Chapter 14 Twentieth-Century Political and Cultural Ferment

Chapter 14Twentieth-Century Political and Cultural Ferment

Independence Movements The Arab World

British interest is military, political, and strategicSherif Husayn agreed to revolt against the OttomansBalfour Declaration, 1917, supports ZionistsMandates under the League of Nations

France mandated Lebanon and Syria Britain mandated Iraq, Jordan, Palestine British sphere of influence over Arabian Peninsula

Cairo Conference, 1921 Britain to use Arab leaders to rule

Egyptian revolt when refused independence, 1919 Limited independence under constitutional monarchy, 1922

Conflicting demands of Zionists and Palestinians in Palestine Modernism versus tradition

TurkeyMustafa Kemal, Atatürk, wished to westernizeas rapidly as

possible Secular, constitutional stateSocial changes

IranReza Khan seized power, 1923Modernization

Saudi Arabia Influence of the Wahhabi Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud commitment to an Islamic

state Favors modernization

African Revolts Failure of early west and south African revolts North Africa

Abd al-KarimOmar Mukhtar

African Political Organizations and Pan Africanism Negriturde W.E.B. DuBois, African American

Racial, economic, political reformsAfrican independence

Blaise DaigneAfricans to achieve parity with Europeans in the imperial network

Marcus Garvy, JamaicanBack to Africa

National Congress of British West Africa African National Congress Afrikaners in South Africa

Mexico Porfirio Diaz

Modernization at the expense of the massesExclusion of the middle class and urban workersLarge foreign infestment

Francisco MaderoPlan of San Luis PotosíEmiliano Zapata

Plan of AyalaConstitution of 1917Institutional Revolutionary PartyLázaro CárdenasRevolution slows down in the 1940s

East Asian Colonial Territories, 1840-1940


1. Although European contacts with the East date from the sixteenth century, there ware restrictions. China limited western trade to Canton-Maccao and the Japanese after 1639 restricted western commerce to only the Dutch who were permitted one ship a year to an island off the commercial port of Nagasaki.

2. Expanding at the expense of the Ottomans, Russia occupied the area of the Caspian Sea by 1881 and in 1885 was in Turkistan. The appearance of the Russians on the northern borders of Persia and Afghanistan worried the British in India. In 1907 Britain and Russia agreed to make Afghanistan a buffer and divide Persia into two spheres of influence. Likewise, French annexation of Indochina was cause for Britain to take over Burma and expand from Singapore to the Malay Peninsula. Because Siam served as a buffer to the French and the British, it remained independent.

3. Blocked by the British in western Asia, Russia turned to eastern Asia. By 1860 it had occupied Manchuria but conflicting aspirations over Korea brought war with Japan in 1904. Defeated in 1905, Russia recognized Korea as a Japanese protectorate.

4. The opening of China in the nineteenth century was the result of the inability to withstand the pressures of the West. Because the Europeans had few products desired by China, there was a significant imbalance of trade. This was altered when Britain initiated commerce in illegal opium from India. When the Chinese tried to stop the trade in 1839, Britain went to war. The peace in 1842 opened new ports and forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain. Other western states demanded similar concessions. More ports were opened after military operations by the French and British in 1858-1860. In 1860 China lost Manchuria to Russia and had to allow France to establish a protectorate over Indochina. Following the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), Russia, Britain, France, Germany, and Japan partitioned China into "spheres of interest." Finally, in 1912 after an indigenous uprising, the Manchu government fell and China became a republic.

5. The presence of the United States in Asia stemmed from opening Japan in 1853. American interest was peaked even further in 1898 as a result of the Spanish-American War. The defeat of Spain brought control over the Philippine Islands and Guam. The Filipinos hoped for independence but the United States had no such intentions. An insurrection followed which took three years and 60,000 troops to quell. Independence would not come until July 4, 1946.

6. The westernization of Japan under the Meiji led to adventures in imperialism. In the Sine-Japanese War (1894-1895) victorious Japan won Chinese recognition of Korean independence, the cession of Formosa, the Pescadores Islands, and the southern projection of Manchuria (though eventually forced to give it up). Later, Japan gained concessions in Fukien opposite Formosa. After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Japan annexed southern Sakhalin Island and gained economic concessions in Manchuria.

Questions:1. Why was China unable to halt Western and Japanese advance?2. Why did Russia and Britain struggle over Asia?


1. Although European contacts with the East date from the sixteenth century, there ware restrictions. China limited western trade to Canton-Maccao and the Japanese after 1639 restricted western commerce to only the Dutch who were permitted one ship a year to an island off the commercial port of Nagasaki.

