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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Criminology

Criminology is from Latin word “crimen”, means accusation and Greek word “Logia” is the scientific study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the individual and in society. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in the behavioral sciences, drawing especially upon the research of sociologists (particularly in the sociology of deviance), psychologists and psychiatrists, social anthropologists as well as on writings in law.

Areas of research in criminology include the incidence, forms, causes and consequences of crime, as well as social and governmental regulations and reaction to crime. For studying the distribution and causes of crime, criminology mainly relies upon quantitative methods. The term criminology was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo as criminologia. Around the same time, but later, French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the analogous French term criminology.

As a subdivision of the larger field of sociology, criminology draws on psychology, economics, anthropology, psychiatry, biology, statistics, geography and other disciplines to explain the causes and prevention of criminal behavior. Subdivisions of criminology include penology, the study of prisons and prison systems; bio-criminology, the study of the biological basis of criminal behavior; feminist criminology, the study of women and crime; and criminalistics, the study of crime detection, which is related to the field of Forensic Science.

Criminology has historically played a reforming role in relation to Criminal Law and the criminal justice system. As an applied discipline, it has produced findings that have influenced legislators, judges, prosecutors, lawyers, Probation officers, and prison officials, prompting them to better understand crime and criminals and to develop better and more humane sentences and treatments for criminal behavior.

1.1.1. History of Criminology

The origins of criminology are usually located in the late-eighteenth-century writings of those who sought to reform criminal justice and penal systems that they perceived as cruel, inhumane, and Arbitrary. These old systems applied the law

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unequally, were subject to great corruption, and often used torture and the death penalty indiscriminately.

The leading theorist of this classical school of criminology, the Italian Cesare BONESANO BECCARIA (1738–94), argued that the law must apply equally to all, and that punishments for specific crimes should be standardized by legislatures, thus avoiding judicial abuses of power. Both Beccaria and another classical theorist, the Englishman Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), argued that people are rational beings who exercise free will in making choices. Beccaria and Bentham understood the dominant motive in making choices to be the seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. Thus, they argued that a punishment should fit the crime in such a way that the pain involved in potential punishment would be greater than any pleasure derived from committing the crime. The writings of these theorists led to greater Codification and standardization of European and U.S. laws.

Criminologists of the early nineteenth century argued that legal punishments that had been created under the guidance of the classical school did not sufficiently consider the widely varying circumstances of those who found themselves in the gears of the criminal justice system. Accordingly, they proposed that those who could not distinguish right from wrong, particularly children and mentally ill persons, should be exempted from the punishments that were normally meted out to mentally capable adults who had committed the same crimes. Along with the contributions of a later generation of criminologists, known as the positivists, such writers argued that the punishment should fit the criminal, not the crime.

Later in the nineteenth century, the positivist school of criminology brought a scientific approach to criminology, including findings from biology and medicine. The leading figure of this school was the Italian Cesare Lombroso (1836–1909). Influenced by Charles R. Darwin's theory of evolution, Lombroso measured the physical features of prison inmates and concluded that criminal behavior correlated with specific bodily characteristics, particularly cranial, skeletal, and neurological malformations. According to Lombroso, biology created a criminal class among the human population. Subsequent generations of criminologists have disagreed harshly with Lombroso's conclusions on this matter. However, Lombroso had a more lasting effect on criminology with other findings that emphasized the multiple causes of crime, including environmental causes that were not biologically determined. He was also a pioneer of the case-study approach to criminology.

Other late-nineteenth-century developments in criminology included the work of statisticians of the cartographic school, who analyzed data on population and crime. These included Lambert Adolphe Quetelet, (1796– 1874) of France and André

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Michel Gerry, of Belgium. Both of these researchers compiled detailed, statistical information relating to crime and also attempted to identify the circumstances that predisposed people to commit crimes.

The American Society of Criminology has since attracted thousands of members, including academics, practitioners, and students of the criminal justice system. Studies of criminology include both the theoretical and the pragmatic, and some combine elements of both. Although some aspects of criminology as a science are still considered radical, others have developed as standards in the study of crime and criminal justice.

1.1.2. Sociology and Criminology

During the twentieth century, the sociological approach to criminology became the most influential approach. Sociology is the study of social behavior, systems, and structures. In

relation to criminology, it may be divided into social-structural and social-process approaches.

