Chapter 17Chapter 17The Amount and Distribution of PracticeThe Amount and Distribution of Practice

Concept: The amount of practice and the spacing or distribution of that practice can affect both practice performance and learning of motor skills

Overlearning and Learning Overlearning and Learning Motor SkillsMotor Skills

Overlearning:Overlearning: Continuation of practice beyond Continuation of practice beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criterionperformance criterion

Research has shown that overlearning can Research has shown that overlearning can have a positive influence on retention have a positive influence on retention performance for motor learning skills (Driskell et performance for motor learning skills (Driskell et al., 1992)al., 1992)

Examples of Overlearning Strategy Examples of Overlearning Strategy Applied to Types of Motor SkillsApplied to Types of Motor Skills

Procedural skillsProcedural skills –Skills that include a combination of cognitive and Skills that include a combination of cognitive and

motor components and require performance of a motor components and require performance of a series of relatively simple movements, e.g., series of relatively simple movements, e.g., assembling a rifle assembling a rifle

–U.S. Army sponsored research found 100% U.S. Army sponsored research found 100% overlearning strategy effective for long-term retentionoverlearning strategy effective for long-term retention

Dynamic balance skillsDynamic balance skills–Research has found point of diminishing returns Research has found point of diminishing returns

for amount of extra practicefor amount of extra practice50% as effective as 100% and 200%50% as effective as 100% and 200%

Physical education class settingPhysical education class setting–One study reported student-determined extra One study reported student-determined extra

practice resulted in better learning than teacher-practice resulted in better learning than teacher-determined extra practice these settingsdetermined extra practice these settings

Examples of Overlearning Strategy Examples of Overlearning Strategy Applied to Types of Motor SkillsApplied to Types of Motor Skills

Procedural skillsProcedural skills –Skills that include a combination of cognitive and Skills that include a combination of cognitive and

motor components and require performance of a motor components and require performance of a series of relatively simple movements, e.g., series of relatively simple movements, e.g., assembling a rifle assembling a rifle

–U.S. Army sponsored research found 100% U.S. Army sponsored research found 100% overlearning strategy effective for long-term retentionoverlearning strategy effective for long-term retention

Dynamic balance skillsDynamic balance skills–Research has found point of diminishing returns Research has found point of diminishing returns

for amount of extra practicefor amount of extra practice50% as effective as 100% and 200%50% as effective as 100% and 200%

Physical education class settingPhysical education class setting–One study reported student-determined extra One study reported student-determined extra

practice resulted in better learning than teacher-practice resulted in better learning than teacher-determined extra practice these settingsdetermined extra practice these settings

Examples of Overlearning Strategy Examples of Overlearning Strategy Applied to Types of Motor SkillsApplied to Types of Motor Skills

Procedural skillsProcedural skills –Skills that include a combination of cognitive and Skills that include a combination of cognitive and

motor components and require performance of a motor components and require performance of a series of relatively simple movements, e.g., series of relatively simple movements, e.g., assembling a rifle assembling a rifle

–U.S. Army sponsored research found 100% U.S. Army sponsored research found 100% overlearning strategy effective for long-term retentionoverlearning strategy effective for long-term retention

Dynamic balance skillsDynamic balance skills–Research has found point of diminishing returns Research has found point of diminishing returns

for amount of extra practicefor amount of extra practice50% as effective as 100% and 200%50% as effective as 100% and 200%

Physical education class settingPhysical education class setting–One study reported student-determined extra One study reported student-determined extra

practice resulted in better learning than teacher-practice resulted in better learning than teacher-determined extra practice these settingsdetermined extra practice these settings

Overlearning Strategy CanOverlearning Strategy Can Lead to Lead toPoor LearningPoor Learning

Research has shown situations in which Research has shown situations in which learning deficits resulted from excessive learning deficits resulted from excessive practice, i.e., too much overlearningpractice, i.e., too much overlearning

–See experiments by Shea & Kohl (1990, 1991); See experiments by Shea & Kohl (1990, 1991); Travlos (1999)Travlos (1999)

What would account for these types of What would account for these types of results?results?

–Extended practice of relatively simple skills resulted Extended practice of relatively simple skills resulted in learners not continuing to engage in appropriate in learners not continuing to engage in appropriate amounts of cognitive effort (Lee et al., 1994) amounts of cognitive effort (Lee et al., 1994)

–Extended practice of the same relatively simple Extended practice of the same relatively simple movement results in decreased capability to remember movement results in decreased capability to remember the movement as well as to transfer to a movement the movement as well as to transfer to a movement variation variation

Indicates need for practice variabilityIndicates need for practice variability

Overlearning Strategy CanOverlearning Strategy Can Lead to Lead toPoor LearningPoor Learning

Research has shown situations in which Research has shown situations in which learning deficits resulted from excessive learning deficits resulted from excessive practice, i.e., too much overlearningpractice, i.e., too much overlearning

–See experiments by Shea & Kohl (1990, 1991); See experiments by Shea & Kohl (1990, 1991); Travlos (1999)Travlos (1999)

What would account for these types of What would account for these types of results?results?

