Chapter 13Western Eurasia 1200-1500

Nomadism in Central Asia Agriculture is difficult on the steppes and deserts of Central

Asia, so the inhabitants became pastoral nomads. Occasionally different nomadic groups would come into

contact while seeking the same resources, and the outcome was usually war, alliance, or both.

Since early times, Central Asian societies had been permeated by the idea of world rulership by a khan, who, with the aid of his shamans, would speak to and for an ultimate god.

Generally men tended the herds in the pastures, and women were responsible for breeding, milking, shearing, etc.

Nomads strove for economic self-sufficiency by attempting to restrict their diet to foods they could provide and by wearing clothes produced by pastoral animals.

However, nomads never lived completely independent of settled regions. Iron was one important material nomads needed to acquire through trade with settled regions.

Nomads were responsible for the transfer of goods, information, and technology across Eurasia.

The Mongol Conquests

When Temujin was a boy his father was murdered by a rival group.

At 15, Temujin sought refuge with the Keraits. During his time with them, Temujin learned the leadership skills that would be fundamental to the power and scope of the empire he would build.

After conquering rival clans, Temujin was acknowleged as Genghis Khan, or supreme leader, of the Mongols and their allies in 1206.

Shortly after this, Genghis began to carry out his plan to convince the kingdoms of Eurasia to surrender tribute to him.

Genghis and his sons/grandsons successfully conquered much of Eurasia over the next 30 years.

Overland Trade and the Plague

Mongol control of a vast area of land encouraged trade of goods such as silk as well as a merging of artistic styles.

This trade was protected by Mongol control of the overland routes and promoted by Mongol tax policies, but it was carried out by a collection of very different peoples from all over Eurasia.

Mongol policies also widened the steady stream of knowledge between Europe and the Middle East.

This trade also led to the spread of the bubonic plague as well as other diseases.

Mongol Rivalry

By 1260 two distinct Mongol realms had been established in western Eurasia: the Il-khan Empire (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Mesopotamia, and Iran) and the Golden Horde (Russia).

The leader of the Golden Horde converted to Islam and decided to avenge the murder of the last Abbasid caliph (murdered by the Il-khan).

There were tensions between Mongols and Muslims due to differing beliefs (ex. idol worship, animal slaughter)

The Il-khan were Buddhists, and Europeans attempted to join with them to drive Muslims out of contested religious sites.

Before this alliance could be finalized, a new Il-khan ruler (Ghazan) converted to Islam, and the Il-khans declared themselves the protectors of Islam. All Mongols were ordered to convert.

Map: The Mongol Empire

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Islam and the State The Il-khans used tax farming to generate income.

In tax farming, the government sold tax-collecting contracts to small corporations who promised to collect the most money.

The tax farmers could use whatever means they chose to collect taxes and could keep anything over the contracted amount.

The short-term results for the government were good, but the high tax rate led to debt, servitude, inflation, and other economic problems.

Ghazan became Il-khan and converted in the midst of this crisis. He lessened the government’s tax demands and sought new methods of economic management.

He decided to try the Chinese practice of paper money, but the people had no confidence in it, and the economy sank into a depression that lasted until the end of the Il-khan period.

Islam and the State

As the power of the Il-khans in the Middle East and the Golden Horde in Russia weakened in the 14th century, a new power emerged in Central Asia.

Under the leader Timur, the Jagadai Khanate drew on the political traditions of the Mongols and on Islam.

Much of the Middle East was united under his rule, and he hoped to add China.

The Timurids (Timur’s descendants):

Deepened and consolidated Sunni Islamic influence in the Middle East.

Laid the groundwork for the later establishment in India of a Muslim Mongol regime, the Mughals.

Timur was the last great Central Asian conqueror. After his time Central Asia was no longer the crossroads of Eurasia, as it had been since the earliest times.

Art and Science in Islamic Eurasia The Il-khans and Timurids presided over a brilliant period

in Islamic civilization.

History Juvaini – described the rise of Mongols under Genghis Khan

Rashid al-Din – attempted first history of the world

Astronomy Tried to reconcile Ptolemy’s geocentric theory

Nasir al-Din made a breakthrough that eventually reached Copernicus.

Calendars

Navigational equipment

Mathematics Complex algebra and geometry

Spread Indian (Arabic) number system

decimals

Depictions of Europeans inRashid al-DinA Persian Jew who converted to Islam, Rashid al-Din (ca. 1247-1318) undertook to explain the great variety of cultures by writing a history of the world including a history of the Franks, illustrated here with images of Western popes (left) conferring with Byzantine emperors (right). (Topkapi Palace Museum)

Depictions of Europeans in Rashid al-Din

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Effects of Mongol Rule in Persia and Russia

In Persia, the Il-khan were very involved in local society and eventually converted to Islam.

In Russia, the Golden Horde was removed from Russian society, both physically and politically, and never developed an identification with the culture.

Despite this difference, there are some similar effects:

The local language emerged as a literary language.

Traditional elites were weakened.

The local religion remained powerful.

The dominant capital city lost power and new cities gained influence.

Centralization increased. (In Russia, Ivan III, the prince of Moscow, established himself as an autocratic ruler.)

Golden Horde Invading Europe (stopped in Lithuania)

Effects of the Mongols in Europe

While western Europe was busy with conflict between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor, the kingdoms of eastern Europe had to deal with the Golden Horde on their own.

Some eastern European princes chose to capitulate and went to the capital and declared themselves slaves of Batu.

When eastern Europe was attacked by Mongol forces, Europe panicked. Some theories: Mongols had bodies that were part dog

Mongols came from hell

The Mongols were the lost tribes of Israel. Jews who were thought to be in secret alliance with the invaders were lynched.

When the Great Khan Ogodei died, the onslaught suddenly stopped as the Mongol princes returned to Mongolia to elect a new Khan.

Effects of the Mongols in Europe Through contact, eventually European terror of Mongols

was replaced with awe and idealization of the wealth and power of the Mongol khanates.

More Asian knowledge will make its way into Europe.

Eurasian geography

Mining and use of coal

Movable type

Higher math

gunpowder

The Mongol invasion (along with the Bubonic Plague) ignited a storm of religious questioning and anxiety.

Ottoman Turks moved into the region (and eventually conquered the Byzantine empire, renaming Constantinople Istanbul)