to teaching describing terminal behaviour,

organising what is to be learned, and providing feedback.

o Describe the terminal behaviour using instructional objectives or

learning outcomes (e.g. using Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives as a

guide).

o If appropriate, arrange the material to be learned into a series of steps

into an outline of points (e.g. when giving a lecture or demonstration

give students an organised list of points to be covered)

o Provide feedback (e.g. quizzes with feedback on correct answers)

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.

Skinner believed that operant conditioning can even be used to

teach thinking (by conditioning the student to develop

techniques of self-management – for example; paying attention

and studying efficiently), to foster creativity (by including

greater amounts of behaviour and reinforcing what is original ),

and to encourage perseverance (by systematically widening the

ratios of reinforcement ).

Discuss.




• "Unconditioned" means unlearned, untaught, pre-existing, already-present-

before-we-got-there. "Conditioning" just means the opposite.

• An organism is capable of generalisation, and able to generalise across different

stimuli that are different or nearly the same.

• The organism is capable of discrimination, and able to differentiate among the

different stimuli.

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.

Read the following situations and state whether they are

examples of classical or operant conditioning.

Gi Give reasons for your decision.

In order to punish my cat for sleeping on the sofa, I paired the sound of a clicker

with getting squirted with water. Now the sound of the clicker causes the animal

to get off the sofa.

When my son has gone for a week without arguing with his sister, he gets to

choose which favorite activity he wants to engage in on Friday night

In a weight management class, participants earn points for every healthy meal

they eat and every period of exercise they complete. Later these points result inrefunds of their class fees.

When I first start teaching about a concept, I'll praise any answer that is close to

the right answer.

Each morning when I switch on the radio, my dogs bark and I give them dog a

slice of bread each. After a while, every time I switch on the radio in the morning,

my dogs bark.




• Behaviourism: Psychology should not be concerned with the mind or mental

processes but should be concerned only with behaviour.

• Watson demonstrated that an emotion such as fear could be ‘transferred’ to an

organism that originally that not have such a fear.

• Stimulus generalisation occurs when the organism responds to stimuli that are

similar or related.

• Extinction: A response gradually disappears when the stimulus is not applied

over a period of time.

• The law of readiness states that when an organism is ready to act, it will do so.

When it is not ready to act, forcing it to act will be annoying. In other words

• The law of exercise states that the strength of a connection between a stimulus

and a response is determined by how often the connection is established.

• The law of effect states that the strength of a connection between a stimulus and

a response is influenced by the consequence of a response.

• A behaviour reinforced by a pleasant consequence increases the probability of

that behaviour occurring in the future.

• A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that increases the probability of a particular

behaviour occurring in the future.

• A negative reinforcer is a stimulus when removed increases the probability of a

particular behaviour occurring in the future.

• Punishment decreases the probability of a behaviour occurring.

• Schedule of Reinforcement: Instead of rewarding a particular behaviour every

time it occurs, the behaviour is rewarded according to a predetermined schedule.

• Shaping is a method of successive approximation which involves reinforcing

behaviour that is vaguely similar to the behaviour desired.

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KEY TERMS

Classical conditioning Positive reinforcement Programmed instruction

Discrimination Negative reinforcement Feedback

Extinction Punishment Stimulus generalisation

Generalisation Schedule of reinforcement Terminal behaviour

Operant conditioning Shaping Connectionism




REFERENCES

• Biehler, D. and Snowman, G. (1986). Psychology of learning applied to

teaching. Newark: Wardsworth

• Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to operant (instrumental)

conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State

University.

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html.

• Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1998). An overview of the behavioral perspective.

Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/behsys.html.

• Skinner, B.F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological

Review, 57(4), 193-216.

• Skinner, B.F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard

Educational Review, 24(2), 86-97.

• Watson, J. (1913). Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it. Psychological

Review, 20, 158-177.

• Watson, J. B. and Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal

of Experimental Psychology. 3(1). 1-14.

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Chapter 2.Classical