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Chapter 20: Documenting Sources
• MLA Documentation Style • APA Documentation Style
Now that you have some practice with finding and evaluating sources, let’s learn how to accurately cite those sources by examining two commonly used formatting styles: MLA and APA. Let’s start by examining some key terms:
1. Works Cited page (MLA) and References page (APA): These pages, which come at the end of a
text, include a list of all the sources that the writer has integrated within the paper. Full citations are added to this list when:
• The writer uses a direct quote • The writer mentions (directly or indirectly references) any element (i.e., charts, lists, facts,
general information) gained from a source, or • The writer uses even general ideas, analyses, or conclusions taken from another’s work.
Image 21.1: This image is excerpted from Ranjitha’s MLA student example within this chapter. For specific guidelines on formatting a Works Cited page, see Ranjitha’s complete example below.
Image 21:2 This image is excerpted from Shannon’s APA student example within this chapter. For specific guidelines on formatting a Reference page, see Shannon’s complete example below.
2. In-text citations: In text citations, also termed, “parenthetical references” are used to track the sources listed within the Works Cited and References pages as one reads the document. By offering a shortened, in-text citation within parentheses, readers can more easily find the full source at the end of the document.
Example: In this example, Ranjitha uses 2 distinct kinds of parenthetical references—both consistent with MLA format. The first, in red, cites the author by last name and then follows with the page number where the direct quote can be found. With this information, the reader can then go to the Works Cited and easily find a full citation. The second parenthetical reference (in blue) includes a signal phrase, alerting the reader to the upcoming citation by “signaling” with the writer’s last name. In this example, Ranjitha signals to her reader that she is citing a source by writing, “according to Coakley.” Both MLA and APA format use signal phrases.
Now that you have the basics, let’s get started. Comparing MLA and APA formats: Perhaps you, like many students, find the citation process tedious and confusing — even unnecessary. However, citing sources serves several essential purposes. First, by citing the texts that inform your thinking and writing, you define for readers who and what influenced your work. Citations also tell readers precisely where they can access the same background readings and media if they are interested further in the topic. By citing your sources in a specific format, you make it easier for others to find and read your references. Finally, citing sources gives proper credit. Citation is an important part of avoiding plagiarism: whether you’re quoting directly, summarizing, or paraphrasing (see Chapter 19), you must cite. At most schools, there are serious consequences for not citing sources fully and accurately. While there are several popular citation formats, this chapter will focus on two of the most widely used styles (MLA and APA) for citing sources in college courses. Table 21.1 lists the major differences (and similarities) between MLA and APA format. Table 21.1: MLA and APA Styles Compared
Unique to MLA Unique to APA Stylistic Similarities
Used in the humanities: • Languages • History • Philosophy • Religion • Visual Arts • Classics • Law • Literature
Used in the social sciences: • Psychology • Sociology • Education • Economics • Communications • Anthropology • International Relations • Linguistics
• Both always use double-spacing (both body text and citations).
• Both REQUIRE that all source materials within the composition be cited either in the text or in a bibliography.
• Both alphabetize citations within the bibliography
• Both use signal phrases to alert the reader to upcoming citations.
• Both use in-text parenthetical citations (formatted differently).
• Both exist to help readers find source material.
• Both demonstrate respect for intellectual property.
Uses author and year in parenthetical citations
Uses author and page number in parenthetical citations
No running head Uses a running head
No abstract May include an abstract at the beginning of the document
Uses a “Works Cited” list at the end of the document to cite sources.
Uses a “References” list at the end of the document to cite sources
Body of text begins on page 1 Body of text begins on page 2 (or page 3 if there is an abstract).
• Both help students avoid plagiarism
• Both can be confusing for students.
1. MLA (Modern Language Association) format is used typically in writing courses and across the
humanities (e.g., history, film, religion, languages). Its style preferences are detailed in the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing, Third Edition and the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Seventh Edition.
MLA Example (journal article): Black, Sharon. "The Magic of Harry Potter: Symbols and Heroes of Fantasy." Children's
Literature in Education 34.3 (2003): 237-47. Print.
2. APA (American Psychological Association) format is used typically in psychology and social science
courses (e.g., education, economics, sociology). Its style preferences are detailed in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Sixth Edition.
APA Example (journal article): Black, S. (2003). The magic of Harry Potter: Symbols and heroes of fantasy. Children's
Literature in Education, 34(3), 237-247.
Many college libraries offer online services that help you find, read, and cite texts, building formatted bibliographies as you go. However, be careful of popular online citation tools like http://www.easybib.com, Google Scholar, and http://www.bibme.org because they are not always up-to-date or accurate. Keep this chapter handy as you work with and cite sources in your compositions.
MLA Documentation Style
Directory of Source Types For each of your sources, use this directory to look up the appropriate format for in-text citations and entries in the list of works cited.
Chapter 20 - MLA Documentation Style Categories MLA IN-TEXT CITATIONS
• One author • More than one author • Two or more works by the same author • Multiple authors with the same last name • No author listed • Corporation, organization, or government agency as author • Work in an anthology • Literary work • Religious work • Multivolume work page • Entire source or source with no page numbers (e.g., multimedia) • Online source with paragraph or section numbers • Indirect citation • Multiple works cited together
MLA LIST OF WORKS CITED
Books
• Book by one author • Two or more books by same author • Book by two or more authors • Book by more than three authors • Book by a corporate or government author
or entity • Book by an unknown or unidentified author • Edited collection or anthology • Work in an anthology • Book w/ author and editor • Reference book entry
• Introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword • Translation • Graphic narrative • Religious work • Multivolume work • Later edition of a book • Republished book • Title within a title • Book in a series • Doctoral dissertation • Pamphlet
____________________________________________________ Periodicals
• Article in a scholarly journal • Article in a newspaper • Article in a magazine
• Editorial • Letter to the editor • Review of a film, book, or performance
_____________________________________________________________________ Other Online Sources
• Entire website • Article or document from a website • E-mail message
• Blog • Posting to online discussion group page • Wiki entry • Tweet or other social network post
___________________________________________________________________ Visual, Audio, Multimedia, and Live Sources
• Podcast • Map or chart • Cartoon/ comic strip • Advertisement • Film • Television or radio broadcast
• Online video • Live performance • Work of art • Music recording • Lecture or presentation • Interview
Formatting the Paper in MLA Style MLA-Format Example Student Paper MLA In-Text Citations 1) One author a. Author named in your sentence with a signal phrase.
A signal phrase is used when the writer mentions (or “signals”) the cited author’s name within the sentence that includes the citation: Gopelrud asserts that labor conditions for college athletes are like “sweat shop[s]” (1081). *Note that you only need to provide the page number(s), NOT the word page, within the parentheses. The entire citation will appear at the end of your paper in the section titled “Works Cited.”
b. Author not named in your sentence. Sometimes writers use a source without mentioning the author’s name in a signal phrase. In these occasions, include the author’s name within the parentheses: Labor conditions for college athletes resembled “sweat shop[s]” (Gopelrud 1081).
c. Block (long) quotation When a quotation goes beyond four lines of prose or three lines of poetry, separate that quotation from the main part of the essay into a block. Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase. Then start the block on a new line; indent the block one additional inch from the left margin, maintaining double-spacing. Do not use quotation marks to set it off. After the quotation, use end punctuation followed by parentheses that include the author’s last name, a space, and the page number when available. Edelman highlights the disservice the current system does to student athletes:
Duke University decided during the 1994 college basketball season to sell sweatsuits bearing the
name and likeness of its star player, Grant Hill. The Duke bookstore never asked Hill’s permission to
use his image, and it never offered to share profits with him. Instead, Hill was told that, just like any
other student, he could have a sweatsuit for $120. (Edelman 861)
2) More than one author a. Two or three authors
If citing a reference that has two to three authors, you can either reference the authors in a signal phrase (see 1a) or in parentheses (see 1b). List names in the order they are given by the source. Purdy, Eitzen, and Hufnage assert that intercollegiate athletics lead to “unethical practices” (439).
b. Four or more authors If a text has four or more authors, either list all their last names or use the first author’s name followed by the Latin term et al. (not italicized), meaning “and others.” (Follow the model
According to one study, student athletes are confronted with excessive “psychological stress” (Jib et al. 26).
3) Two or more works by the same author When you cite multiple works by the same author, begin each reference with a signal phrase that highlights the author’s name. Then, in the parentheses at the end of the citation, include an abbreviated version of the title (italicized for books and in quotation marks for articles).
According to Rush, NCAA athletes who violate economic rules can see their college careers “ended early” (“Touchdowns, Toddlers, and Taboos” 549).
4) Two or more authors with the same last name To distinguish multiple authors with same last name, include the author’s first name in a signal phrase or add the author’s first initial (or full first name if the initial is the same) in a parenthetical citation.
By forcing an “amateur” status on student athletes, the university can exploit them economically (W. Byers 13). 5) No author listed If the author is unknown, substitute the title.
Within the online NCAA database, one can find a disparity between the organization’s stated goals and history of violation enforcement (NCAA Academic Progress Rate Database).
6) Corporation, organization, or government agency as author When citing an organization, reference the entity in either the signal phrase or within parentheses. It’s fine to shorten, but not to change, the organization’s name. (If the source has page numbers, include the page(s) in a parenthetical citation.)
The US government, in a recent report from the Office of Postsecondary Education, recounted findings on “equity in athletics.”
7) Work in an anthology When citing a piece of writing from an anthology (i.e. a collection of works), cite the author(s) of the
individual work you are referencing.
In “Sport as Secular Sacrament,” Bursteyn describes soccer as “a national religion” in Brazil (10).
8) Literary work
Many classic literary works are available in multiple formats and editions. If you’re citing a play by
Shakespeare or a poem by T.S. Elliot, each is included in multiple anthologies and on various websites.
In such cases, it’s more important to cite the edition you are using than to provide original publication
information.
• Novel:
Reference the page and chapter (ch.), volume (vol.), book (bk.), part (pt.), section (sec.), or
paragraph (par.) as appropriate.
In Rabbit at Rest, Updike satirizes his lead character Harry, a washed-up former college basketball star
who has lost all his “spontaneity and fun” (17; ch.1).
• Play:
When citing a play, reference the act, scene, and line, separated by periods.
In his final speech, Othello describes himself as “one who loved not wisely but too well” (5.2.344).
• Poem
When citing a poem, reference the part number (if applicable) followed by a period, and then the line number(s): (14.42-43) If a poem is complete in one part, simply put the word line(s), followed
by the number(s) within the parentheses.
Thayer builds tension in “Casey at the Bat” by shifting to the present tense in the penultimate stanza:
“The sneer is gone from Casey’s lips. . . “(line 45).