2. Expanding at the expense of the Ottomans, Russia occupied the area of the Caspian Sea by 1881 and in 1885 was in Turkistan. The appearance of the Russians on the northern borders of Persia and Afghanistan worried the British in India. In 1907 Britain and Russia agreed to make Afghanistan a buffer and divide Persia into two spheres of influence. Likewise, French annexation of Indochina was cause for Britain to take over Burma and expand from Singapore to the Malay Peninsula. Because Siam served as a buffer to the French and the British, it remained independent.

3. Blocked by the British in western Asia, Russia turned to eastern Asia. By 1860 it had occupied Manchuria but conflicting aspirations over Korea brought war with Japan in 1904. Defeated in 1905, Russia recognized Korea as a Japanese protectorate.

4. The opening of China in the nineteenth century was the result of the inability to withstand the pressures of the West. Because the Europeans had few products desired by China, there was a significant imbalance of trade. This was altered when Britain initiated commerce in illegal opium from India. When the Chinese tried to stop the trade in 1839, Britain went to war. The peace in 1842 opened new ports and forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain. Other western states demanded similar concessions. More ports were opened after military operations by the French and British in 1858-1860. In 1860 China lost Manchuria to Russia and had to allow France to establish a protectorate over Indochina. Following the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), Russia, Britain, France, Germany, and Japan partitioned China into "spheres of interest." Finally, in 1912 after an indigenous uprising, the Manchu government fell and China became a republic.

5. The presence of the United States in Asia stemmed from opening Japan in 1853. American interest was peaked even further in 1898 as a result of the Spanish-American War. The defeat of Spain brought control over the Philippine Islands and Guam. The Filipinos hoped for independence but the United States had no such intentions. An insurrection followed which took three years and 60,000 troops to quell. Independence would not come until July 4, 1946.

6. The westernization of Japan under the Meiji led to adventures in imperialism. In the Sine-Japanese War (1894-1895) victorious Japan won Chinese recognition of Korean independence, the cession of Formosa, the Pescadores Islands, and the southern projection of Manchuria (though eventually forced to give it up). Later, Japan gained concessions in Fukien opposite Formosa. After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Japan annexed southern Sakhalin Island and gained economic concessions in Manchuria.

Questions:1. Why was China unable to halt Western and Japanese advance?2. Why did Russia and Britain struggle over Asia?

Struggle for Independence in South and East Asia India

British policy to suppress local practices cruel and unjustPromoted tolerance for all religionsIndian National Congress, 1885All India Muslim League, 1905Government of India Act, 1919Mohandas K. Gandhi, Mahatma

Violence is wrong Social reform Civil disobedience India Act, 1935

Mohammed Ali Jinnah Separate identity for Muslims

Changing Indian Society Population growth, low standard of living Expanded economy Advancing status of women

Southeast Asia Burma (Myanmar) separated and granted limited autonomy

from India due to anti-British riots Achmed Sukarno led nationalistic opposition in the Dutch East

Indies (Indonesia) Communist nationalist opposition in Vietnam

The Qing Empire in the Early Twentieth Century


1. The Qing dynasty from 1644 to 1912 generally continued the political and social order of the previous Ming (1368-1644). The ruling Manchus originated in Manchuria from which the unifier of the Manchu state, Nurhachi, seized part of the Liaotung Peninsula and in 1625 made Mukden his capital. Beijing, and thus the Chinese throne, fell to the Manchus in 1644.

2. In the 1670s the khan of the Dzungars, Galdan, in western Mongolia extended his control over Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang) . When Galdan attacked the eastern Mongols, China replied and in 1696 destroyed Galdan's army. By the 1750s after years of unsettled affairs, the Qing gained control Dzungaria and Chinese Turkestan.

3. In subduing the Western Mongols, the Qing were led to move on Tibet since the Lamist church exercised influence on both Tibetan life and the Mongols. In 1750 a Qing protectorate with a garrison of 1500 men was established.

4. Since the Manchus constituted only two percent of the empire's entire population, military forces were strategically placed throughout the empire: 25 posts around Beijing; strategic locations in the northwestern frontier to prevent attacks from Central Asia; major population centers; and at important southern locations. Further protecting themselves, the Manchus separated their homeland from China and prohibited Chinese immigration in 1668. The Willow Palisade (a ditch with willows planted along it) was extended from near where the Great Wall begins in the east several hundred miles to north of Mukden and then down the Yalu River.

5. In the late eighteenth century military campaigns brought tributary status to Nepal, Burma, and Vietnam. Siam, Cambodia, Laos, and Tonkin also paid tribute at various times.

6. Between 1858 and 1860 Russia succeeded in gaining by treaty the north bank of the Amur River and jointly possessed with China the territory between the Ussuri River and the sea. The east coast of Manchuria remained unresolved between Russia and China. Finally in 1860 a treaty gave Russia the Maritime Provinces between the Ussuri and the Pacific where Vladivostok was founded in 1860.

