Chapter 2 & 4

Chemical Basis of Life

Introduction:

A. Chemistry deals with the composition of substances and how they change.

B. A knowledge of chemistry is necessary for the understanding of physiology because of the importance of chemicals in body processes.

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Structure of Matter:

A.Elements and Atoms:1. Matter is anything that takes up space2. All matter is composed of elements, 92 of

which occur naturally3. Living organisms require about 20

elements, of which oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are most abundant

4. Elements are composed of atoms; atoms of different elements vary in size and in how they interact

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B. Atomic Structure: 1. An atom consists of a nucleus containing

protons & neutrons, with electrons in orbit around the nucleus in shells

2. Protons (+) are equal in size to neutrons (0)

3. Electrons (-) are much smaller4. An electrically neutral atom has equal

numbers of protons and electrons5. The number of protons denotes the atomic

number of an element; the number of protons plus the number of neutrons equals the atomic weight

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C. Bonding of Atoms: 1. Atoms form bonds by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons2. Electrons are found in shells around the nucleusa. The first energy shell holds two electrons; the other energy shells each hold eight electrons 3. Atoms with incompletely filled outer shells tend to be reactive to form stable outer shells of 8.4. When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become ions with a charge. Whether they gain or lose will depend on how many they have in the outer shell to start with.

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5.Oppositely charged ions attract each other and form an ionic bond

6.Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons to become stable with filled outer shells

a. Two pairs of electrons shared between atoms form a double covalent bond

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D. Molecules and Compounds:

1. A molecule is formed when two or more atoms combine

2. If atoms of different elements combine, the molecule can also be called a compound

a. Compounds always have a definite kind and number of atoms

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E. Formulas: 1. A molecular formula represents the

numbers and types of atoms in a molecule.2. Various representations, called structural

formulas, can be used to illustrate molecules

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F. Chemical Reactions:

1. A chemical reaction occurs as bonds are formed or broken between atoms, ions, or molecules.

2. Those changed by the reaction are the reactants; those formed are the products.

3. Two or more atoms or molecules can be joined during synthesis

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4. Larger molecules can be broken into smaller ones in decomposition reactions

5. Exchange reactions occur as parts of molecules trade places

6. Reversible reactions are symbolized by using two arrows

7. Catalysts influence the rates of chemical reactions

http://apchute.com/dehydrat/dehydrat.html

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G. Acids and Bases:

1. Substances that release ions in water are called electrolytes

2. Electrolytes that release hydrogen ions in water are called acids

3. Electrolytes that release ions that combine with hydrogen ions in water are called bases

4. The concentrations of H+ and OH- in the body are very important to physiology

5. pH represents the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+] in solution

http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/chang7/esp/folder_structure/ac/m2/s2/

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6. A pH of 7 indicates a neutral solution with equal numbers of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl (OH-) ions

a. A pH of zero to less than 7 indicates the presence of more hydrogen ions, an acid; a pH greater than 7 to 14 indicates more hydroxyl ions, a base (alkaline)

b. Between each whole number of the pH scale there is a tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration

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Chemical Constituents of Cells:

A. Compounds that contain both hydrogen and carbon are called organic, the others are inorganic

http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/animations.htm

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B.Inorganic Substances 1. Water

a. most abundant compound in living things and makes up 2/3 of the weight of adults

b. important solvent, most metabolic reactions occur in water

c. transports materials in the body, it is a major component of blood

d. carries waste materials and can absorb and transport heat

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2. Oxygen a. needed to release energy from nutrients

and is used to drive the cell's metabolism3. Carbon Dioxide

a. released as a waste product during energy-releasing metabolic reactions

4. Inorganic Salts a. sources of ions of sodium, chloride,

potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, carbonate, bicarbonate, and sulfate

b. These electrolytes play important roles in many of the body's metabolic processes

