Chapter 13: Psychological Testing · 2020. 8. 27. · A history test will not measure general learning ability. A test you take in physical education class may not measure your knowledge

A range of personalities

Chapter 13 Psychological Testing

Chapter 14 Theories of Personality

Contents

T hroughout time people have proposed differenttheories to explain the development of human

personality. In the seventeenth century, Thomas Hobbesargued that all humans are inherently selfish. In theeighteenth century, Jean-Jacques Rousseau claimed thathumans are basically good. Which is it? What makes uswho we are?

Psychology JournalSuppose you were asked to

select the best person to beyour teacher from among agroup of applicants. Howwould you go about makingthe selection? Write youranswer in your journal. ■

Chapter OverviewVisit the Understanding PsychologyWeb site at psychology.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 13—ChapterOverviews to preview the chapter.

PSYCHOLOGY

342

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/psychology/psych2001/chapter13/overview.html

All psychological tests have one characteristic that makes themboth fascinating and remarkably practical—they try to makeit possible to find out a great deal about a person in a short

time. Tests can be useful in predicting how well a person might do ina particular career; in assessing an individual’s desires, interests, and attitudes; and in revealing psychological problems. One virtue of stan-dardized tests is that they can provide comparable data about many indi-viduals. Tests can show how an individual compares to others. Further,

Characteristics ofPsychological Tests

■ Main IdeaTo be useful, tests have to be standard-ized and exhibit reliability and validity.

■ Vocabulary• reliability• validity• percentile system• norms

■ Objectives• Identify three ways of measuring

reliability.• Explain test standardization and how

test validity is assessed.

Reader’s GuideExploring Psychology

Not Fair!I vividly remember my first genuine IQ

test. I was 17 at the time. The youth direc-tor at my church was in graduate school,working on an advanced degree in psychol-ogy, and as part of a course in intelligencetesting, he was required to administer an IQtest to several subjects. I was one of hisselected “volunteers,” although I was also afriend. I remember wondering later aboutwhether or not he had given me an unfairadvantage on the test. He often respondedto my asking for clarification by going intogreat detail while explaining a particularkind of question. I wondered if my scorewould be comparable to that of anotherperson who was tested by someone whowas not so generous about clarifying items.

—from Psychology: Science, Behavior, and Lifeby Robert L. Crooks and Jean Stein, 1988

Chapter 13 / Psychological Testing 343

reliability: the ability of a testto give the same results undersimilar conditions

psychologists can use some tests to help people understand things aboutthemselves more clearly. Using tests to predict behavior can be contro-versial. It is important to keep in mind what the test is measuring.

One of the great dangers of testing is that we tend to forget that testsare merely tools for measuring and predicting human behavior. We startto think of test results (for example, an IQ) as an end in itself. The justifi-cation for using a test to make decisions about a person’s future dependson whether a decision based on test scores would be fairer and more accu-rate than one based on other criteria. The fairness and usefulness of a testdepend on reliability, validity, and standardization.

TEST RELIABILITYThe term reliability refers to a test’s consistency—its ability to yield

the same result under a variety of similar circumstances. There are threebasic ways of determining a test’s reliability. First, if a person retakes thetest or takes a similar test within a short time after the first testing, doeshe or she receive approximately the same score? If, for example, you takea mechanical aptitude test three times in the space of six months andscore 65 in January, a perfect score of 90 in March, and 70 in June, thenthe test is unreliable because it does not produce a measurement that isstable over time. The scores vary too much. This is assessing the mea-sure’s test-retest reliability (see Figure 13.2).

The second measure of reliability is whether the test yields thesame results when scored at different times by different people. If

both your teacher and another teacher critique an essay test thatyou have taken, and one gives you a B while the other gives

you a D, then you have reason to complain about thetest’s reliability. The score you receive depends more on

the grader than on you. This is called interscorer relia-bility. If the same teacher grades papers at different

times, he or she may score the same essay differ-ently. This is scorer reliability. On a reliable test,

your score would be the same no matter whograded it and when it was graded.

One final way of determining a test’s reliabil-ity is to randomly divide the test items in half and

score each half separately. The two scores should beapproximately the same. This is called split-half relia-bility. If a test is supposed to measure one quality in a

person—for example, read-ing comprehension ormathematical ability—itshould not have some sec-tions on which the personscores high and others onwhich he or she scores low.