7. By 1637 Korea had been made a vassal state. In 1876 Japan forced China to open three ports and declare Korea an independent state. War broke out in 1895 over China's claim on Korea. China's loss resulted in the recognition of the independence of Korea and handing over Liaotung Peninsula and Taiwan (Formosa) to Japan.

Question:1. How had the Qing begun to contract by the end of the nineteenth century?


1. The Qing dynasty from 1644 to 1912 generally continued the political and social order of the previous Ming (1368-1644). The ruling Manchus originated in Manchuria from which the unifier of the Manchu state, Nurhachi, seized part of the Liaotung Peninsula and in 1625 made Mukden his capital. Beijing, and thus the Chinese throne, fell to the Manchus in 1644.

2. In the 1670s the khan of the Dzungars, Galdan, in western Mongolia extended his control over Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang) . When Galdan attacked the eastern Mongols, China replied and in 1696 destroyed Galdan's army. By the 1750s after years of unsettled affairs, the Qing gained control Dzungaria and Chinese Turkestan.

3. In subduing the Western Mongols, the Qing were led to move on Tibet since the Lamist church exercised influence on both Tibetan life and the Mongols. In 1750 a Qing protectorate with a garrison of 1500 men was established.

4. Since the Manchus constituted only two percent of the empire's entire population, military forces were strategically placed throughout the empire: 25 posts around Beijing; strategic locations in the northwestern frontier to prevent attacks from Central Asia; major population centers; and at important southern locations. Further protecting themselves, the Manchus separated their homeland from China and prohibited Chinese immigration in 1668. The Willow Palisade (a ditch with willows planted along it) was extended from near where the Great Wall begins in the east several hundred miles to north of Mukden and then down the Yalu River.

5. In the late eighteenth century military campaigns brought tributary status to Nepal, Burma, and Vietnam. Siam, Cambodia, Laos, and Tonkin also paid tribute at various times.

6. Between 1858 and 1860 Russia succeeded in gaining by treaty the north bank of the Amur River and jointly possessed with China the territory between the Ussuri River and the sea. The east coast of Manchuria remained unresolved between Russia and China. Finally in 1860 a treaty gave Russia the Maritime Provinces between the Ussuri and the Pacific where Vladivostok was founded in 1860.

7. By 1637 Korea had been made a vassal state. In 1876 Japan forced China to open three ports and declare Korea an independent state. War broke out in 1895 over China's claim on Korea. China's loss resulted in the recognition of the independence of Korea and handing over Liaotung Peninsula and Taiwan (Formosa) to Japan.

Question:1. How had the Qing begun to contract by the end of the nineteenth century?

Chinese Nationalism Sun Yat sen

Three People’s PrinciplesKuomintangChinese Republic established, 1911Active warlordsAccepts support of the Soviet UnionChiang Kai-shek

Chinese Communism Mao Tse-tung

Peasants key to political powerLong March

The Northern Expedition


1. Revolutionary Marxism had its greatest impact on the industrial center of Shanghai where the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1919. At the urging of Comintern agents, the CCP formed an alliance with the ruling Kuomintang Party (Nationalist) in 1923 to oppose the warlords and drive out foreign powers in China. Meanwhile, in Canton, the CCP was creating a communist led government within a government. Communist influence was spreading in the Kuomintang. In March 1926 Chiang Kai-Shek, who had succeeded to the head of the Kuomintang after Sun Yat-sen died in 1925, staged a coup d'etat at Canton ousting part of the CCP leadership. Chiang reaffirmed the Canton-Moscow alliance.

2. The Northern Expedition had been long in planning by Sun to smash the warlords and unify China. It was launched in July 1926. Preceded by trained propagandist, the army advanced rapidly and by the time it reached the Yangtze River had absorbed the armies of thirty-four warlords. In 1927 the Northern Expedition continued to press its successful take over of central China. This included movement down the Yangtze to seize the center of rice production and the industrial base around Shanghai. On April 12 Chiang's forces attacked the Communists and their supporters in Shanghai and killed thousands. Chaing then set up his own government in Nanjing. Another Nationalist Northern Expedition in 1928 occupied Peiking, renaming it Peiping (Beijing, "Northern Peace"). By the end of 1928 the nationalist government had received international recognition.

3. In response to these events, Mao Zedong led an insurrection in Hunan but it, like the revolt in Canton, failed. The CCP leadership that was not executed went underground or was forced into the countryside.

4. In late 1926 the Nationalist government moved from Canton to Wuhan.

5. After 1927 the CCP-Kuomintang alliance no longer existed and Chiang was determined to root the communists out of their base in Shanghai and their rural redoubt in Jianxi province. By 1931 they were drawn out of Shanghai. Three years later the communists were surrounded in Jianxi. Abandoning their base in October 1934, Mao Zedong's Young People's Liberation Army embarked on the Long March. Moving swiftly on foot at night over a period of one year and at distance of 6000 miles, the journey ended at Yunan. Only 10,000 arrived at the final destination.