Social-Structural Criminology Social-structural approaches to criminology examine the way in which social situations and structures influence or relate to criminal behavior. For

example, it attempts to describe why certain areas of a city will have a tendency to attract crime and also have less-vigorous police enforcement. Researchers have found that urban areas in transition from residential to business uses are most often targeted by criminals. Such communities often have disorganized social networks that foster a weaker sense of social standards.

Feminist criminology emphasizes the subordinate position of women in society. According to feminist criminologists, women remain in a position of inferiority that has not been fully rectified by changes in the law during the late twentieth century. Feminist criminology also explores the ways in which women's criminal behavior is related to their objectification as commodities in the sex industry.

Others using the social-structural approach have studied gangs, juvenile delinquency, and the relationship between family structure and criminal behavior.

Social-Process Criminology Social-process criminology theories attempt to explain how people become criminals. These theories developed through recognition of the fact that not all people who are exposed to the same social-structural conditions become criminals. They focus on criminal behavior as learned behavior.

Edwin H. Sutherland (1883–1950), a U.S. sociologist and criminologist who first presented his ideas in the 1920s and 1930s, As Sutherland wrote, "When persons become criminal, they do so because of contacts with criminal patterns and also because of isolation from anti criminal patterns." Although his theory has been greatly influential, Sutherland himself

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admitted that it did not satisfactorily explain all criminal behavior. Later theorists have modified his approach in an attempt to correct its shortcomings.

1.1.3. Political Criminology

Political criminology is similar to the other camps in this area. It involves study into the forces that determine how, why, and with what consequences societies chose to address criminals and crime in general. Those who are involved with political criminology focus on the causes of crime, the nature of crime, the social and political meanings that attach to crime, and crime-control policies, including the study of the bases upon which crime and punishment is committed and the choices made by the principals in criminal justice.

Although the theories of political criminology and conflict criminology overlap to some extent, political criminologists deny that the terms are interchangeable. The primary focus

points in the new movement of political criminology similarly overlap with other theories, including the concerns and ramifications of street crime and the distribution of power in crime-control strategies. This movement has largely been a loose, academic effort.

1.1.4. School of Thoughts

In the mid-18th century, criminology arose as social philosophersgave thought to crime and concepts of law. Over time, several schools of thought have developed. There are three main schools of thought in early criminological theory spanning the period from the mid-18th century to the mid-twentieth century, which are Classical, Positive, and Chicago. These schools of thought were superseded by several contemporary paradigms of criminology, such as the sub-culture, control, strain, labeling, critical criminology, cultural criminology, postmodern criminology, feminist criminology and others discussed below.

Classical School Of Thought

The Classical School, which developed in the mid-18th century, was based on utilitarian philosophy. Cesare Beccaria, author of On Crimes and Punishments (1763–64), Jeremy Bentham, inventor of the panoptic on, and other classical school philosophers argued that (1) people have free will to choose how to act. (2) Deterrence is based upon the notion of the human being as a 'hedonist' who seeks pleasure and avoids pain, and a 'rational calculator' weighing up the costs and benefits of the consequences of each action. Thus, it ignores the possibility of irrationality and unconscious drives as motivational factors (3) Punishment (of sufficient severity) can deter people from crime, as the costs (penalties) outweigh benefits, and that severity of punishment should be proportionate to the crime. (4) The more swift and certain the punishment, the more effective it is in deterring criminal behavior. The Classical school of thought came about at a time when major

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reform in penology occurred, with prisons developed as a form of punishment. Also, this time period saw many legal reforms, the French Revolution, and the development of the legal system in the United States.

Positivist School of thought

The Positivist school presumes that criminal behavior is caused by internal and external factors outside of the individual's control. The scientific method was introduced and applied to study human behavior. Positivism can be broken up into three segments which include biological, psychological and social positivism.

Chicago School of thought

The Chicago School of criminological theory aimed to move past the simple hardlineclassical explanations of crime. Early theories of criminal behavior focused on the individual, touting such ideas as crime as a rational choice, born criminals, and physical features such as forehead size as predictors of crime. The Chicago School introduced the idea of socialization as an explanation for criminal activity. These theories hold that people are not simply born good or bad - they are influenced by the people, social situations, and other external forces that surround them.