9) Religious work When citing religious works like the Torah (Judaism), Qur’an (Islam), New Testament (Christianity), Tripitaka (Buddhism), or Shruti (Hindu), begin with the edition’s title, and then in parentheses give the book (e.g. Gen. – abbreviation of Genesis), chapter, and verse (each separated by periods). Italicize only the names of specific editions.
With a common understanding of the Bible as a creation story, the Stone Edition of the Tanach (Old Testament) commences like many other versions of the Bible with the verse, “In the beginning” (Gen. 1.1).
10) Multivolume work
Sometimes you’ll need to cite passages from more than one volume of a multivolume work. Each time one of the volumes is cited, give the volume number and page number(s) in parentheses, separated by a colon and a space.
According to the Encyclopedia of Sports Medicine, an athlete’s strength is related to the “maximum force” that he asserts during his training (1: 13).
If you cite only one volume of a multivolume work, include just the page number in parentheses. 11) Source with no page numbers (e.g., multimedia) or an entire source
When a source does not use page numbers, note other identifying information in the signal phrase or parenthetical citation.
In US News and World Report’s online discussion forums, it has long been debated whether or not college athletes should be paid (Debate Club).
12) Online source with paragraph or section numbers If an online source without page numbers does label paragraph or section numbers, use the abbreviation par. (pars.) or sec. (secs.) (not italicized).
The NCAA has argued repeatedly that it has the players’ best interests at heart (Garring par. 18).
13) Indirect citation If your source’s author quotes another text, and this indirect citation is what you’d like to use in your paper, then use the abbreviation qtd. in (quoted in).
McCarthy asserts that college athletes cannot “control the commercial use” of their own identities (qtd. in Mueller 70)
14) Multiple works cited together Sometimes you’ll find that more than one author has written (and is quotable) on the specific point that you want to support. Citing both authors can add strength to your position.
Both Acain (307) and Mueller (70), while using distinct terms, respectively discuss the “monetary benefits” or “commercial use” garnered from student athletes.
Separate sources appearing in the same parenthetical citation with a semicolon.
Scholars that look at “pay for play” tend to address the economics of the situation (Acain 307; Mueller 70).
MLA List of Works Cited
At the end of your composition, list bibliographic information for each source that you cite.
Example:
Book:
Wood, Gordon S. Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815. New York:
Oxford UP, 2009. Print.
Title
Subtitle
Author Publisher
Citing Books: Author: Include the names of author(s) as they appear on the title page. Begin the citation with last name, first name, and a period. Title: Each key word in the title and subtitle should be capitalized. Articles (“the,” “a”), prepositions, and coordinating conjunctions should be capitalized only if they begin the title or subtitle. Publication City: Like the example above from Oxford University Press, which publishes in multiple cities, list the first city in your citation. Publisher: If the publisher is widely known, the writer might use an abbreviation. MLA also encourages using standard abbreviations such as U for University and P for Press. Date: If more than one year appears, include only the most recent. Medium: List the medium (e.g., Web, Print). 1. Book by one author
Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title. Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication. Medium.
Byers, Walter. Unsportsmanlike Conduct: Exploiting College Athletes.
Ann Arbor: U Michigan P, 1997. Print.
Copyright Year
City of Publication
Electronic
Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title (Italicized). Place of Publication: Publisher,
Year of publication. Medium. Date Month Year Accessed.
Benedict, Jeff and Armen Keteyian. The System: The Glory and Scandal of Big-Time College Football. New York:
Doubleday, 2013. Kindle e-book file. 10 May 2014.
Book from a database
Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title. Publication City: Publisher,
Year Published. Database Name. Medium. Date Month Year Accessed.
Smith, Ronald. Pay for Play: A History of Big-Time College Athletic Reform.
Champaign: U of Illinois P, 2010. JSTOR. Web. 10 May 2014.
2. Two or more books by the same author List all entries by this same author alphabetically by the first significant word of the title. In the first item, list the author’s name. Begin the subsequent items with three hyphens (---). Guttmann, Allen. Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism.
New York: Columbia UP, 1994. Print
---. From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports. New York: Columbia UP, 2004. Print. 3. Book by two or three authors
First Author’s Last Name, First Name, Second Author’s First and Last Names, and Third Author’s First and Last
Names. Title. Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication. Medium.
Shulman, James L., and William G. Bowen. The Game of Life: College Sports and
Educational Values. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2002. Print.
4. Book by four or more authors Either give all the authors’ names or give only the first author’s name followed by et al. Bowen, William G., Sarah Levin, James Shulman, Colin Campbell, Susanne Pichler, and
Martin Kurzweil. Reclaiming the Game: College Sports and Educational Values. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2011.
Print.
Bowen, William G., et al. Reclaiming the Game: College Sports and Educational Values.
Princeton: Princeton UP, 2011. Print.
5. Book by a corporate or government author or entity
Organization or Agency Name. Title. Publication City: Publisher,
Year of publication. Medium.
Sports Illustrated. The College Football Book. New York: Sports Illustrated,
2008. Print.
Electronic
Organization or Agency Name. Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of publication. Medium.
United States, Central Intelligence Agency. The CIA World Factbook 2014. New York: Skyhorse, 2013. Kindle ebook file.
6. Book by an unknown or unidentified author
Title. Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication. Medium.
The Best 378 Colleges, 2014 Ed. Framingham: Princeton Review,
2013. Print.
7. Edited collection or anthology If the author uses a first initial, include it.
Editor’s Last Name, First Name, ed. Title of Anthology Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication.
Medium.
Eitzen, D. Stanley, ed. Sport in Contemporary Society: An Anthology. 6th ed. New York: Worth, 2001. Print.
8. Work from an anthology or edited collection
Single citation
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Selection.” Title of Anthology. 6th Ed. Editor’ First and Last Names.
Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication. Pages. Medium.
Burstyn, Varda. “Sports as Secular Sacrament.” Sport in Contemporary Society:
An Anthology.6th ed. Ed. D. Stanley Eitzen. New York: Worth, 2001. 10-19. Print.
Multiple citations from the same anthology
List each selection by author and title, followed by the name of the anthology editor and the page numbers of the readings. Also include a citation for the entire anthology (see item 7). Burstyn, Varda. “Sports as Secular Sacrament.” Eitzen. 10-19. Coakley, Jay J.”Sport in Society: An Inspiration or an Opiate?” Eitzen. 20-36. 9. Book with an author and editor
Start with the author of the original text to cite the portion of the text from the original author. Author’s Last Name,
First Name. Title. Ed. Editor’s First and Last Names. Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication. Medium.
Shakespeare, William. The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works. 2nd ed. Eds. John Jowett, William
Montgomery, Gary Taylor, and Stanley Wells. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. Print.
Start with editor of the book to cite the editor’s contribution.
Jowett, John, William Montgomery, Gary Taylor, and Stanley Wells, eds. The Oxford Shakespeare: The
Complete Works. By William Shakespeare. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. Print.
10. Reference book entry: Provide only the edition and year of publication for a very familiar or common reference book (e.g.,
Encyclopedia Britannica, Webster’s dictionary, etc.).
“Darwinism.” The Compact Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. Print.
Web:
“Title of Entry.” Title of Reference Work. Sponsor, Year of publication. Medium. Day Month Year of Access.
“Athlete.” Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam Webster, 2014. Web. 31 May 2014.
*If the reference book citation is obscure, offer the following information in your Works Cited list.
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Reference Book. Edition Number. Year of publication.
Medium.
Oliver, Sandra L. “Abalone.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America. 2nd ed. 2012. Print.
Database
To cite reference books found on databases, follow the format for database books (see item 1).
11. Introduction, Preface, Foreword, Afterword Begin with the author of the part (e.g., Introduction, Preface, Foreword, Afterword), not the author of the book.
Aeschliman, Michael. Introduction. A Tale of Two Cities (Critical Editions). By Charles Dickens. San Francisco:
Ignatius, 2012. ix-xiv. Print.
12. Translation If focusing on the work itself, cite the translator’s name after the abbreviation Trans (not italicized). Start the citation with the original author’s name.
Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin, 1998. Print. If focusing on the translator’s contribution, begin with the translator’s name. Fagles, Robert, trans. The Iliad. By Homer. New York: Penguin, 1998. Print. 13. Graphic narrative If the author and illustrator are the same person, use the citation model for a book with one author. If your discussion emphasizes the artwork, begin with the illustrator’s name (and first initial) followed by illus. (not italicized), Hood, R., illus. The Professor and the Madman. By Simon Winchester. New York: Harper, 1998. Print. If you emphasize the written work, begin with the author’s name followed by writer (not italicized). Winchester, Simon, writer. The Professor and the Madman. Illus. R. Hood. New York: Harper, 1998. Print. 14. Religious work Cite a specific edition of a religious work.
Tigay, Jeffrey H. The JPS Torah Commentary: Deuteronomy. Philadelphia: Jewish Pub. Soc., 1996. Print.
15. Multivolume work When citing the entirety of a multivolume work, list the number of volumes after the title.
The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 20 vols. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1989. Print.
When citing only one volume, provide the volume number after the title.
The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. Vol. 18. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1989. Print.
16. Later edition of a book
Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title. Name or number of edition. Publication
City: Publisher, Year of publication. Medium.
Morenberg, Max. Doing Grammar. 5th ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.
17. Republished book
Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title. Year of original edition. Publication
City: Publisher, Year of republication. Medium.
Melville, Herman. Moby Dick. 1851. London: Harper, 1967. Print. 18. Title within a title If the title you are citing includes a reference to another book title, do not italicize the second title.
Austin, Norman. Archery at the Dark of the Moon: Poetic Problems in Homer's Odyssey. Berkeley: U of CA P, 1975. Print.
19. Book in a series
Editor’s Last Name, First Name, ed. Title of Book. By Author’s First and Last Names.
Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication. Medium. Series Title Abbreviated.
Harris, Joseph, ed. The Community College Writer: Exceeding Expectations. By Howard B. Tinberg, and Jean-Paul
Nadeau. Carbondale: Southern IL UP, 2010. Print. Studies in Writing and Rhetoric Ser.
20. Doctoral dissertation Published and unpublished dissertations, as well as master's theses, can be cited in academic papers. Published Hammer, Barry Joseph. Charismatic leadership and appeal in early hasidism. Diss. Graduate Theological Union, 1992.
Ann Arbor: UMI, 1993. Print. Unpublished Hammer, Bradley. “Inside Out: A Crisis of Academic Identity, Place, and Hope. ” Diss. Columbia U, 2000. Print.
21. Pamphlet
Cite a pamphlet like a book.
Alcoholics Anonymous World Services. An Introduction to the A.A. Recovery Program. New York: A.A. Grapevine, 1984.
Print.