Questions:1. What was the purpose of the Northern Expedition and what did it accomplish?2. What was the Long March and why was it necessary?


1. Revolutionary Marxism had its greatest impact on the industrial center of Shanghai where the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1919. At the urging of Comintern agents, the CCP formed an alliance with the ruling Kuomintang Party (Nationalist) in 1923 to oppose the warlords and drive out foreign powers in China. Meanwhile, in Canton, the CCP was creating a communist led government within a government. Communist influence was spreading in the Kuomintang. In March 1926 Chiang Kai-Shek, who had succeeded to the head of the Kuomintang after Sun Yat-sen died in 1925, staged a coup d'etat at Canton ousting part of the CCP leadership. Chiang reaffirmed the Canton-Moscow alliance.

2. The Northern Expedition had been long in planning by Sun to smash the warlords and unify China. It was launched in July 1926. Preceded by trained propagandist, the army advanced rapidly and by the time it reached the Yangtze River had absorbed the armies of thirty-four warlords. In 1927 the Northern Expedition continued to press its successful take over of central China. This included movement down the Yangtze to seize the center of rice production and the industrial base around Shanghai. On April 12 Chiang's forces attacked the Communists and their supporters in Shanghai and killed thousands. Chaing then set up his own government in Nanjing. Another Nationalist Northern Expedition in 1928 occupied Peiking, renaming it Peiping (Beijing, "Northern Peace"). By the end of 1928 the nationalist government had received international recognition.

3. In response to these events, Mao Zedong led an insurrection in Hunan but it, like the revolt in Canton, failed. The CCP leadership that was not executed went underground or was forced into the countryside.

4. In late 1926 the Nationalist government moved from Canton to Wuhan.

5. After 1927 the CCP-Kuomintang alliance no longer existed and Chiang was determined to root the communists out of their base in Shanghai and their rural redoubt in Jianxi province. By 1931 they were drawn out of Shanghai. Three years later the communists were surrounded in Jianxi. Abandoning their base in October 1934, Mao Zedong's Young People's Liberation Army embarked on the Long March. Moving swiftly on foot at night over a period of one year and at distance of 6000 miles, the journey ended at Yunan. Only 10,000 arrived at the final destination.

Questions:1. What was the purpose of the Northern Expedition and what did it accomplish?2. What was the Long March and why was it necessary?

Japanese Imperialism in ChinaManchuria, 1931Chiang Kai-shek calls for unity to resist JapanInvasion of China, 1937

Changing Chinese SocietyConfucian philosophy collapsed with the imperial systemImpact of Christian schools on education

Soviet Union, 1917-1939 Tsarist Government

Nicholas II, 1894-1917Peasant population growthEmergence of small urban working classRevolt of 1905October Manifesto, 1905

Heavy loses in World War I Tsarist government falls, 1917 Provisional government under Alexander Kerensky, a moderate

socialist Lenin and Bolsheviks seize power

V.I. Lenin; Bolsheviks Provisional government overthrown, November 6, 1917

Bolshevik regime, 1918-1924 Social Revolutionaries Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Civil War, 1918-1920 Red Terror Economic collapse; NEP

Struggle for Succession to LeninPolitical struggle between Trotsky and StalinStalin purges the partyFive Year Plans

Attacks on the kulaks and nepmen State and communal farms Forced labor Political purges, 1934-1939

Life and Culture Destroy the Russian Orthodox church Aims to create a classless society Medical care and compulsory free education Government control of the arts

Soviet Foreign Policy Third Internationale, Comintern Commercial treaties, recognition League of Nations, 1934

Scientific Advances of the Twentieth Century Marie Curie, radium Albert Einstein, four-dimensional space-time continuum Astronomy

Biology, Anthropology, and Psychology Green Revolution Modifications on Darwin’s theories DNA Margaret Mead Cultural relativism

Technology Increased productivity Plastics and synthetics Automobile Recreational and entertainment advances Medicine Computers Dangers of technology

Economics Managerial revolution Service occupations Multinational firms Government involvement in economics

Social Changes and Women’s Rights Population explosion and rapid urbanization Welfare state Education Women

More in the workforceSuffrageSimone de Beauvoir

Secularism, Pragmatism, Existentialism Cultural and moral relativism John Dewey, Pragmatism Jean-Paul Sartre

Secularism versus Religion Reconciling Hinduism and Confucianism with Western institutions Al-Afghani and Muhammad Abdu Muslim Brotherhood

Social Thought Conservatism Liberalism

Modernism and the Arts Stress emotions and underside of modern life Influence of non-Western traditions and styles

Popular Culture Electronic media Americanization of popular culture

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Chapter 14 Twentieth-Century Political and Cultural Ferment