1.1.5. Theories of criminology

Theoretical perspectives used in criminology include psychoanalysis, functionalism, interactionism, Marxism, econometrics, systems theory, postmodernism, etc.

Social structure theories

This theory is applied to a variety of approaches within criminology in particular and in sociology more generally as a conflict theory or structural conflict perspective in sociology and sociology of crime. As this perspective is itself broad enough, embracing as it does a diversity of positions.

Social disorganization (neighborhoods)

Social disorganization theory is based on the work of Henry McKay and Clifford R. Shaw of the Chicago School. Social disorganization theory postulates that neighborhoods plagued with poverty and economic deprivation tend to experience high rates of population turnover. These neighborhoods also tend to have high population heterogeneity. With high turnover, informal social structure often fails to develop, which in turn makes it difficult to maintain social order in a community.

Social ecology

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Since the 1950s, social ecology studies have built on the social disorganization theories. Many studies have found that crime rates are associated with poverty, disorder, high numbers of abandoned buildings, and other signs of community deterioration. As working and middle class people leave deteriorating neighborhoods, the most disadvantaged portions of the population may remain. William Julius Wilson suggested a poverty "concentration effect", which may cause neighborhoods to be isolated from the mainstream of society and become prone to violence.

Strain theory (social class)

Strain theory, (also known as Mertonian Anomie), advanced by American sociologist Robert Merton, suggests that mainstream culture, especially in the United States, is saturated with dreams of opportunity, freedom and prosperity; as Merton put it, the American Dream. Most people buy into this dream and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivation. Merton also used the term anomie, but it meant something slightly different for him than it did for Durkheim. Merton saw the term as meaning a dichotomy between what society expected of its citizens, and what those citizens could actually achieve. Therefore, if the social structure of opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority from realizing the dream, some of them will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in order to realize it. Others will retreat or drop out into deviant subcultures (gang members, "hobos": urban homeless drunks and drug abusers).

Rational choice theory is based on the utilitarian, classical school philosophies of Cesare Beccaria, which were popularized by Jeremy Bentham. They argued that punishment, if certain, swift, and proportionate to the crime, was a deterrent for crime, with risks outweighing possible benefits to the offender. In Dei delitti e dellepene (On Crimes and Punishments, 1763–1764), Beccaria advocated a rational penology. Beccaria conceived of punishment as the necessary application of the law for a crime: thus, the judge was simply to conform his sentence to the law. Beccaria also distinguished between crime and sin, and advocated against the death penalty, as well as torture and inhumane treatments, as he did not consider them as rational deterrents.

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Routine activity theory

Routine activity theory, developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen, draws upon control theories and explains crime in terms of crime opportunities that occur in everyday life. A crime opportunity requires that elements converge in time and place including (1) a motivated offender (2) suitable target or victim (3) lack of a capable guardian. A guardian at a place, such as a street, could include security guards or even ordinary pedestrians who would witness the criminal act and possibly intervene or report it to police. Routine activity theory was expanded by John Eck, who added a fourth element of "place manager" such as rental property managers who can take nuisance abatement measures.

1.1.6. Types and definitions of crime

Both the Positivist and Classical Schools take a consensus view of crime — that a crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society. Those values and beliefs are manifested as laws that society agrees upon. However, there are two types of laws:

Natural laws are rooted in core values shared by many cultures. Natural laws protect against harm to persons (e.g. murder, rape, assault) or property (theft, larceny, robbery), and form the basis of common law systems.

Statutes are enacted by legislatures and reflect current cultural mores, albeit that some laws may be controversial, e.g. laws that prohibit cannabis use and gambling. Marxist criminology, Conflict criminology and Critical Criminology claim that most relationships between state and citizen are non-consensual and, as such, criminal law is not necessarily representative of public beliefs and wishes: it is exercised in the interests of the ruling or dominant class. The more right wing criminologists tend to posit that there is a consensual social contract between State and citizen.

Therefore, definitions of crimes will vary from place to place, in accordance to the cultural norms and mores, but may be broadly classified as blue-collar crime, corporate crime, organized crime, political crime, public order crime, state crime, state-corporate crime, and white-collar crime. However, there have been moves in contemporary criminological theory to move away from liberal pluralism, culturalism and postmodernism by introducing the universal term 'harm' into the criminological debate as a replacement for the legal term ‘crime’.