344 Chapter 13 / Psychological Testing

Americans rely heavily on psychological testing because such testspromise to reveal a great deal about a person in a very short time.How can you judge the fairness and usefulness of a test?

Figure 13.1 Taking Psychological Tests

In checking tests for reliability, psycholo-gists try to prevent variables from influencing aperson’s score. All kinds of irrelevant matterscan interfere with a test. No test can screen outall interferences, but a highly reliable test caneliminate a good part of them.

TEST VALIDITYA test may be reliable but still not valid.

Validity is the ability of a test to measurewhat it is intended to measure (see Figure13.3). For example, a test that consists pri-marily of Spanish vocabulary lists will notmeasure ability for engineering. A historytest will not measure general learning ability.A test you take in physical education classmay not measure your knowledge of gram-mar, or a math test that asks questions thatwere not covered in class does not measurewhat you learned in class.

Determining the validity of a test is more complex than assessing itsreliability. One of the chief methods for measuring validity is to find outhow well a test predicts performance—its predictive validity. For example,a group of psychologists designs a test to measure management ability.They ask questions about management systems, attitudes towardemployees, and other relevant information. Will the people who scorehigh on this test really make good managers?

Suppose the test makers decide that a good way to check the validityof the test is to find out how much a manager’s staff improves in pro-ductivity in one year. If the staffs of those equally skilled managers whoscored high on the test improve more than the staffs of those managerswho scored low on the test, the test may be considered valid.Corporations may then adopt it as one tool to use in deciding whom tohire as managers, assuming the test is also valid for their situations.

What if managers who are good at raising productivity are poor atdecision making? It may be that this test measures talent for improvingproductivity, not general management ability. This is the kind of diffi-culty psychologists encounter in trying to assess the validity of a test. Asthe example shows, nothing can be said about a test’s validity unless thepurpose of the test is absolutely clear.

STANDARDIZATIONTests must be standardized. Standardization refers to two things. First,

standardized tests must be administered and scored the same way everytime. Test administrators are trained to follow the same procedures and


High High

Low LowHigh Reliability

Test

Sco

re

Ret

est S

core

High High

Low LowLow Reliability

Test

Sco

re

Ret

est S

core

Judging ReliabilityOn the left, the testscores obtained byseven individuals areordered on a scale. On the right, the cor-responding scores ona second version ofthe same test, given at a later time, areordered. In the upperdiagram, the two setsof scores correspondvery closely—meaningthe test is highly reli-able. What is meantby saying a test isreliable?

Figure 13.2

validity: the ability of a test tomeasure what it is intended tomeasure

norms: standard of compari-son for test results developedby giving the test to large, well-defined groups of people

percentile system: rankingof test scores that indicates theratio of scores lower and higherthan a given score

to ask the same questions the same way. Iftest administrators give instructions in aninconsistent manner or provide hints,errors in assessing the test taker wouldresult. Second, standardization refers toestablishing the norm, or average score,made by a large group of people.

Establishing NormsOnce a test result is obtained, the

examiner must translate the score intosomething useful. Suppose a child answers32 of 50 questions on a vocabulary testcorrectly. What does this score mean? Ifthe test is reliable and valid, it means thatthe child can be expected to understand acertain percentage of the words in a book atthe reading level being tested. In otherwords, the score predicts how the childwill perform at a given level.

Yet a raw score does not tell us wherethe child stands in relation to other children at his or her age and gradelevel. If most children answered 45 or more questions correctly, 32 is alow score. If most answered only 20 questions correctly, however, 32 is avery high score.

When psychologists design a test to be used in a variety of settings,they usually set up a scale for comparison by establishing norms. This isusually done by transforming raw test scores into a percentile system,which resembles what is called grading on the curve. In the percentilesystem, the scores actually achieved on the test are placed in order, ranging from the highest to the lowest. Each score is then compared withthis list and assigned a percentile according to the percentage of scoresthat fall at or below this point. For example, if half the children in theabove example scored 32 or below, then a score of 32 is at the 50th percentile. If 32 were the top score, it would be at the 100th percentile.In the example given in Figure 13.4, a score of 32 puts the child in the75th percentile, because only 25 percent of the children tested achieveda higher score.