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C. Organic Substances:1. Carbohydrates

a. provide energy for cellular activities and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen

b. made from monosaccharides (simple sugars); disaccharides are 2 monosaccharides joined together; complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), such as starch, are built of

many sugars

c. Humans synthesize the polysaccharide glycogen

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2. Lipids:a. insoluble in water, include fats, phospholipids, and steroidsb. Fats supply energy, composed of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, are built from glycerol and three fatty acids

i. Fatty acids with hydrogen at every position along the carbon chain are saturated; those with one or more double bonds are unsaturated fats

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c. Phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group, are important in cell structures

d. Steroids are complex ring structures, include cholesterol, which is used to synthesize the sex hormones

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3. Proteins:

a. variety of functions in the body

structural materials

energy sources

certain hormones

receptors on cell membranes

antibodies

enzymes to catalyze metabolic reactions

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b. Proteins contain C, O, H, and N atoms; some also contain sulfur

c. Building blocks of proteins are the amino acids, each of which has a carboxyl

group, an amino group, and a side chain called the R group

d. complex shapes held together by H bonds

e. shapes determine how proteins function

can be altered (denatured) by pH, temperature, radiation, or

chemicals

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4. Nucleic Acids:a. form genes, take part in protein synthesisb. contain C, H, O, N , and P which are bound into building blocks called nucleotidesc. two major types: DNA and RNA d. RNA (ribonucleic acid) functions in protein synthesis; DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores the molecular code in genes

http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/DNA_structure.html

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A. DNA contains the genetic code needed for the synthesis of each protein (including enzymes)

B. Genetic Information

1. A gene is a portion of a DNA molecule that contains the genetic information for making a single protein. The genome is all the DNA .

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C. DNA Molecules

1. The nucleotides of DNA form a sugar-phosphate backbone with bases extending into the interior of the DNA molecule

2. The nucleotides of one DNA strand are compatible to those in the other strand (adenine pairs with thymine; cytosine with guanine) and so exhibit complementary base pairing

3. The DNA molecule twists to form a double helix and may be millions of base pairs long

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120076/micro04.swf

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D. DNA Replication1. Each new cell must be provided with an exact

replica of the parent cell's DNA2. DNA replication occurs during interphase

a. The DNA molecule splitsb. Nucleotides form complementary pairs with

the original strandsc. Each new DNA molecule consists of one parental strand and one newly synthesized

strand of DNAhttp://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~

biotext/animations/replication1.htmlhttps://www.dnalc.org/resources/3d/index.htmlhttp://

highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072437316/student_view0/chapter14/animations.html

http://www.dnai.org/index.htm http://www.yourgenome.org/http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/student/

animations/dna_replication/index.ht

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E. Protein Synthesis 1. In the cytoplasm, a second kind of RNA, called tRNA, has a triplet of nucleotides called the anticodon, which is complementary to nucleotides of the mRNA codon

2. The ribosome holds the mRNA in position while the transfer RNA carries in the correct amino acid in sequence, with anticodons matching up to codons

3. The ribosome contains enzymes needed to join the amino acids together

4. As the amino acids are joined, the new protein molecule changes into its unique shape

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F. Genetic Code 1. The sequence of nucleotides in a DNA

molecule gives the sequence of amino acids for a given protein

2. This method of storing information for protein synthesis is the genetic code

3. RNA molecules copy and transfer this information to the cytoplasm where proteins are manufacturedhttp://vcell.ndsu.nodak.edu/animations/

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/dna/shockwave.html

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072437316/student_view0/chapter15/animations.html

http://brookscole.cengage.com/chemistry_d/templates/student_resources/shared_resources/animations/protein_synthesis/protein_synthesis.html

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G. RNA Molecules 1. single-stranded and contain ribose

rather than deoxyribose, and uracil rather than thymine

2. Messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are synthesized in the nucleus in a sequence complementary to the DNA template in a process called transcription

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3. Each amino acid corresponds to a triplet of DNA nucleotides; a triplet of nucleotides in messenger RNA is called a codon

4. Messenger RNA can move out of the nucleus and associate with ribosomes in the cytoplasm where the protein will be constructed in a process called translation

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