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1.1.7. Causes and correlates of crime

The causes of crime are one of the major research areas in Geography of Crime.

1. Biological

AgeCrime is most frequent in second and third decades of life.

Gender Males commit more overall and violent crime. They also commit more property crime except shoplifting, which is about equally distributed between the genders. Males appear to be more likely to recidivate.

ArousalMeasures related to arousal such as heart rate and skin conductance are low among criminals.

Body type Mesomorph or muscular body type is positively correlated with criminality.

Hormones Testosterone is positively correlated to criminality.

Race, ethnicity, and immigrationThere is a relationship between race and crime. Many different theories have been proposed for the relationship between race and crime in variouscountries.

Ethnically/racially diverse areas probably have higher crime rates compared to ethnically/racially homogeneous areas.

Most studies on immigrants have found higher rates of crime. However, this varies greatly depending on the country of origin with immigrants from some regions having lower crime rates than the indigenous population.

2. Early life

Pregnancy Maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with later criminality. Low birth weight and perinatal trauma/birth complications may be more prevalent among criminals.Children whose birth results from an unintended pregnancy are more likely to be delinquents or commit crimes.

FamilyChild maltreatment, low parent-child attachment, marital discord/family discord, alcoholism and drug use in the family, and low parental supervision/monitoring are associated with criminality. Larger family size and later birth order are also associated.

Bullying is positively related to criminal behavior.

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SchoolSchool disciplinary problems, truancy, low grade point average, and dropping out of high school are associated with criminality.

Adult behaviorHigh alcohol use, alcohol abuse, and alcoholism, as well as high illegal drug use and dependence are positively related to criminality in general.

SexEarly age of first intercourse and more sexual partners are associated with criminality.

FriendsFew friends, criminal friends, and gang membership correlate positively with criminality.

Religion High religious involvement, high importance of religion in one's life, membership in an organized religion, and orthodox religious beliefs are associated with less criminality. Areas with higher religious membership have lower crime rates.

Physical healthCriminals probably suffer from more illnesses.

Accidental injuriesCriminals are more frequently accidentally injured.

3. Psychological traitsConduct disorder and antisocial personality disorderChildhood conduct disorder and adult antisocial personality disorder are associated with one another and criminal behavior.Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder correlates positively with criminality.Depression and suicide Minor depression and probably clinical depression is more likely among offenders. Depression in the family is associated with criminality. Criminals are more likely to be suicidal.

4. Intelligence quotient and learning disabilities There is also a relationship between lower IQ and crime.A learning disability is a substantial discrepancy between IQ and academic performance. It has a relationship to criminal behavior. Slow reading development may be particularly relevant.

5. Personality traits Several personality traits are associated with criminality: High impulsivity, high psychoticism, high sensation-seeking, low self-control, high aggression in childhood, and low empathy and altruism.

6. Socioeconomic factors

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Higher total socioeconomic status (usually measured using the three variables income (or wealth), occupational level, and years of education) correlate with less crime. Longer education is associated with less crime. Higher income/wealth have a somewhat inconsistent correlation with less crime with the exception of self-report illegal drug use for which there is no relation. Higher parental socioeconomic status probably has an inverse relationship with crime.High frequency of changing jobs and high frequency of unemployment for a person correlate with criminality.Somewhat inconsistent evidence indicates that there is a relationship between low incomes, percentage under the poverty line, few years of education, and high income inequality in an area and more crime in the area.The relationship between the state of the economy and crime rates is inconsistent among the studies. There is a slight tendency in the majority of the studies for higher unemployment rate to be positively associated with crime rates.

7. Other geographic factorsCities or counties with larger populations have higher crime rates. Poorly maintained neighborhoods correlate with higher crime rates. High residential mobility is associated with a higher crime rate. More taverns and alcohol stores, as well as more gambling and tourist establishments, in an area are positively related to criminality. There appears to be higher crime rates in the geographic regions of a country that are closer to the equator.

Weather, season and climate Crime rates vary with temperature depending on both short-term weather and season. The relationship between the hotter months of summer and a peak in rape and assault seems to be almost universal. For other crimes there are also seasonal or monthly patterns but they are more inconsistent across nations.