Periodicals Periodicals, including newspapers, magazines, and journals, are published at regular intervals. Be sure that all periodicals listed in your Works Cited list contain the following information: Author: Begin with the author’s last name, first name, and then a period. If there is more than one author, list the first author’s last name first (as above) and the first name first for any subsequent author(s). Title: Italicize the title of the periodical. Capitalize important words in the title and subtitle, as with a book. Place the title of the article in quotation marks and insert a period before the closing marks. Italicize periodical titles, and omit articles (e.g. a, an ,the ) from the beginning of periodical titles. Citation Norms: Abbreviate the months (e.g., Jan., Feb., Mar.), except for months with shorter names (i.e., May, June and July). For scholarly journals, include the volume and issue number separated by a period and followed by the year of publication in parentheses. List page numbers followed by a period. End with the medium (i.e. Print, Web) of the publication. Sommers, Nancy. "Responding to Student Writing." College Composition and Communication 61.1 (1982): 148-56.
Print.
Journal cover:
Journal Title
Journal article:
Article title and Subtitle
List of Articles and Authors
Volume Issue: Publication Date:
Sponsoring Organization
Authors
Page Number
Hurst, Thomas R., and J. Grier Pressly III. "Payment of Student-Athletes: Legal & Practical Obstacles."
Villanova Sports & Entertainment Law Journal 7.1 (2000): 55-82. Print.
Online journal homepage:
Library database:
Links to Articles, authors, and editors
Open Access
Database search results:
Search Fields and Results
Database Name Database Description
22. Article in a scholarly journal
Print Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal Volume. Issue (
Year): Page(s). Medium.
Gavaskar, Vandana. “The Other Side of the Track? (De)Constructing Viable Professional Selves from a Border
Pedagogy.” CCC Forum 13.1. (2009): A5-7. Print.
*If the journal does not have volume numbers, use only the issue number:
Medovarski, Andrea. “Roughing it in Bermuda: Mary Prince, Susanna Strickland Moodie, Dionne Brand, and the Black
Diaspora.” Canadian Literature 220 (2014): 94-114.
Online
When an online journal lacks page numbers, substitute the italicized term, “n. pag.” for the page
number in the format below.
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal Volume.Issue (Year): Pages. Medium. Date
of access (Date Month Year).
Alexander, Jonathan, and Jacqueline Rhodes. “Flattening Effects: Composition’s
Multicultural Imperative and the Problem of Narrative Coherence.” CCC 65.3(2014): 430-54. Web. 2
May 2014.
Database
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal Volume. Issue (Year): Pages. Database
Name. Medium. Date of access.
Hurst, Thomas, and J. Grier Pressly. “Payment of Student-Athletes: Legal & Practical Obstacles." Villanova
Sports and Entertainment Law Journal 7.1 (2000): 55. WorldCat. Web. 2 May 2014.
23. Article in a newspaper
For an article in a print newspaper, use + for noncontinuous pages.
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper. ). Day Month Year of publication:
Page(s). Medium.
Young, Michael E. “Welcome Rain Leaves Lakes Wanting More.” Dallas Morning News
16 May 2014: Print.
• Online
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper. Publisher, Day Month Year of publication.
Medium. Day Month Year of access.
Kleinman, Alexis. "Leaked Photos Give Us a First Look at the New Gmail." Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com,
5 Dec. 2014. Web. 2 May 2014.
• Database
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper. Day Month Year of publication: Page(s).Database
name. Web. Day Month Year of access.
Leonhard, David. “A Rescue That Worked, but Left a Troubled Economy”. New York Times. 13 May 2014. A3. ProQuest.
Web. 12 May 2014.
24. Article in an online magazine
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine. Publisher, Day Month Year of publication. Medium.
Day Month Year of access.
Johnston, Casey. “Scientists find a Winning Strategy for Rock-Paper-Scissors.” ars Technica. Conde Nast Digital, 1 May
2014. Web. 1 May 2014.
25. Editorial
Print:
“Title of Editorial.” Editorial. Periodical. Publisher, Date Month Year of publication. Page(s). Medium.
"U.S. naïve about threat of Ebola." Editorial. IndyStar 3 Oct. 2014: A13. Print.
Web:
“Title of Editorial.” Editorial. Title of Site. Publisher, Date Month Year of publication. Medium. Date of access.
“The Dark Side of the Sharing Economy.” Editorial. New York Times. New York Times, 3 Apr. 2014. Web. 2
May 2014.
26. Letter to the editor Print:
Hammer, Bradley. Letter. Dallas Morning News. Sept. 8, 2007. Print
Web:
Eagle, Martin. “True Intent.” Letter. Newsandobserver.com. The News & Observer Publishing Co., 2 Oct.
2014. Web. 6 Oct. 2014.
27. A review of a film, book, or performance
Print:
Reviewer’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Review.” Rev. of Title of Work , by Author’s First and Last Names.
Title of Periodical Day Month Year: Pages. Medium.
Thottam, Jyoti. “Cradle of Disobedience.” Rev. of Gandi before India, by
Ramachandra Guha. New York Times Sunday Book Review 8 May 2014. BR14. Print.
Web:
Reviewer’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Review.” Rev. of Title of Review (Italicized). dir.
First and Last Name. Title of Site (Italicized). Publisher, Date of publication. Medium. Date of access.
Loder, Kurt. “The Amazing Spider-Man 2 Grapples With Love, Death, and CGI.” Rev. of The Amazing Spider-
Man 2, dir. Marc Webb. The Reason. Reason Foundation, 2 May 2014. Web. 2 May 2014.
Other Online Sources Include the following in your Works Cited list: Author(s) and site editor(s): When author or editor names are available, cite as you would books and periodicals. When names are unavailable, start with the title of the work (if you are citing a work on a Web site) or the title of the site (if you are citing the entire site). Title: If you cite a portion of a larger site (e.g., an article), place that portion’s title in quotation marks. Italicize the title of the Web site. Sponsor or publisher: Put a comma after the sponsor’s name. If no name is available, put N.p. Date of publication or last update: Use the day, month, and year if they appear on the site. If no date is provided, put n.d.(not italicized). Medium: List the medium as Web. Access Date: Provide the day, month, and year that you accessed the site. URL Address: When enough information is available in your Works Cited list for your reader to find the article through a Web search, do not include a URL. If your citation is missing author names, site sponsor, or other critical information, then provide the website address within <angle brackets>. If the URL does not fit on one line, break it after a slash (“/”). If you use a source that does not have specific formatting guidelines in the MLA Handbook, gather as much publication information as possible, and adapt the format that most closely matches your source, changing the medium if needed. Consult your instructor if you have questions. 28. Article or document from a Web site:
Title of Web site:
Title of article:
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article or Document.” Title of Site (Italicized).
Publisher or Site Sponsor or N.p., Date posted or last updated or n.d. Medium. Date of access.
29. An entire Web site Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Site (Italicized). Publisher or Site Sponsor or N. p., Date posted or last updated or n.d.. Medium. Date of access. DeCourcy, Mike. Sporting News. Sporting News Media, n.d. Web. 12 May 2014.
30. E-mail message If you were not the recipient of the email, use the recipient’s first and last names in place of “the author” (e.g., Message to Carla Davis).
Author:
Date first posted or last updated: Sponsor
Rodriguez, Diana. “Learning about Different Types of Skin Cancer.” Everyday Health.
Everyday Health, Inc., 9 Jan., 2009. Web. 2 May 2014.
\\
Sender’s Last Name, First Name. “Subject Line.” Message to the author. Date message sent. Medium.
Kahn, Maxwell. “Discussion of Final Grade—My Rebuttal.” Message to the author. 2 May 2014. Email.
31. Blog
Blog entry:
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Entry.” Title of Blog. Publisher or Site Sponsor, Date posted or updated.
Medium. Date of access.
Gemmell, Kevin. “Arizona Spring Wrap.” Pac-12 Blog. ESPN, 2 May 2014. Web. 2 May 2014.
Blog comment
Coffman, Justin. “Re: Arizona Spring Wrap.” Pac-12 Blog. ESPN, 2 May 2014. Web. 2 May 2014.
32. Posting to online discussion group
NatureBoy2323. “Post Your Impressions of NCAA Football 14 Thread.” NCAA Football Series General Discussion.
EA Sports Forums, 2 May 2014. Web. 2 May 2014.
33. Wiki entry
"Cancer: Stories, Support and Information.” wikiCancer. NEJM, 20 Mar. 2014. Web. 2 May 2014
34. Tweet or other social network post
@shakira. “We want your feedback! What are your favorite tracks on the new album?” 29 Apr. 2014, 9:29 p.m. Tweet.
Citing Visual, Audio, Multimedia, and Live Sources
35. Podcast
Downloaded:
Podcast Performer or Host’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Podcast.” Host First Name Last Name. Title of
Program (Italicized). Sponsor. Date Posted. Medium.
Izzard, Eddie. “Eddie Izzard Returns.” Host Chris Hardwick. Nerdist. Nerdist.com, 30 Apr. 2014. MP3.
Streamed:
“Episode.” Title of Program (Italicized). Writ. (writer), prod. (producer), dir. (director). Website. Sponsor (Italicized). Date
Posted. Medium. Date of access.
“Living Without.” This American Life. Writ. Jay Allison, Host Ira Glass. Transom.org. Atlantic Public Media, 16 Sept. 2011.
Web. 17 Sept. 2011.
36. Map or chart
Print: New York City Subway Map. Map. Brooklyn: MTA, 2004. Print.
Online:
“Raleigh, North Carolina.” Map. Mapquest. Mapquest.com, 2 May 2014. Web. 2 May 2014.
37. Cartoon or comic strip Print:
Artist’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Cartoon” (if available). Cartoon. Title of Periodical. Date or volume. Issue (Year):
Page. Medium.
Addams, Chas. “Small Investor Coming Back.” Cartoon. New Yorker 15 Dec. 1997: Cover. Print.
Online:
Artist’s Last Name, First Name. Cartoon. Publisher. Site Sponsor. Date Posted. Medium. Date of access.
Trudeau, Garry. Cartoon. Uclick.com, 2 May 2014. Web. 4 May 2014.
38. Advertisement
Print:
Product or Company Name. Advertisement. Title of Periodical Publication information (varies). Medium.
Duck Tape. Advertisement. Creating Keepsakes Nov.-Dec. 2013: 13. Print.
Online:
Papercrafts. Advertisement. Creating Keepsakes. Creatingkeepsakes.com, 2 May 2014.Web. 2 May 2014.
TV: Name of Product, Company or Sponsor. Advertisement. Channel Day Month Year of Viewing. Television.
Snap Fix. Angie’s List. Advertisement. HGTV. 13 May 2014. Television.
39. Film or video
In the theater
Title (Italicized). Dir. Director’s First and Last Names. Perf. Lead Actors’ First and Last Names.
Distributor. Year of Release. Medium.
Dead Poets Society. Dir. Peter Weir. Perf. Robin Williams. Touchstone Pictures, 1989. Film.