In order to make such comparisons, the test is given first to a largerepresentative sample of the group to be measured—for example, sixthgraders or army privates. Percentiles are then established on the basis ofthe scores achieved by this standardization group. These percentiles arecalled the test’s norms. Most of the intelligence, aptitude, and personal-ity tests you will encounter have been provided with norms in this way.Your percentile on an aptitude test, such as the Scholastic AssessmentTest (SAT), reflects your standing among people of your age and gradewho have taken these exams.


High Excellent

Excellent

Low PoorHigh Validity

Sta

nfor

d-B

inet

IQ

Sch

ool g

rade

sS

choo

l gra

des

High

Low PoorLow Validity

Hea

d si

ze

Judging ValidityThe upper diagram represents the result of comparing theStanford-BinetIntelligence Scalescores with schoolgrades. The lower diagram represents the comparison ofscores on the head size test of intelligencewith school grades.(The head size test is simply measuring the size of a student’shead.) What defines a valid test?

Figure 13.3

Reading CheckWhy must raw scores be

transformed into percentiles?

You should remember,however, that norms arenot really standards,although a norm group issometimes misleadinglyreferred to as a standardiza-tion group. Norms referonly to what has beenfound to be average for aparticular group. If Johncan read at the 50th per-centile level, that does notmean that he has met someabsolute standard for abilityto read. It means only thathe reads better than half thepopulation and worse thanthe other half in his particu-lar group.

In summary, when youtake a test and obtain yourscore, you should considerthe following questions inevaluating the results. (1) Do you think that if you took the same testagain, you would receive a similar score? (2) Does your performance onthis test reflect your usual performance in the subject? (3) If you were tocompare your score with those of your classmates, would it reflect yourgeneral standing within that group?


Test Scores

Rel

ativ

e F

req

uen

cy

5th

10th

20th

40th

60th

80th

90th

95th

99th1s

t

Percentile Scores

25 30 35 40 45 500 5 10 15 20

Establishing PercentilesThe range of possible raw scores on a test is shown in relation to anidealized curve that indicates the proportion of people who achievedeach score. The vertical lines indicate percentiles, or proportions ofthe curve below certain points. Thus, the line indicated as the 1stpercentile is the line below which only 1 percent of the curve lies. Howdo psychologists establish a scale for comparing test results?

Figure 13.4

1. Review the Vocabulary What is meantwhen we ask about the reliability orvalidity of a test?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a dia-gram similar to the one below, identifythree measures of a test’s reliability.

3. Recall Information What does it meanif a test is standardized? Why do westandardize tests?

4. Think Critically Do you think an intel-ligence test would be a valid test formeasuring a person’s knowledge of aforeign language? Explain.

Measures of Reliability

Assessment

5. Application Activity Ask a teacher for ananonymous listing of all the scores on a recenttest. Using the information in this section, estab-lish the percentiles for the test scores.

Trukese navigation abilities point out the difficulty in coming togrips with what is meant by intelligence. Some might say that theinability of the Trukese to explain their sailing techniques is a sign

of unintelligent behavior. It is hard to accuse the Trukese of being unin-telligent, though. They sail successfully through the open ocean watersevery day.

VIEWS OF INTELLIGENCEPsychologists do not agree on the meaning of the word intelligence.

Most believe that intelligence is the ability to acquire new ideas and new behavior and to adapt to new situations. Others believe that

Intelligence Testing

■ Main IdeaSeveral IQ tests are used to measureintelligence, although there are manyviews about what constitutes intelligence.

■ Vocabulary• intelligence• two-factor theory• triarchic theory• emotional intelligence• intelligence quotient (IQ)• heritability• cultural bias

■ Objectives• Explain the various views of

intelligence.• Identify two kinds of IQ tests.


Is This Intelligence?It is typical for members of the

Trukese, a small tribe in the South Pacific,to sail a hundred miles in open oceanwaters. Although their destination may bejust a small dot of land less than a milewide, the Trukese are able to sail unerringlytoward it without the aid of compass,chronometer, sextant, or any of the othersailing tools that are indispensable to mod-ern western navigation. They are able tosail accurately, even when prevailing windsdo not allow a direct approach. . . .

How are the Trukese able to navigateso effectively? If you ask them, they couldnot explain it.

—from Understanding Psychology by Robert S.Feldman, 2002


Trukese intelligence

intelligence is what allowsyou to do well on intelli-gence tests and in school.The concept, however,continues to be difficult topin down. Over the years,psychologists have pre-sented several differentviews of intelligence.