8. Victims and fear or crimeRisk of being a crime victim is highest for teens through mid-30s and lowest for the elderly. Fear of crime shows the opposite pattern. Criminals are more often crime victims. Females fear crimes more than males. Blacks appear to fear crime more. Blacks are more often victims, especially of murder.

9. Cultural and societal - Specific factors Media violence

Media violence research examines whether links between consuming media violence and subsequent aggressive and violent behavior exists.

Gun politics The effects of gun politics on crime are another controversial research area.

Drugs

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Both legal and illegal drugs are implicated in drug-related crime. Being an unwanted child

Childrenwhose parents did not want to have a child are more likely to grow to be delinquents or commit crimes. Such children are also less likely to succeed in school, and are more likely to live in poverty. They also tend to have lower mother-child relationship quality. Children who's births were unintended are likely to be less mentally and physically healthy during childhood.

1.1.8. Criminology of India Some sporadic efforts have been made to assess the problems and issues in Indian criminology. Panakal (1973) Gupta (1974), Menon (1978), Jatar (1979, 1980), Shukla (1981) and Khan (1984), Diaz (1990), Pande (1991), Srivastava (1995) have studied factors affecting the growth of Criminology in India.

There is some prominent Geographers of India work in Criminology a) Gangly (1973) has studied Indian crimes and derived conclusions about the crime

infested belt in India. b) Venugopal (1982) has published his books on’ Dynamics of Crimes 1982’ c) Nath (1982) has published his work on police in 2000 A.D crime in India.d) Professor Katare (1968) has analyzed the geographic pattern of crime in the state of

Madhya Pradesh. e) Professor Singh (1978) worked out a sociological review of growing incidence of

Dacoity in a Chambal Region. f) Dr. Satendar Kumar (1993) analyzed the patterns of crime in ‘Meerut Zone’. g) The study of Dr. Abaya Singh has been conducted with a view to analyses the

pattern of crime in Haryana. Some prominent works down globally in field of Criminology are

a) Crime and Culture by Joy Wiltenburyb) Victims by Sandra Walklatec) An introduction of Behavioral Evidence Analysis by Burrent .E. Turveyd) Dr.Gerry Mooney, written Welfare Worriese) Journals of Quantitative Criminology by Springer f) Asian Journal of criminologyg) Ronald.E.Wilson developed a Regional crime analysis GIS toolbox now used in

Baltimore Metropolitan region

1.2. Criminology is related to Geography

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Crime has been the main aspect of study in sociology. That is why the discipline is having a separate important branch of study of crimes, namely, criminology. In sociology vast literature exists on crime. The main emphasis is of reasons of crimes, psychological aspects of criminals and impact of crimes on society. If largely lacks the spatial dimension of crimes and its environmental and socio-economic correlates. The Geography has answers to it.

The pioneer work in Geography on crimes was credited to Cohen (1941) who had developed a separate branch of geography namely, Geography of crimes as early as in 1940. But it could not draw the attention of geographers for at least two subsequent decades. Ice was broken by Sidney (1960) who has explained types of crimes in relation to climatic factors. It was followed by several articles in various issues of ‘Professional Geography (Willis 1968)

At the end of 1960s radical geography exists considerable influence for the intensity of crimes with city planning at Barkly. The great authority on geography of crime was established by American Geographer Harries (1968& 1974). He has traced out development of geography of crime in America and enlighten the prospects such studies. He has also made comparison of intensity of crime with justice. Yuk Lee and Frank (1972) have studied urban crimes in the Denver city of USA. Thus crime has been well studied by Anglo-American geographers. But there has been paucity of work on police administration in geography. Bennett (1970) has applied probability theory in the assignment of police petrol areas.

Criminology or crime is directly related to Geography. Whenever we think or heard about usually there are few questions come to our mind like what was the area? What crimes are there those affect the environment of area? Where we have maximum crimes? How it affect other people? What were the climatic conditions of the area? What type of physical structure of that area?

Whenever we talk about climate, physical structure, people, time, areas all these factors are directly related to Geography. Crime is an activity that exhibits patterns and these can be mapped.

Feminist geographers stress that, while most girls are brought up to fear violence by strangers in public places (thus hugely limiting female spatial mobility); most of the violence against women is located within the home. Since the home is a key factor in identity, as an individual, and as a member of the community, and since women have, traditionally, been brought up as ‘homemakers’, it is difficult for many women to acknowledge that their homes are not a place of safety, but sites of crime.