On DVD or Blu-Ray
Title (Italicized). Dir. Director’s First and Last Names. Perf. Lead Actors’ First and Last Names. Year of Original
Film Release. DVD or Blu-Ray Distributor, Year of DVD or Blu-Ray Release. Medium (DVD or Blu-Ray).
Dead Poets Society. Dir. Peter Weir. Perf. Robin Williams. 1989. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment, 2012. DVD.
Streamed Video
Director’s Last Name, First Name, dir. “Title of Video.” Title of Site (Italicized). Sponsor. Release Date (Year).
Medium. Date of access.
C.K., Louis, dir. “Tomorrow Night.” Buy.LouisCK.net. Louis CK Film Productions, 2013. Web. 2 May 2014.
40. Television or radio broadcast
“Title of Episode.” Radio writer, director, actors. Network Station, City, Day Month Year of Broadcast. Medium.
“Galapagos.” Radiolab. Host Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich. Natl. Public Radio, WNYC, 24 July 2014. Radio.
41. Live performance
Title (Italicized). By Author’s First and Last Names, Supporting Details. Site, City. Date. Medium. The New York Pops 31st Birthday Gala. New York Pops. Stern Auditorium, Carnegie Hall, New York. 28 Apr. 2014.
Performance.
42. Work of art Museum: Artist’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Art. Year. Medium. Institution, City.
Michelangelo. The statue of David. 1504. Marble. The Gallery of the Accademia, Florence.
Print:
O’Keefe, Georgia. Evening Star III. 1917. Watercolor on paper. How Georgia became O’Keefe, Guilford: Pequot Press,
2012. Print. 14
Web:
O’Keefe, Georgia. Portrait of Dorothy Schubart. 1936. Charcoal on paper. Museum of Mod. Art, New York. Web. 11 May
2014.
43. Music recording
Composer or Performer’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Composition. Year of Composition. Publication City: Publisher.
Year of publication. Medium. Series (if applicable).
Park, Ji-Hae. Baroque in Rock. Decca Records, 2013. CD.
Perry, Katy. “Roar.” Prism. Capital Records, 2013. MP3.
44. Lecture or presentation
Last Name, First Name. "Presentation Title." Meeting/Event. Venue, City. Date Conducted. Lecture Type.
Mitra, Sugata. "Build a School in the Cloud." TED2013. Terrace Theater, Long Beach. February
2013. Lecture.
45. Interview Print (published):
Subject’s Last Name, First Name. Interview or “Title of Interview.” Title of Periodical (Italicized).
Date or Volume.Issue (Year): Pages. Medium.
Gates, Bill. “Bill Gates: The Rolling Stone Interview.” Rolling Stone. 27 Mar. 2014: 27-32. Print.
Broadcast:
Subject’s Last Name, First Name. Interview. Title of Program (Italicized). Network. Station, City, Date. Medium.
Graedon, Joe and Terry. Interview. The People’s Pharmacy. NPR. WUNC, Chapel Hill, 3 May 2014. Radio.
Personal:
Peres, Shimon. Personal interview. 20 July 2000.
Formatting the Paper in MLA Style
• Name, title, course:
Unlike APA, MLA does not use an independent title page. Rather, in the upper left corner, include: o Student Name o Instructor Name o Course Title o Date
Be sure to include a title for the paper and center the title on the next line (double-spaced) after the date. Capitalize your paper’s title as you would a book title.
• Page numbers, spacing, margins, indents Include your last name and the page number in the upper right corner of each page. All pages should be numbered consecutively. Double-space the entire paper including the list of works cited. Your paper should also be framed (right, left, top, bottom) with 1-inch margins except for the long quotations (ten additional spaces). Indent the first line of each new paragraph an additional one-half inch). Sample Student Paper:
• Long quotations
Prose Example: In their attempt to report on the uses and abuses of college athletes, Purdy, Eitzen, and Hufnagel assert that:
The anecdotal evidence they provide suggests that while coaches publicly
espouse that their athletes are students first and athletes second, their primary
interest is to keep players eligible by whatever means, including credit for
phantom courses, surrogates for tests, and counseling on which easy courses do
not lead to graduation. These practices are widespread enough to lead some to
conclude that the corruption of academic ideals is endemic in universities with
major sports programs. (439)
When you quote poetry or other verse that has distinct line breaks, maintain those same breaks within your block. Verse Example: In the third stanza of his classic 19th century poem The Symphony, Lanier speaks to our sense of loneliness when he
states:
And then, as when from words that seem rude
We pass to silent pain that sits abrood
Back in our heart’s great dark and solitude,
So sank the strings to gentle throbbing (153)
• Illustrations
Do not overuse illustrations in your composition. Think critically about each illustration you use by asking yourself:
o Is this illustration more effective or informative than my prose? o Does this illustration help me present complex data or information in a readable form? o Does this illustration help me to be more convincing, more credible, or clearer? o Will this illustration provide my reader with a greater appreciation for my paper’s topic or key points?
Once you’ve answered these questions, insert your illustration and assign a label (Table for tables and Fig. for other illustrations) and number (Table 2). For tables, include the label and a title above the table with on separate lines, with any source information or supporting text below the table. Other illustrations should have the label, number, and a brief caption below the illustration (Fig. 5). Unless your caption contains complete source information for the table or figure, cite the table or figure in the text (e.g. in Table 2), and include an entry for it in your list of works cited.
• List of works cited Begin your list of works cited on a new page after the text of your paper. List works alphabetically by author’s last name. Margins should be one inch on each side, and, as with all other pages, include your last name and the page number in the top right corner. The title “Works Cited” should appear centered, one inch below the top.
MLA-Format Example Student Paper: The following research paper is from Ranjitha, a first-year student at UNC, Chapel Hill. Ranjitha wrote this paper for her first-year writing course using the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Seventh Edition.
Ranjitha A***** Dr. Hammer English 105i
19 May 2019
The Exploitation of Student Athletes
Through the ongoing exploitation of the NCAA, college athletes not only produce the revenues
that universities enjoy, but they are also restricted from sharing in the profits generated by their own labors.
Put simply, “colleges and universities profit handsomely from their participation in inter-collegiate athletics”
(Haden 673). As a result, student athletes do not receive the financial benefit of their commodification, even
though they are treated like employees by the universities that profit from their labors. Accordingly, it is unfair
of the NCAA to prohibit college athletes from being paid.
Even though collegiate athletics generates billions for the NCAA and its member colleges, “not a
penny finds its way into the pocket of the student athlete” (Acain 307). As a result, some athletes break
NCAA rules by accepting outside money. Yet according to Coakley, most Americans see college sports in a
“very positive way” (20). Sadly, the NCAA, the very organization that exploits their labor, penalizes these
athletes and diminishes our sense of value of collegiate athletics. In a study performed by the NCAA,
“football and basketball players reported having less money available after expenses than non-athlete
students,” and “58% say the money they had was inadequate” (Goldman 206). This disparity in income
signifies an athlete’s exploitation by further distinguishing an economic class divide between athletes and
the rest of the student body.
Not only are student athletes negatively impacted financially by NCAA rules, but they also lack the
time to focus on academics. Consequently, athletes have a lower graduation rate than the rest of the student
population. Moreover, many athletes never graduate because “they are not directed to pursue any specific
Author’s last name and page number should appear in the top right header of each page
1” Margin
Centered Title
1” M
argi
n
Dou
ble
Spac
e En
tire
Essa
y
Page 1, top left, includes: 1. Student Name 2. Instructor Name 3. Course Title 4. Date
Indent Paragraphs 1/2” or 5 spaces
½ ” Margin
1” M
argi
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A***** 1
degree path” (Sobocinski 257). This lack of formalized direction beyond the playing field demarcates the
hypocrisy of the mission of the NCAA. As a result of this misguidance, athletes are left to flounder within the
academy.
By paying college athletes, the NCAA would help reduce their exploitation and begin to equalize
an athlete’s institutional standing with that of other students. As Goldman explained back in 1989:
It is inequitable that student athletes, who generate millions of dollars
for the university, must scrounge for basic expenses and struggle
through their classes. It is hypocritical for the NCAA to restrict payments
to student athletes when its member universities continue to seek new
ways of increasing revenues, often at the expense of educational
interests.” (207).
The NCAA creates these realities because of its commercial and exploitative
nature. As a result, college athletes are used as pawns, earning money for all
stakeholders except for themselves. For example, football and basketball coaches at
the college level make millions, the university makes millions through lucrative merchandising and
television deals, and the NCAA makes millions annually from its member institutions. Thus, it is unfair for
the NCAA to profit from the very players it restricts.
Naturally, the NCAA sees this situation very differently. The NCAA asserts that student athletes are
paid through the receipt of their scholarships. However, outside of basketball and football, very few
athletes receive full, or even partial scholarships. As a result, the allotment of scholarships creates an
economic disparity between athletes that none are positioned to resist. Yet the NCAA insists that the
“absence of monetary reward for athletic competition is the essential characteristic of NCAA athletics”
(Rush 561). By asserting this need for amateurism, the NCAA is merely protecting its own economic
advantage. As a result, if an athlete gets injured, he or she lacks a financial and academic safety net to fall
back upon. Additionally, since the great majority of college athletes do not end up making a career of their
sport, many leave college both uneducated and penniless. Consequently, by paying athletes, the NCAA (or
its member school) could help to create a financial security net for students.
Quotations that exceed 4 lines should be set off from the main text and indented 1” or 10 spaces
In a quotation that is set off from the main text, the parenthetical source citation comes AFTER the closing punctuation.
The signal phrase verb “explained” appears in past tense when source date appears in text
As a result of the current constraints imposed by the NCAA, when athletes get injured, they are
frequently kicked off their team and lose their scholarship. Yet, the university can profit however it wants
from the athletes. As Abdul-Jabbar suggests, colleges make billions of dollars, but “none of that goes to
the players.” As an example:
Duke University decided during the 1994 college basketball season to
sell sweatsuits bearing the name and likeness of its star player, Grant
Hill. The Duke bookstore never asked Hill’s permission to use his
image, and it never offered to share profits with him. Instead, Hill was
told that, just like any other student, he could have a sweatsuit for
$120. (Edelman 861)
Simply, “[h]e could earn money during the summer” (Edelman 861) and pay for a sweat-suit bearing his
own likeness while profiting only the university. As this example indicates, athletes get no remuneration
while the NCAA makes millions selling the merchandise that bears the student’s name. This disparity in
access to wealth and profit is clearly exploitative. Consequently, many athletes are looking to form support
groups like the “Collegiate Athletes Coalition” (Jenkins 39).
So, why does the NCAA not have to abide by better rules? Or, is no one really enforcing the
rules? While the NCAA does monitor both violations and student progress (National Collegiate Athletic
Association, “Academic Progress Rate Database”), little is done to make sure that the policies are fair.