–Extended practice of relatively simple skills resulted Extended practice of relatively simple skills resulted in learners not continuing to engage in appropriate in learners not continuing to engage in appropriate amounts of cognitive effort (Lee et al., 1994) amounts of cognitive effort (Lee et al., 1994)

–Extended practice of the same relatively simple Extended practice of the same relatively simple movement results in decreased capability to remember movement results in decreased capability to remember the movement as well as to transfer to a movement the movement as well as to transfer to a movement variation variation

Indicates need for practice variabilityIndicates need for practice variability

Overlearning Strategy CanOverlearning Strategy Can Lead to Lead toPoor LearningPoor Learning

Research has shown situations in which Research has shown situations in which learning deficits resulted from excessive learning deficits resulted from excessive practice, i.e., too much overlearningpractice, i.e., too much overlearning

–See experiments by Shea & Kohl (1990, 1991); See experiments by Shea & Kohl (1990, 1991); Travlos (1999)Travlos (1999)

What would account for these types of What would account for these types of results?results?

–Extended practice of relatively simple skills resulted Extended practice of relatively simple skills resulted in learners not continuing to engage in appropriate in learners not continuing to engage in appropriate amounts of cognitive effort (Lee et al., 1994) amounts of cognitive effort (Lee et al., 1994)

–Extended practice of the same relatively simple Extended practice of the same relatively simple movement results in decreased capability to remember movement results in decreased capability to remember the movement as well as to transfer to a movement the movement as well as to transfer to a movement variation variation

Indicates need for practice variabilityIndicates need for practice variability

Distribution of PracticeDistribution of Practice

The practice distribution problem:The practice distribution problem:You have a specific amount of time to You have a specific amount of time to

practice [or for rehab] for a future “test.” practice [or for rehab] for a future “test.” What is the best way to schedule the What is the best way to schedule the

available time in terms of:available time in terms of:1.1. The length and frequency of the practice The length and frequency of the practice

sessions?sessions?2.2. The length of rest intervals between trials The length of rest intervals between trials

during each practice session?during each practice session?

Two Types of Practice Two Types of Practice Distribution SchedulesDistribution Schedules

Massed PracticeMassed PracticeSessionsSessions

–Longer and fewerLonger and fewer

Between-Trial Rest Between-Trial Rest IntervalsIntervals

–None to very shortNone to very short

Distributed PracticeDistributed PracticeSessionsSessions

–Shorter and moreShorter and more

Between-Trial Rest Between-Trial Rest IntervalsIntervals

–Longer than massed Longer than massed practice lengthpractice length

Note the inherent problem for investigating practice distribution questions: No objective definitions of the terms “massed” and “distributed”

Distribution of Practice for Distribution of Practice for Practice SessionsPractice Sessions

Research shows that practice sessions Research shows that practice sessions can be too long and infrequent to lead can be too long and infrequent to lead to optimal learningto optimal learning

Better learning results when people Better learning results when people practice skills in more frequent and practice skills in more frequent and shorter practice sessions shorter practice sessions

See experiments by: See experiments by: –Baddeley & Longman (1978)Baddeley & Longman (1978)–Dail & Christina (2004)Dail & Christina (2004)

Practice SchedulePractice Schedule #hours #hours

1 hr/session – 1 session/day1 hr/session – 1 session/day (12 weeks training)(12 weeks training) 55551 hr/session – 2 sessions/day1 hr/session – 2 sessions/day (6 weeks training)(6 weeks training) 75 752 hr/session – 1 session/day2 hr/session – 1 session/day ( 6 weeks training)( 6 weeks training) 67 67 2 hr/session – 2 sessions/day2 hr/session – 2 sessions/day (3 weeks training)(3 weeks training) 80+80+

Why Distributed Practice Sessions Why Distributed Practice Sessions Are Better for LearningAre Better for Learning

Three hypothesesThree hypotheses1.1. Fatigue hypothesisFatigue hypothesis

2.2. Cognitive effort hypothesisCognitive effort hypothesis

3.3. Memory consolidation hypothesisMemory consolidation hypothesis

Distribution of Practice for Distribution of Practice for Intertrial IntervalsIntertrial Intervals

Practice distribution schedule that is best Practice distribution schedule that is best for learning depends on type of skill for learning depends on type of skill ((Lee Lee & Genovese, 1988, 1989& Genovese, 1988, 1989))

Continuous motor skillsContinuous motor skills–Distributed schedules more effective than massedDistributed schedules more effective than massed

Discrete motor skillsDiscrete motor skills–Massed schedules more effective than distributedMassed schedules more effective than distributed