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The analysis of crime—its effects, the offences, and the offenders—to understand the interactions between crime, society, and space. Spatial analyses of the distribution of offences in any area can be shown by crime hot-spots. In this study I have used HOTSPOT analysis method with help of GIS.

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1.3. Geographical Information System (GIS)

A geographic information system is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographically referenced data. The acronym GIS is sometimes used to mean geographical information science or geospatial information studies; these latter terms refer to the academic discipline or career of working with geographic information systems. In the simplest terms, GIS is the merging of cartography, statistical analysis, and database technology.

Before explaining GIS more precisely first of all I like to explain why I have used this toll?

WHY GIS IS BEING USED?

Experts of many disciplines can be classified assures of spatial data. Next to geodesists and cartographers some of these experts are geographers, geologists, soil scientists, environmentalists, planners and remote scientists. When spatial data are used in an information system one tends to speak of a spatial information system. When such a system has grown fully, it integrates the disciplines as represented.

In the period when the computer becomes the important toll in each sprit disciplines, the main purpose of its use was inventory. Spatial data were observed collected classified and stored. In the next phase, the experts who collected the data become interested in spatial analysis of those data. Today, the need of spatial analysis crosses the borders of the separate disciplines, and people want an overall approach. The use of spatial information systems offers the opportunity to fulfill these needs.

1.3.1. Concept of time and space

Spatial information is always related to geographic space that is large scale space. This is the space beyond the human body, space that represents the surroundings geographic world. Within such space we constantly move around, we navigate and we conceptualized in different ways. Geographic space is the space of topography; land use/ land cover climatic cadastral and other features of the geographic world. The GIS technology is used to manipulate objects in geographic space and to acquire knowledge from spatial facts.

Spatial information is always related to geographic space it relates to the geographic time, the time whose affects we observe in changing geographic world around us.

1.3.2. History of GIS

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The GIS history dates back 1960 where computer based GIS have been used and their manual procedures were in life 100 years earlier or so. The initial developments originated in North American with the organizations such as US Bureau of the Census, The US Geological survey and the Harvard Laboratory for computer graphics and Environ, Canadian geographic information system in Canada, Department of Environment in UK involved in early developments. In India the major developments have happened for the last one-decade with significant contribution coming from Department of space emphasizing the GIS applications for Natural Resources Management. Recently the commercial organizations in India have realized the importance of GIS for many applications like infrastructure development, facility management, business etc.

1.3.3. Definitions of GIS

“A spatial data handling system” (Marble et at, 1983)

“A computer assisted system for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis and display of spatial data within a particular organization”. (Clark, 1986)

“A system which uses a spatial data base to provide answers to quarries of a geographical nature” (Goodchild, 1985)

“Any manual or computer based set of procedures used to store and manipulate geographically referenced data” (Aronoff,)

“A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving as well transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world”(Burrough,1987)

“A system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth” (DOE, 1987)

“An information technology which stores, analyze and display both spatial and non-spatial data” (Parker, 1988)

Therefore, in a general sense, the term describes any information system that integrates stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information for informing decision making. The term GIS-centric, however, has been specifically defined as the use of the Esri ArcGIS geodatabase as the asset/feature data repository central to computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) as a part of enterprise asset management and analytical software systems. GIS-centric certification criteria have been specifically defined by the National Association of GIS-Centric Solutions (NAGCS). GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the results of all these operations. Geographic information science is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems.

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1.3.4. GIS Objectives

Maximize the efficiency of planning and decision making. Provide efficient means for data distribution and handling. Elimination of redundant database-minimize duplication. Capacity to integrate information from many sources. Complex analysis/ quarried involving geographical reference data to generate new

information.

For any application there are five generic questions a GIS can answer

Location- What exists at a particular location? Condition-Identify where certain condition exists. Trends-What has changed since? Patterns-What spatial pattern exists? Modeling-What If…………….?