Consequently, without effective outside monitoring, “student athletes are exploited under policies
established by the National Collegiate Athletic Association” (Mondello and Beckham 293). The hypocrisy
runs deep. For example, the NCAA writes on its website that it is “committed to enforcing the rules”
(“Fairness and Integrity”). Yet it’s the NCAA that makes all the rules. In effect, it’s the fox watching the
henhouse.
By looking at the living conditions of athletes, one sees how deeply NCAA policies work against
the welfare of the very students that it purports to support. As an example, in a recent video interview,
UConn senior guard Shabazz Napier talks about the need for college players to unionize and why he thinks
players should get paid. Napier insists, "Some nights I go to bed starving."
The bracket indicates that the capital “H” was changed to lower case.
Put simply, the NCAA has a stranglehold on its athletes. As Lazaroff suggests, it’s “virtually
impossible” for colleges and universities to have “high-quality” sports programs unless they comply with
the “requirements it promulgates” (329). As a response to this control, athletes are now looking to form
their own institutions to help in combating the NCAA’s influence. Among these organizations, “[t]he
Collegiate Athletics Association (CAC), hopes to prove that student athletes are, at the very least,
employees of the universities for whom they are making these fortunes” and thereby “gain rights and
bargaining powers” for athletes (McCoy and Knox 1051).
In the face of student resistance, the NCAA still “opposes compensation for collegiate athletes in
an effort to preserve the status of amateur athletics” (Mondello and Beckham 293). Yet, according to Byers,
NCAA violations are like “crime cases” (4), suggesting that college sports are just a farce. That is, by
remaining amateurs the athletes can’t get paid and are, in effect, stolen from. So where does all the money
go? Back to the NCAA because it is a “corporate enterprise involving millions of dollars in revenues”
(Mondello and Beckham 293).
As evidence, in support of its own economic gain, the NCAA restricts athletes from entering
professional sports directly out of high school. If the best athletes went straight from high school to the
professional leagues, the NCAA would become delegitimized as a league, costing it revenues through
reduced quality of play. Therefore the NCAA requires the best pre-professional athletes to play at least one
year in college. Motivated financially, the NCAA promotes a form of indentured servitude for elite athletes
while suggesting that it promotes academic excellence. In reality, very few of what the NCAA calls
“444,000 student athletes competing on more than 18,000 teams” (“NCAA Participation Rates Going Up”)
will ever go pro. Yet as fig. 1 suggests, collegiate athletes already receive financial compensation from their
academic institutions in the form of scholarships, housing and board, and books.
Fig.1. In an attempt to demonstrate the sources of payment already open to college athletes,
illustrator Asher Freeman in the Baylor Lariat captures the existing avenues of economic benefit.
Conversely, by prohibiting college athletes from “receiving [formal] compensation, “the NCAA “breed[s]
inequality and exploit[s] the athletes upon whom the universities depend” (Acain 310). Invariably, few of
these athletes find future monetary success. As a result, they end up having wasted four years trying to
develop a sports career with no degree, no job and no meaningful credentials.
After a college football career, many athletes deal with lifelong brain injuries from repeated
concussions; they have debilitating ACL tears and other major injuries. Yet, from the television rights alone
in the late 1990s, the NCAA was set to make “$1.7 billion” (qtd. in Hurst and Pressly 55). Consequently,
many athletes’ careers are ended prematurely due to injuries while the NCAA continues to make
millions from the next eager generation of new recruits. This disparity in equity demonstrates how
the NCAA forces institutionalized exploitation upon college athletes. Simply, as George Dohrmann
aptly stated in his 2011 SI.com article, “[t]he mission of our universities is to educate, but college sports is
big business.”
A citation from a source that was cited from another source
Works Cited
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem. “Web Exclusive: Should Athletes Be Paid?” CNN Crossfire. CNN,
21 Mar. 2014. Web. 16 May 2014.
Acain, Michael P. "Revenue Sharing: A Simple Cure for the Exploitation of College Athletes."
Loyola of Los Angeles Entertainment Law Journal 18 (1997): 307-59. Print.
Byers, Walter. Unsportsmanlike Conduct: Exploiting College Athletes. Ann Arbor: U
Michigan P, 1997. Print.
Coakley, Jay. “Sports in Society: An Aspiration or an Opiate?” Sport in Contemporary Society:
An Anthology. 6th ed. Ed. D. Stanley Eitzen. New York: Worth, 2001. 20-33. Print.
Dohrmann, George, “Pay for Play.” SI.com. Time Inc., 7 Nov. 2011. Web.
18 Jan. 2014.
Edelman, Marc. "Reevaluating Amateurism Standards in Men's College Basketball." University of Michigan
Journal of Law Reform 35.4 (2002): 861-77. Print.
Goldman, Lee. "Sports and Antitrust: Should College Students Be Paid to Play?" Notre Dame Law Review
65.2 (1989): 206-61. Print.
Haden, Christopher W. "Foul! the Exploitation of the Student-Athlete: Student-Athletes Deserve
Compensation for Their Play in the College Athletic Arena." Journal of Law and Education 30.4
(2001): 673-81. Print.
Hurst, Thomas, and J. Grier Pressly. “Payment of Student-Athletes: Legal & Practical
Obstacles." Villanova Sports and Entertainment Law Journal 7.1 (2000): 55. WorldCat. Web. 2 May
2014.
Freeman, Asher. “NCAA Athletes Shouldn’t Get Paid.” Cartoon. baylorlariat.com. Baylor University, 22
Nov. 2013. Web. 22 Jan. 2014.
1” margin and centered title “Works Cited” on new page
½” hanging indent
Text is double spaced
Centered
Jenkins, Marc. "United Student-Athletes of America: Should College Athletes Organize in Order to Protect
Their Rights and Address the Ills of Intercollegiate Athletics?" Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment
Law & Practice 5 (2002): 39-45. Print.
Lazaroff, Daniel E. "NCAA in Its Second Century: Defender of Amateurism or Antitrust
Recidivist?" Oregon Law Review 86 (2007): 329-71. Print.
McCoy, Nathan, and Kerry Knox. "Flexing Union Muscle—Is It the Right Game Plan for Revenue
Generating Student-Athletes in Their Contest for Benefits Reform with the NCAA."
Tennessee Law Review 69 (2001) 1051-1084. Print.
Mondello, Michael J., and Joseph Beckham. "Workers' Compensation and Collegiate Athletes:
The Debate over the Pay for Play Model: A Counterpoint." Journal of Law & Education 31 (2002):
293-303. Print.
Napier, Shabazz. “Some Nights I Go to Bed Starving.” Interview. YouTube.com. Fox Sports, 27 Mar. 2014.
Web. 20 April 2014.
National Collegiate Athletic Association. “Academic Progress Rate Database.” NCAA.org. Natl. Collegiate
Athletics Assn., n. d. Web. 16 Jan. 2014
---. “NCAA Participation Rates Going Up.” NCAA.org. Natl. Collegiate Athletic Assn., 2 Nov. 2011. Web. 4
Mar. 2014.
---. “Fairness and Integrity.” NCAA.org. Natl. Collegiate Athletic Assn.,n. d. Web. 18 Jan. 2014
Sobocinski, Eric J. "College Athletes: What Is Fair Compensation?" Marquette Sports Law Journal 7 (1996):
257-94. Print.
Rush, Sharon Elizabeth. "Touchdowns, Toddlers, and Taboos: On Paying College Athletes and
Surrogate Contract Mothers." Arizona Law Review 31.3 (1989): 549-614. Print.
Chapter 20 - APA Documentation Style Categories APA format refers to the style preferences detailed in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Sixth Edition. Directory of Source Types For each of your sources, use this directory to look up the appropriate format for in-text citations and entries in the list of references.
APA IN-TEXT CITATIONS
• Author indicated in signal phrase
• Author indicated in parentheses
• Source with two authors
• Work by three to five authors
• Source with more than six authors
• Two or more works by the same author
published in the same year
• Two or more authors with the same last name
• Work by an unknown author
• Work by organization or agency
• Two or more works cited in the same
parentheses
• Work by a secondary source
• Personal communication (emails, letters,
personal interviews)
• Source without page numbers
• Entire work
______________________________________________________________ APA REFERENCES LIST Books:
• Book by a single author
• Co-authored book
• Two or more works by the same author
• Unknown author
• Corporation, organization, or government
agency as author
• Translation
• Author and editor
• Work in an anthology or edited collection
• Article in a reference work
• Later edition of a book
• Dissertation or thesis
• Multivolume work
Periodicals
• Article in a journal with continuous
pagination
• Article in a journal paginated by issue
• Article from an online journal
• Article in a magazine
• Article in a newspaper
• Article with an unknown author
• Letter to the editor
• Book review
• Interview
Other Online and Electronic Sources
1. Entire Website
2. Document from a website
3. Online forum or discussion board posting
4. Blog entry
5. Wiki entry
6. E-mail message
7. Computer software
Multimedia Sources
• Audio recording
• Podcast
• Television or radio program
• Film, video, or DVD recording
• Online video
APA In-Text Citations
Below are the most common forms of in-text citations that you will use when writing a college-level paper. Refer to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Sixth Edition for further clarification. 1. Author indicated in the text with a signal phrase
A “signal phrase” mentions (or “signals”) the author’s name in the text before the citation. If you quote directly within a signal phrase, give the page number immediately following the quotation.
Seligman (1992) established that children’s self-esteem is a “meter” (p. 22) by which to judge their optimism.
*When you paraphrase, APA encourages providing the page number but does not require it.
2. Author indicated in parentheses
If you don’t mention the author in a signal phrase, you must still provide the author’s name, followed
by a comma and the publication year, in parentheses. Place the parentheses as close as possible to
your summary, quote, or paraphrase and before the period.
Children’s self-esteem is a “meter” by which to judge their optimism (Seligman, 1992, p. 22).
3. Source with two authors
If you’re citing a reference that has two authors, mention both names. If you are using a signal phrase, then use “and” to connect the two names.
Hill and Crevola (1999, p. 1) suggest that there are immediate needs for improving students’ learning.
If there is no signal phrase for the authors’ names then use the “&” symbol within the parentheses.
In consideration of how to reform education, one must look at how change has been “imposed on teachers” (Hargreaves
& Evans, 1997, p. 3).
4. Work by three to five authors
If you’re citing a text with three to five authors, then list each of the names only in the first reference to the citation. In each subsequent reference to the source use the Latin term et al. (not italicized), meaning “and others,” after the first author’s name.
• Carnoy, Hallak, and Caillod (1999) have asserted that the scope of education has been broadened (p. 5).
• Carnoy et al. (1999, p. 6) suggest that curricular changes imply that we should move beyond traditional
doctrines of education.
5. Source with more than six authors
Follows the rules as above, but name only the first author in the text. Follow the first author’s name with et
al.