Flow Chart 1 - Components of GIS

1.3.5. Methods of Storage:

There are two methods by which the information in Geographical Information System is stored:

INPUT

COLLECTION OF DATA INPUTAND CORRECTION

MANIPULATION AND ANALYSIS

OUTPUT AND MANIPULATION

OUTPUT

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1. Raster Data Storage: The raster approach to data representation and storage imposes rather a different view of the world,as it is basically coverage and not feature oriented.Every cell coverage has some attribute values and individual features are not separately recorded. A land parcel may actually be represented by a group of adjacent cells whose attribute values relate to the parcel but there is no sense in which the parcel itself is a database entity. Consequently raster storage is much simpler than the vector in terms of the organizational structures required, a database merely consisting of a group of geo referenced coverage, each of which represents the value of a different attributes at every cell location.

2. Vector Data Storage: Vector methods may impose subjects and inexact structures on the landscape, is a need for precise coordinates storage. Important topological information may also be encoded this is very hard to record using raster data structures. In vector representations, an explicit distinction is made non-spatial attributes of five types of entities shown by the vector representation.

a) Point: The simplest spatial entity in a vector representation is the point encoded as a single(X, Y) coordinate pair. In a recorded only once and it is the basis of all higher order entities.

b) Line: The next level of entity is the line. It is a straight line feature, which is joining two points.

c) Node: It is also a point but in this point one or more lines or segments end or met.d) Segment: The next level of entity is the segment defined in terms of a series of

points and perhaps carrying as the identities of polygon falling on either side. e) Polygon: The third level of special entity is the polygon for which considerable

variety of representation strategies exists. In other words it is an area which whose perimeter id is defined by a series of enclosing segments and nodes.

1.3.6. GIS Hardware and Software

Following hardware is required for GIS

Computer Digitizer Color Plotter Color Printer High Volume data storage device: Compact Disc Writer, Data device Scanner (Flat Bed Scanner)

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Following software is required for GIS

Arc / Info Arc / view Map Info Arc Map Arc GIS

1.3.7. Application of GIS

The application of geospatial sciences has spread very fast and wide:

Agriculture Business GIS Geology Crime Environment Land Information System Natural Resource Management Health Military Urban Planning Miscellaneous

1.3.8. About GIS Software

ARC MAP 9.2 ArcMap is the main component of Esri's ArcGIS suite of geospatial processing programs, and is used primarily to view, edit, create, and analyze geospatial data. ArcMap allows the user to explore data within a data set, symbolize features accordingly, and create maps. ArcMap represents geographic information as a collection of layers and other elements in a map. Common map elements include the data frame containing map layers for a given extent plus a scale bar, north arrow, title, descriptive text, a symbol legend, and so on. ArcMap documentsWhen you save a map you have created in ArcMap, it will be saved as a file on disk. A filename extension (.mxd) will be automatically appended to your map document name. You can work with an existing .mxd by double-clicking the document to open it. This will start an ArcMap session for that .mxd.

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Map documents contain display properties of the geographic information you work with in the map—such as the properties and definitions of your map layers, data frames, and the map layout for printing—plus any optional customizations and macros that you add to your map. Views in ArcMap ArcMap displays map contents in one of two views

Data view Layout view

Each view lets you look at and interact with the map in a specific way. In ArcMap data view, the map is the data frame. This view hides all the map elements on the layout, such as titles, north arrows, and scale bars, and lets you focus on the data in a single data frame, for instance, editing or analysis. In data view, the active data frame is presented as a geographic window in which map layers are displayed and used. Within a data frame, you work with GIS information presented through map layers using geographic (real-world) coordinates. These will typically be ground measurements in units such as feet, meters, or measures of latitude-longitude (such as decimal degrees). When you're preparing your map's layout, you'll want to work with it in layout view. Layout view is used to design and author a map for printing, exporting, or publishing. You can manage map elements within the page space (typically, inches or centimeters), add new map elements, and preview what your map will look like before exporting or printing it. Common map elements include: data frames with map layers, scale bars, north arrows, symbol legends, map titles, text, and other graphical elements. Data frames:A data frame is the most fundamental element in a map document and in the ArcMap user interface. The data frame provides the principal display of geographic information as a series of map layers. Data frames have properties that define the context for the data with which you work; these include the coordinate system, measurement units, scale, the drawing order of layers, and so on. In ArcMap, data view isolates the contents of a data frame for you to edit or work with. The primary contents you work with in a data frame are map layers and attribute tables.