6. Two or more works by the same author published in the same year If you are citing two or more works by the same author that each published in the same year, then order the sources in the References section alphabetically by title. Then, in the text, add lower-case letters to the year (beginning with “a”) to signify which source you are citing. Jacobs (2002a) emphasizes how students’ varying levels of optimism can alter anxiety in the classroom.
7. Two or more authors with the same last name When you cite two or more single-authored texts, the authors of which share the same last name, include each author’s first initial in your in-text citations to differentiate the authors’ works. There are no ennobled “good old days” when it comes to schools (P. Schlechty, 2003, p. 3).
8. Work by an unknown author. Some sources, like dictionaries, encyclopedias, and web content, might not list the author’s name. In these occasions, substitute the title of the work (Italicized) for the author’s name.
The Oxford English Dictionary (1989) defines a “ceiling” as a liner for a roof or walls (227).
9. Work by an agency or organization When citing an organization or agency for the first time, reference the entity in either the signal phrase or parentheses by its full name. If the organization has a widely known abbreviation (e.g., FBI), include that with the full name of the organization at the first citation. In subsequent citations, use only the abbreviation. If the name of the organization appears in the parentheses is the first citation, use square brackets around the abbreviation (see #13 for an example).
The American Psychological Association (APA, 2010) recommends rules for formatting tables for clarity (p. 141).
10. Two or more works cited in the same parentheses
When you cite two or more works by different authors in the same parentheses, order the citations
alphabetically and separate them with semicolons. Be sure that these authors’ names are ordered as they appear in the list of references.
Beginning with onset of the Internet, several studies (Bergman, 2013; Spellings, 2006) have linked students’ web
access with greater enjoyment of school.
11. Work by a secondary source
When using a source quoted in another source, include “as cited in” within your parentheses.
Foucault suggests that schools substitute “true knowledge” for a form of hierarchy that subjugates learners (as cited in
Ball, 1994, p.3).
12. Personal communications (emails, letters, personal interviews)
When you cite any discussion, comment, or other form of personal communication, start citing in
parentheses with the term “personal communication” followed by a comma and the date (month, day, and
year). Do not include personal communications in your list of references because your readers cannot look
them up.
(S. Peres, personal communication, July 20, 2000)
13. Source without page numbers (e.g., multimedia)
If a source (such as an online article) does not use page numbers, refer when possible to a formatting structure (e.g. headers) or paragraph numbers as reference points.
Education is among the most vital investments in the American economy. (Department of Education [DOE], 2014, para.
2).
14. Entire work
Print: When you cite a general concept or idea that is spread throughout an entire printed work, there
is no need to give a page number.
Goodlad (1992) suggests that our future teachers are not fully prepared to teach.
Web: When citing an entire website, provide the home page URL in parentheses, but do not include
the source in your list of references.
The US Department of Education is now focused on addressing the new “reach higher” initiative (http://www.ed.gov).
APA References List
An APA references list offers your readers full bibliographic details for EVERY source referenced within your text with the exceptions of entire websites (URL address appears in the text) and personal communications (noted in the text). For an example of a complete reference list, see the student sample at the end of this chapter.
Citing Books Below is an example of where to find the necessary information for compiling your works cited when quoting from a book. Book: Author, Author’s First and Middle Initials. (Year of publication). Title of work: Subtitle of work
Publication City, State: Publisher.
O’Grady, P. (2013). Positive psychology in the elementary school classroom. New York, NY: Norton.
Title
Author
For all books included in your list of references, provide the following information.
• Author Names: Replace the author’s first name with his or her first initial (and include the middle initials if any. Example: Audrey F. Echt becomes Echt, A. F.
• Date of Publication: If a text has seen many editions or printings, simply list the most recent date of publication. If no date of publication is available, list n.d.
• Title: Capitalize the first word of all titles and subtitles, as well as any proper nouns and proper adjectives.
• City of Publication: If more than one city of publication is listed in your source, include the first. If published outside the US, provide the city, a comma, and then the country. Example: (Paris, France). For publications within the US, provide the city, a comma, and abbreviated state name. Examples: (New York, NY or Cleveland, OH). State name abbreviations are all caps.
• Name of Publisher: Provide full names for academic presses. Examples: Oxford University Press, Teachers College Press, and Harvard Educational Review all retain their full press names. Shorten names of other publishers by removing words like Publishers, Company, and Inc., and use only the last name for publishers named for people (W. W. Norton becomes Norton). Keep Books and Press in publisher names. When the author and publisher are the same (see entry 5), put Author.
• DOI: DOI stands for (Digital Object Identifier). DOIs are unique numbers of four or more digits that are assigned to identify electronic content. A DOI helps identify the content listed in your reference section by providing a consistent link to the content’s location online. If there is no DOI for an online source, include the home page URL. Include the retrieval date only for content that has no publication date or that may change (such as a wiki entry).
Copyright Year Publisher and Publication City
1. Book by a single author
Print: Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of publication). Title. Publication City, State
(abbreviated) or Country: Publisher.
O’Grady, P. (2013). Positive psychology in the elementary school classroom. New York, NY: Norton.
eBook: Author’s Last Name, First Name. (Year). Title. DOI or Retrieved from URL
Reddy, O. C. (2010). The Court and the constitution of India: Summit and shallows.
doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198066286.001.0001
2. Book by more than one author
2-7 authors
First Author’s Last Name, Initials, next Author’s Last Name, Initials, each additional Author’s Last Name, Initials, & final
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of publication). Title. Publication City, State or Country: Publisher.
Lieberman, A., & Miller, L. (1999). Teachers—transforming their world and their work: The series on school reform. New
York, NY: Teachers College Press.
More than 7 authors
First Author’s Last Name, Initials, next Author’s Last Name, Initials, each of four additional Authors’ Last Name, Initials, …
final Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of publication). Title. Publication City, State (abbreviated) or Country:
Publisher.
Groden, J., Thliveris, A., Samowitz, W., Carlson, M., Gelbert, L., Albertsen, H., . . . &White, R. (1991). Identification and
characterization of the familial adenomatous polyposis coli gene. Cell, 66(3), 589–600.
3. Two or more works by the same author
• Different years: List chronologically.
Giroux, H. A. (1983). Theory and resistance in education: A pedagogy for the opposition. South Hadley, MA: Bergin &
Garvey.
Giroux, H. A. (2012). Border crossings: Cultural workers and the politics of education. New York, NY: Routledge.
• Same year: List alphabetically by title. Add lowercase letters to the year, starting with “a”.
Giroux, H. A. (1988a). Schooling and the struggle for public life: Critical pedagogy in the modern age. Minneapolis, MN:
University of Minnesota Press.
Giroux, H. A. (1988b). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward a critical pedagogy of learning. Westport, CT: Greenwood
Publishing Group.
4. Unknown author
The Chicago Manual of Style (16th ed.). (2010). Chicago, IL: U of Chicago P.
5. Corporation, organization, or government agency as author
*In this example, the author and publisher are the same.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education. (2012). Take charge of your future: Get the
education and training you need. Washington, DC: Author.
6. Translation
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of publication). Title. (Translator’s Initials. Last Name, Trans.). Publication
City, State or Country: Publisher. (Original work publication year).
Schwarz-Bart, A. (1960). The last of the just. (S. Becker, Trans.). New York, NY: The Overlook Press. (1959)
7. Author and editor
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of edited edition). Title. (Editor’s Initials Last Name,
Ed.). Publication City, State or Country: Publisher. (Original work publication year)
Eliott, T. S. (1988). T. S. Eliot: The poems. (M. Scofield, Ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. (Original works
published 1909–1962)
8. Work in an anthology or edited collection
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of publication). Title of article or chapter. In Editor’s Initials Last
Name (Ed.), Title (pp. pages). Publication City, State or Country: Publisher.
Anson. C. (2014). Process pedagogy and its legacy. In G. Tate, A. Taggart, K. Schick, & H. Hessler (Eds.), A guide to
composition pedagogies (pp. 212–230). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
9. Article in a reference work
Hesling, R. M., Anderson, C. A., & Russell, D. W. (2002). Attribution styles. In Rocio Fernandez-Ballesteros (Ed.),
Encyclopedia of psychological assessment (pp. 116–120). London, UK: Sage.
10. Later edition of a book
Longmore, M., Wilkinson, I., Baldwin, A., & Wallin, E. (2014). Oxford handbook of clinical medicine (9th ed.). Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press.
11. Dissertation or thesis
Unpublished: Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year). Title of dissertation (Unpublished doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis). Name of
Institution, Location.
Hammer, B. (2000). Inside out: A crisis of academic identity, place, and hope (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
Columbia University, New York, NY.
Published: Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year). Title of dissertation or thesis (Doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis). Retrieved from
Name of database. (Accession or Order Number)
Hammer, B. (1992). Charismatic leadership and appeal in early hasidism. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations and Theses database. (ID: 9305977)
12. Multivolume Work:
One volume of a multivolume work
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of publication). Title of entire work (Vol. number). Publication City, State or Country:
Publisher.
Dubofsky, M., & Boyer, P. (2013). The Oxford encyclopedia of American business, labor, and economic history. (Vol. 1).
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
More than one volume
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of publication). Title (Vols. numbers). Publication City, State or Country: Publisher.
Dubofsky., M. & Boyer, P. (2013). The Oxford encyclopedia of American business, labor, and economic history. (Vols. 1–
2). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Citing Periodicals
Include the following in your list of references.
• Author Names: Use the same guidelines as for books (page). • Date of Publication: The year of publication goes in parentheses. • Article Title: Capitalize the first word of all titles and subtitles, as well as any proper nouns and
proper adjectives. Do not surround titles with quotation marks. • Journal Name: Italicize and provide a after a journal name. Capitalize all words in journal names
except for articles, coordinating conjunctions, and prepositions. • Publication Data: Italicize the volume number followed by a comma if there is no issue number. If
there is an issue number, place it in parentheses after the volume number, with a comma after the parentheses. Provide page numbers for an article when available.
• DOI: DOI stands for (Digital Object Identifier). DOIs are unique numbers of four or more digits that are assigned to identify electronic content.
Journal article:
Kempt, C. (2007). Strategic processing in grammar learning: Do multilinguals use
more strategies? International Journal of Multilingualism, 4, 241-261. doi:10.2167/ijm099.0
Note: If you have trouble finding a DOI for your citation, you can look it up at: www.crossref.org. If there is no DOI, use the URL of the journal’s home page 13. An article in a journal with paginated by volume (continuous pagination)
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume, pages.
Title of the Journal:
Title of the Article:
Title of the Article and Author
Volume and Publication Date
Page #:
Hatton, N., & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching and
Teacher Education, 11, 33–49.
14. Article in a journal paginated by issue
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume (issue), pages.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–
23.
15. Article from an online journal
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume (issue), pages. DOI or Retrieved from URL
(home page)
Warzecka, Z. (2013, Fall). Lost in translation: Emplacement, disruption and digital videography. Computers and
Composition Online. Part I. Retrieved from http://www2.bgsu.edu/departments/english/cconline/
Hallinan, M. T., & Khmelkov, V. T. (2001). Recent developments in teacher education in the United States of America.
Journal of Education for Teaching: International Research and Pedagogy, 27(2), 175–
185.doi:10.1080/02607470120067918
16. An article in a magazine
If the magazine is weekly, include the day and month; if it is monthly, include only the month.
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Magazine, volume (issue when available), page(s).
Keefe, P. R. (2014, May 5). The hunt for El Chapo. The New Yorker, 90 (11), 48–56.
17. An article in a newspaper
When an article appears in print with consecutive page numbers, separate the page numbers within the
citation with a dash. For articles that are on discontinuous pages, use a comma. For web-based articles,
end with the home page URL.
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, p. page(s) or home page URL.
Print:
Thomas, K. (2014, May 14). Doubts raised about off-label use of a painkiller. The New York Times, p. B1.
Online: Richtel, M. (2014, May 4). Some e-cigarettes deliver a puff of carcinogens. The New York Times. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com
18. An article with an unknown author
Title of article. date. Volume(issue), page(s).
Raleighites: Adventure bound. (2014, May). Walter, 70–77.
19. Letter to the editor
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Date of Publication). Title of letter [Letter to the editor]. Title of Periodical, volume(issue),
page(s) or home page URL.
Stanford, D. (2014, April 24). Deborah Brooks is an excellent candidate [Letter to the editor]. The Daily Tarheel. Retrieved
from http://www.dailytarheel.com
20. Editorial in a newspaper
Author’s Last Name, Initials. Title of Editorial. [Editorial]. (Date of Publication). Title of
Periodical, page(s)
Parker, K. A twist in the so-called “war on women.” [Editorial]. (2014, October 3). Indianapolis Star, p. A13
21. Book review
Reviewer’s Last Name, Initials. (Date of Publication). Title of review [Review of the book Title of
book by Author’s Initial(s), Last Name]. Title of Periodical, volume(issue), page(s) or home page URL.
Wood, G. (2014, May 1). American architect. [Review of the book James Madison, by L. Cheney]. The New York Times,
Sunday Book Review. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
22. Interview Do not include your personal interviews in your reference list. Simply cite them in the text; see the section
on in-text citations (page). Treat published interviews like articles.
Citing Other Online and Electronic Sources
Be sure that all online content listed in your references section contains the following information.
• Author names, institution, foundation, association, society, or organization: Many documents and other content on the web do not provide clear authorship. When you are able to find an author, use the same format as you would with books listed above. When no author is listed, look for the name of a sponsoring institution, foundation, association, society, or organization. If neither an author nor organization is identified, then begin your reference with the site’s title.
• Titles: Cite a website like a journal title and the page within the site like an article title. • Date of Publication: If either the date produced or date revised is listed then include this
information; otherwise, include n.d. (not italicized).. Most professional organizations will list a date or at least a year at the bottom of the page (see example). When it is available, list this information as month, day, year. If you are citing a web version of an academic journal or other materials unlikely to be revised, then no retrieved date is necessary. If the site is likely to change (e.g., a wiki), then provide a retrieved date as month, day, year.
• URL: Include the entire URL exactly as it appears in your browser. If the address exceeds one line then break the address before most punctuation. Do not insert a period at the end of a URL.
Article or short work on a Web site
Kottasova, I. (2014, September 30). WWF: World has lost more than half its wildlife in 40 years. CNN.com. Retrieved
September 30, 2014, from http://www.cnn.com/2014/09/30/business/wild-life-decline-wwf/index.html
23. Entire Web site
Do not cite an entire website in your references list. Include the URL in parentheses in an in-text citation.
24. Document from a website
Written by author:
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Date of Publication). Title of document. Site Title. DOI or Retrieved Month Day Year (if
necessary), from URL
Kottasova, I. (2014, September 30). WWF: World has lost more than half its wildlife in 40 years. CNN.com. Retrieved
September 30, 2014, from http://www.cnn.com/2014/09/30/business/wild-life-decline-wwf/index.html
Written by organization
URL
Title of Site
Date of Publication
Author
Name of Organization. (Date of Publication). Title of document. Site Title. DOI or Retrieved Month Day Year (if
necessary), from URL
US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014, January 8). Actuaries. Occupational Outlook Handbook.
Retrieved September 30, 2014, from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/math/actuaries.htmp
25. Posting to a public online forum or discussion board
Only include an online posting that your reader (or any member of the public) can retrieve.
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year, Month, Day). Subject line of message. [Descriptive label]. Retrieved Month
Day Year, from URL
Dolva, J. (2014, August 22). Should Twitter, Facebook and Google executives be the arbiters of what we see and read?
[Online forum comment]. Retrieved September 30, 2014, from
http://educationforum.ipbhost.com/index.php?showtopic=21343
26. Blog post
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year, Month Day). Title of post. [Web log post]. Retrieved from URL
Winkler, K. (2014, January 28). Digital language death: How the Internet is killing languages [Web log post]. Retrieved
from http://www.kirstenwinkler.com/digital-language-death-internet-killing-languages/
27. Wiki entry
As with online articles, if an entry can be found easily by searching from the home page, use the home
page URL.
Title of entry. (Year, Month Day). Retrieved Month Day, Year, from Title of wiki: URL
Cancer: Stories, support and information. (2014, March 20). Retrieved May 2, 2014, from wikiCancer:
http://www.wikicancer.org
28. E-mail message
APA considers e-mail messages to be personal communication. Therefore, do not include them in your
references list. Cite email messages in the text itself.
29. Computer software
APA does not require you to cite common software applications (such as Microsoft Word) or
programming languages (such as javascript). Do cite specialized software and online
downloadable programs; include the version and year when available.
Adobe Flash Player (Version 13.0.0.206) [Computer software]. (2014). Available from http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer/
Citing Multimedia Sources
30. Audio recording
Composer Last Name, Initials. (Year). Composition title. [Recorded by Artist (if different than composer)]. On Title of
Recording. [Format] City: Label.
U2. (1987). Where the streets have no name. On The Joshua Tree [MP3 file]. London, U.K.: Island.
31. Podcast
Last Name, Initials (Producer, Host, Writer, or Similar). (Date produced or posted). Title of episode. Title of Podcast
[Audio podcast]. Retrieved from URL
Glass, I. (Host). (2014, May 2). I was so high. This American life [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from
http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives
32. A television or radio program
Writer’s Last Name, Initials, (Writer), & Director’s Last Name, Initials (Director). (Year). Title of episode [Descriptive label].
In Producer’s Initials Last Name (Producer), Series Title. City, State or Country: Network.
Gillian, V. (Writer & Director). (2008). Pilot [Television series episode]. In Moore, K. (Producer), Breaking Bad.
Albuquerque, NM: AMC.
33. Film, video, DVD, or Blu-ray recording
Last Name, Initials, (Producer), & Last Name, Initials (Director). (Year). Title [Motion picture or DVD or Blu-ray]. Country:
Studio.
Marvin, N. (Producer), & Darabont, F. (Director). (1994). The Shawshank redemption [Motion picture]. USA: Castle Rock
Entertainment.
34. An online video
Last Name, Initials, (Writer), & Last Name, Initials (Producer). (Year, Month Day Posted). Title [Video file]. Retrieved from
URL
C.K., L. (Writer & Producer). (1998, Jan 23). Tomorrow night [Video file]. Retrieved from buy.louisck.net
Formatting the Paper in APA Style
• Title page APA doesn’t provide specific guidelines for title pages for undergraduate courses. Ask your instructor about what to include. Typically, the following elements appear (centered on the page):
1. The complete title of your paper 2. Your name 3. Your class and section number 4. Your instructor’s name 5. The date
• Running head This is a shortened version of your title that appears in all capitals at the top of each page. On only the first page, it is preceded by the words “Running head” and a colon.
• Abstract An abstract is a concise synopsis of your paper that introduces the topic and includes key terms. You might start with a brief introduction of what you studied or learned and detail any key findings or results. Keep it short (under 250 words), and start it on page 2, double spaced, with the centered title, “Abstract.” • Page numbers, spacing, margins, and indents: Starting on the first page, put page numbers in the upper right-hand corner. Number each page consecutively. Double-space the entire paper (including the section titled “References,” which appears at the end of the paper with the title “References” centered). Do not justify text. Leave one-inch margins on all four sides of the paper. Indent the first word of each paragraph one-half inch (five to seven spaces) from the left margin. Use two spaces after end-of-sentence punctuation.
• Headings Headings are not mandated by APA, but they can help you to distinguish the sections of your paper. Capitalize, center, and bold your top-level headings. Second-level headings should be bold and aligned with the left margin. Third-level headings should be bold and indented, with the first letter and proper nouns capitalized. End third-level headings with a period.
Example:
Psychological Therapies in Primates
Psychosis in the South American Marmoset Treatments for schizoaffective disorder.
• Long quotations: Typically, writers should avoid using long quotations. However, when it’s absolutely necessary to use a quotation longer than forty words, indent five to seven spaces from the left margin. Do not use quotation marks. Give page numbers (in parentheses) after the final punctuation mark in the quotation. Example:
Maestripieri & Roni (2005) suggest that like human psychological development, primate development is:
seen as a series of successive stages, each with its own problems requiring a specific solution, and without
any endpoint to be reached. Individuals of divergent ages are seen as occupying divergent social and
ecological niches and exhibiting adaptations to them similar to those of adult individuals living in divergent
environments. (p. 121)
Yet the question of how these similarities arose genetically is still left unanswered by the current research.
• Illustrations
Tables: Above each table, give the table number (e.g., “Table 1”), and, on the following line, a descriptive header. Below the table, include a note regarding the source. Figures: All other visuals (charts, images, graphs) are considered figures. Below each figure, give the figure number (“Figure 1,” italicized). Then give the figure’s title (a descriptive phrase), followed by any additional explanation your readers will need to understand the figure. End the caption with a note regarding the source. The numbering of figures and tables follows separate sequences.
Figure 1. Social interactions between primates. Adapted from “Spontaneous prosocial choice by chimpanzees” by V. Horner et al., 2011. Retrieved from the National Academy of Sciences database: http://www.pnas.org
• List of references: At the end of your paper, start your references on a new page with the centered heading “References” at the top. Double space all entries and indent the second line of each entry five spaces. Alphabetize the references by the first element, which is usually the name of the author or editor. When no author, editor or key contributor appears, alphabetize by title (except for titles that start with an article: A, The, An).