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When you create a map, it contains a default data frame listed in the table of contents as Layers. ArcMap always has at least one data frame, but you can add more. Map layers: Geographic data is represented on a map as a layer. Within the data frame, you display geographic datasets as layers, where each layer represents a particular dataset overlaid in the map. In addition to representing geographic information, each layer's map symbols, colors, and labels help to describe the objects in the map. You work with the layers displayed in each data frame to query features and see their attributes, perform analytical operations, and edit and add new features to each dataset.

1.3.9. Analysis of Data

What is geoprocessing?

Geoprocessing is for everyone that uses ArcGIS or ARCMAP. Whether you're a new user or an old pro, geoprocessing will become an essential part of your day-to-day work with ArcGIS.

The fundamental purpose of geoprocessing is to allow you to automate your GIS tasks. Almost all uses of GIS involve the repetition of work, and this creates the need for methods to automate, document, and share multiple-step procedures known as workflows. Geoprocessing supports the automation of workflows by providing a rich set of tools and a mechanism to combine a series of tools in a sequence of operations using models and scripts.

The kinds of tasks to be automated can be mundane—for example, to wrangle herds of data from one format to another. Or the tasks can be quite creative, using a sequence of operations to model and analyze complex spatial relationships—for example, calculating optimum paths through a transportation network, predicting the path of wildfire, analyzing and finding patterns in crime locations, predicting which areas are prone to landslides, or predicting flooding effects of a storm event.

Geoprocessing is based on a framework of data transformation. A typical geoprocessing tool performs an operation on an ArcGIS dataset (such as a feature class, raster, or table) and produces a new dataset as the result of the tool. Each geoprocessing tool performs a small yet essential operation on geographic data, such as projecting a dataset from one map projection to another, adding a field to a

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table, or creating a buffer zone around features. ArcGIS includes hundreds of such geoprocessing tools.

Geoprocessing allows you to chain together sequences of tools, feeding the output of one tool into another. You canuse this ability to compose an infinite of geoprocessing models (tool sequences) that help you automate your work and solve complex problems.

Hot Spot Analysis with Rendering (Spatial Statistics)

We have used Hot Spot Analysis with Rendering (Spatial Statistics), one of the analysis tools of ARCMAP 9.2.

Usage tips

The Gi* rendered model combines the functions Hot Spot Analysis and Z Score Rendering.

This tool is appropriate for rendering output from the Collect Events tool.

Current map layers may be used to define the input feature class. When using layers, only the currently selected features are used in the Getis-OrdGi* operation.

This tool will only work on the windows operating system. If you are not using windows, please run the Hot Spot Analysis tool by itself.

The following environment settings affect this tool: Cluster Tolerance, Extent, M Domain, Configuration Keyword, Coordinate System, Output has M Values, Output Spatial Grid, Output has Z Values, Default Z Value, Output XY Domain, and Output Z Domain.

Command line syntax

INPUT DATASET

GEOPROCESSING TOOL

NEW DATASET

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An overview of the Command Line window

HotSpotsRendered_stats<Input_Feature_Class><Input_Field><Output_Layer_File><Output_Feature_Class><Distance_Band_or_Threshold_Distance>

Parameters

<Input_Feature_Class> The feature class for which hot spot analysis will be performed

Data Type - Feature Layer <Input_Field>The numeric count field (number of victims, crimes, jobs and so on) to be evaluated.

Data Type – Field <Output_Layer_File>

The layer files to store the cold-to-hot rendering information. You must include the .lyr extension as part of the file name.

Data Type - Layer File <Output_Feature_Class>

The output feature class to receive the results field and Giz score. Data Type - Feature Class

<Distance_Band_or_Threshold_Distance>

Specifies a distance cutoff value. Features outside the specified Distance Band or Threshold Distance are ignored in the hot spot analysis. The value entered for this parameter should be in the units of the Input Feature Class' coordinate system. There is one exception. If the Output Coordinate System environment variable is set, the value entered for this parameter should be in the units of the coordinate system set in that environment. A value of zero indicates that no threshold distance is applied. This is only valid with the "Inverse Distance" and "Inverse Distance Squared" spatial conceptualizations. This parameter has no effect when "Polygon Contiguity" and "Get Spatial Weights From File" spatial conceptualizations are selected.

Data Type - Double