APA-Format Example Student Paper: The Review of the Literature essay below is by Shannon, a student at UNC, Chapel Hill. Shannon sought to learn whether any existing research supported her hypothesis that, as a student’s optimism increased, so would his or her educational achievement. Shannon’s paper follows the guidelines given by the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Sixth Edition.
Running head: OPTIMISM IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CLASSROOM 1
Optimism in the Elementary School Classroom
Shannon W******
English 400
Professor Hammer
April 25, 2019
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
½” margin for running head and page #
Running head (top left) and page number (top right) should appear on each page
Page 1, centered: 5. Paper title 6. Student name 7. Course title and section 8. Instructor name 9. Date 10. School
Double-space and skip one line
Abstract
This project examines the work of Albert Ellis, the positivist psychologist who championed the ABC
model of learned optimism. This model suggests that the acquisition of joy is a learned talent and that
, like any talent, joy can be both taught and learned. For Ellis, the goal was to demonstrate that optimism, similar to joy,
could be taught to third grade students, who traditionally experience a decline in self-confidence regarding their
academic ability. This essay also draws upon the studies of Martin Seligman and E. J. Stipeck, who examined the effects
of positive psychology programs implemented within elementary school curricula. Most previous studies of optimism
have focused on the effects of these programs in decreasing pessimism in K-12 students. However, this paper reports on
studies that employ the Children’s Attributional Style Questionnaire to explain how the Ellis ABC model builds students’
optimism.
Keywords: Optimism, Ellis ABC Model, Education
Abstract begins on page #2 and heading is centered 1” M
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Keywords may be listed when appropriate for the assignment
Optimism in the Elementary School Classroom
In 1993 it was reported that nearly 20% of youth experience an episode of clinical depression by the end of
high school (Lewinsohn, Rhode, Seeley, & Fischer). Because of this spike, which was almost ten times the reported rate of
fifty years prior, there has been an increased emphasis on positive psychology in the classroom. This focus is an attempt
by psychologists to reverse an emotional trend that diminishes student learning. To be clear, optimism does not mean
that students are cheerful; rather, it is a way of reacting to setbacks by acknowledging one’s personal power in an
educational setting. An optimistic outlook would emphasize that obstacles are impermanent and the individual is able to
overcome them though personal effort. According to Patty O’Grady (2013), author of Positive Psychology in the
Elementary School Classroom, “the optimistic brain works to reduce tension by remaking the actual outcome and
persuading itself that it was the best choice or result” (p. 48).
Research by Dr. Robert Seligman, a forerunner on the theories surrounding optimism, has demonstrated that
optimism is not a genetic gift. Seligman first investigated optimism as part of his work with learned helplessness. He
wrote of his research, “When I first began to work on learned optimism, I thought I was working on pessimism” (2006, p.
iii). As part of this initial work, he conducted experiments on dogs’ reactions to shock. While at first the dogs attempted
to avoid the negative stimulus by jumping over a barrier, they later accepted the shock and whimpered. However,
Seligman’s research on the ability of humans to learn pessimism led him to conclude that optimism is similarly learnable.
He argued that people can learn to create channels to turn their thoughts from pessimism to optimism. But Seligman
(2002) also argued that while we can learn to choose optimism, it is not necessarily a “positive emotion” (p. 7) but rather
an intellectual position.
A specific example of how this form of optimism can be learned is provided by Albert Ellis’ ABC theory. This
model maintains that individuals react dissimilarly to the same event based on their discrete perceptions. According to
Ellis, it is not the activating event (A) but the beliefs we attach to the event (B) that determine its consequences (C) in the
form of our emotions and behaviors (as cited in Seligman, Ernst, Gillham, Reivich, & Linkins, 2009). For students, learning
to be resilient alters “engagement and meaning” with learning (Seligman et al., 2009, p. 293). Consequently, as Ellis
suggests, an individual can learn a set of internal skills to process setbacks. Through these self-directed thought
processes, the person changes beliefs from pessimistic to optimistic and thus alters the consequences of the misfortunes
being faced.
Title is centered
1” m
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1” margin
The body of the paper is double spaced
Indent each para- graph 1/2 “
1” m
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Whether a learned behavior or not, optimism is important within the classroom because of its positive effects
on the ability of students to learn (Eccles, Wigfield, Harold, & Blumenfeld, 1993; Hoy, Tarter, & Hoy, 2006). In regard to
educational policy, positive psychology, specifically optimism, frequently falls by the wayside because researchers are
often concerned about the lack of empirical evidence for most programs to promote traits like optimism (Seligman et
al., 2009). However, solid research supports the value of implementing policy aimed at increasing optimism in schools.
According to O’Grady (2013), “positive psychology programs increase children’s readiness, willingness, ability to learn,
and overall well-being” (p. 28). Simply,
there is a growing convergence in the literature about the importance of social and relational
constructs such as children’s sense of relatedness (Connell, 1990), belongingness (Goodenow, 1993),
caring community (Battistich, Solomon, Watson, & Schaps, 1997), perceived pedagogical caring
(Wentzel, 1998), or positive teacher–child relationship (Pianta, 1999) as contributors to school
success. (Baker, 2006, p. 212)
With these contributions to student success in mind, the question arises of how to determine and measure a
student’s optimism. The most widely known test for learned optimism is the Attributional Style Questionnaire. It assesses
respondents by forcing them to choose causes for hypothetical events. The test traditionally contains 12 hypothetical
actions, half being positive and half being negative. As described in the Encyclopedia of Psychological Assessment,
“Events are further divided into an equal number of interpersonal and achievement contexts. The perceived cause of
each event is rated along the dimensions of locus, stability, and globality using seven-point scales” (Hesling, Anderson,
& Russell, 2002, p. 116). The individual score for each category can then be determined. A measure for children has also
been developed by Seligman in 1984 and is known as the Children’s Attributional Style Questionnaire. This test includes
48 items, and the responding children choose between two possible causes for the event (Hesling et al., 2002).
Previous Evaluations and Findings
A number of studies have examined levels of optimism in the classroom. Beginning with our understanding of
the future of schooling in America, a U.S. Department of Education report (2006) helped us understand the need to
examine best practices for building our children’s competences. According to research focusing on children’s self-
perception, most children’s perception of their own competence begins somewhat unrealistically high before entering
into K-12 school and becomes more accurately correlated to their actual level of competence as they advance across the
school years. There is a decline in this self-perceived competence level around the middle of elementary school. While
kindergarten children accurately perceive the relative competence levels of peers, a lack of accurate self-perception
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remains prominent until about age eight (Stipeck & Tannatt, 1984). While Stipeck and Tannatt (1984) recorded a
decline in children’s optimism as the children advance, Evangelou (1990) also noted that the decline is not uniform
within grade levels. This suggests that internal, individual-specific factors may contribute to the amount of
optimism a student perceives.
An especially famous program focused on decreasing depression in school-aged children is the Penn
Resiliency Project. This is an intervention program designed to prevent depression in adolescents between the ages of 8
and 15. According to Seligman, “Penn Resiliency Program promotes optimism by teaching students to think more
realistically and flexibly about the problems they encounter” (Seligman et al., 2009, p. 297). The effects of this program
have been analyzed by at least 17 studies. According to the studies focusing on symptoms of depression, there was a
decreased feeling of hopelessness as the children progressed from age 8 to 15 in the program (Brunwasser & Gillham,
2008). On average the effects of the Penn Resiliency Project were relatively small, but it did seem to promote positive
emotions and produce improvements in students’ well-being (Seligman et al., 2009).
Conclusion
By reading each of these past studies, I have seen how an adoption of the Ellis ABC Model of learned
optimism can influence both self-perceptions of achievement as well as actual academic achievement outcomes inside
an elementary school classroom. However, these studies do not yet answer some essential questions. These include:
1. Can optimism be taught and learned as predicted by Seligman and Ellis?
2. How does an understanding of Ellis’s ABC Model of thinking increase optimism levels in elementary school?
3. Can learned optimism, when introduced in advanced grades, still offset declines in optimism traditionally seen
at advanced student ages? Lastly,
4. How does an understanding of learned optimism affect academic outcomes?
To understand and address these questions, we can examine Figure 1 from Adams’s (2014). In this illustration, it
becomes clear that optimism in the classroom is a social construction. And, throughout my review of past research, it
also becomes clear that the “trust” that Adams’s image offers is built by teachers through their interactions with
students, the development of their assignment, and the students’ complex relationships with teachers, their appointed
work, and the structures of schooling.
Author names are included in the signal phrase when the source has fewer than six authors.
Signal phrases use past tense
Figure 1. Social construction of collective trust in the classroom. The figure helps educators understand how “trust,”
developed through assignments and made concrete through learning outcomes, becomes a pivotal factor in
understanding how students develop optimism in the elementary school classroom. From Collective student trust: A
social resource for urban elementary students. Educational Administration Quarterly, 50(1), (p. 138).
The list of references begins on its own page after the essay
Italicized
References
Adams, C. M. (2014). Collective student trust: A social resource for urban elementary students. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 50(1), 135–159.
Baker, J. A. (2006). Contributions of teacher–child relationships to positive school adjustment during elementary school.
Journal of School Psychology, 44(3), 211–229. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2006.02.002
Brunwasser, S. M., & Gillham, J. E. (2008, May). A meta-analytic review of the Penn Resiliency Program. Paper presented
at the meeting of Society for Prevention Research, San Francisco.
Eccles, J., Wigfield, A., Harold, R. D., & Blumenfeld, P. (1993). Age and gender differences in children's self- and task
perceptions during elementary school. Child Development, 64(3), 830–847.
Evangelou, D. (1990). The relationship between optimism, self-perceptions of competence, and the classroom
environment (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (Order No. 9026178)
Hesling, R. M., Anderson, C. A., & Russell, D. W. (2002). Attribution styles. In R. Fernandez-Ballesteros (Ed.),
Encyclopedia of psychological assessment (pp. 116–120). London, UK: Sage. Retrieved from
http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/abstracts/2000-2004/02HAR.pdf
Hoy, W. K., Tarter, C. J., & Hoy, A. W. (2006). Academic optimism of schools: A force for student achievement. American
Educational Research Journal, 43(3), 425–446.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rhode, P., Seeley, J. R., & Fischer, S. A. (1993). Age-cohort changes in the lifetime occurrence of
depression and other mental disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 110–120.
O’Grady, P. (2013). Positive psychology in the elementary school classroom. New York, NY: Norton.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting
fulfillment. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2006). Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life. New York, NY: Vintage. (Original
work published 1990)
Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: Positive psychology and
classroom interventions. Oxford Review and Education, 35(3), 293–311.
U.S. Department of Education. (2006). A test of leadership: Charting the future of U.S. higher education. Washington,
D.C.: Author.
Center the heading
Except for the first line of each entry, indent each line five spaces.
Stipeck, D., & Tannatt, L. (1984). Children’s judgments of their own and their peers’ academic competence. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 76. 75–84.