Two-Factor Theory ofIntelligence

British psychologistCharles Spearman proposedhis two-factor theoryof intelligence in 1904.According to Spearman’stheory, two factors con-tribute to a person’s intel-ligence. The first factor, g, represents a person’s gen-eral intelligence. This in-volves a person’s ability toperform complex mentalwork, such as problem solv-ing. A second factor, s, represents a person’s specific mental abilities, suchas verbal or math skills. Spearman believed that every individual had a cer-tain level of general intelligence.

Critics argue that g does not measure many other kinds of mental abil-ities such as motor, musical, or creative abilities. These critics argue thatintelligence cannot be reduced to just g and expressed by a single IQ score.

Thurstone’s Theory of IntelligenceA major opponent of Spearman’s theory was L.L. Thurstone (1938).

After testing a large number of people on more than 50 different abilitytests, Thurstone concluded that there was no evidence for the generalintelligence that Spearman had identified. Instead, Thurstone proposedthat intelligence is composed of seven primary mental abilities (see Figure13.5). He believed that a person’s intelligence needed to be a measurementof all seven mental abilities and not just a measurement of one factor.

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple IntelligencesPsychologist Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) rejected the traditional

idea of intelligence as primarily the ability to think logically. He believesthis view is inadequate because it omits many important skills. Gardnerargues for a broader perspective that includes eight types of intelli-gence (see Figure 13.6). Seven types of intelligence are: (1) verbal ability;


Reading CheckHow did Thurstone’s def-

inition of intelligence differ fromSpearman’s?

intelligence: the ability toacquire new ideas and newbehavior, and to adapt to newsituations

two-factor theory: pro-poses that two factors con-tribute to an individual’s intelligence

Thurstone’s Seven Primary Mental Abilities

Thurstone’s theory of intelligence did not include the idea of a general intelligence. How does Thurstone’s theory compare toGardner’s theory?

Figure 13.5

Verbal comprehension ability to understand the meaning of words, concepts, and ideas

Numerical ability ability to use numbers quickly to compute answersto problems

Spatial relations ability to visualize and manipulate patterns andforms in space

Perceptual speed ability to grasp perceptual details quickly and accu-rately and to determine similarities and differencesbetween stimuli

Word fluency ability to use words quickly and fluently in perform-ing such tasks as rhyming, solving anagrams, anddoing crossword puzzles

Memory ability to recall information such as lists of words,mathematical formulas, and definitions

Inductive reasoning ability to derive general rules and principles frompresented information

Theory Main Ideas

(2) logical-mathematicalreasoning skills; (3) spatialability, or the ability to findyour way around an envi-ronment and to form men-tal images of it; (4) musicalability, or the ability to cre-ate and perceive pitch andrhythm patterns; (5) body-kinesthetic ability, or skill atfine motor movements re-quired for tasks such asgem cutting, surgery, andathletics; (6) interpersonalskills, involving understand-ing the feelings of others;and (7) intrapersonal skills,or knowledge of oneself.Gardner later added aneighth intelligence—natu-ralist intelligence. Naturalistintelligence is a person’sability to identify and clas-sify patterns in nature.(Gardner is also consideringa ninth intelligence, existen-tial intelligence. This intelli-gence concerns the experi-ence of existence.)

Gardner’s research onthe results of brain diseaseconvinced him that hu-mans possess these eightdifferent and often unre-lated intellectual capacities,or intelligences. Moreover,he argues that the biologi-

cal organization of the brain affects one’s strength in each of the eight areas.Critics of Gardner’s theory argue that some of what Gardner called

“intelligence” are really skills. For instance, someone with exceptional musi-cal abilities or body-kinesthetic abilities is really just talented. These criticsclaim that intelligence and talent (or skill) are two different things.

Sternberg’s Theory of IntelligenceRobert Sternberg (1985) proposed a triarchic theory, or three-part

theory, of intelligence. Sternberg proposed that intelligence can be dividedinto three ways of processing information. The first way is using analyticalthinking skills, or the ability to solve problems. These kinds of skills are the


M any parents andteachers have

embraced Howard Gardner’sidea of multiple intelligences. Critics, though, doubt that the multi-ple intelligences theory should be implemented in the classroom.Critics argue that although Gardner’s theory has helped teachersappreciate the many talents of students, the theory is weak. Thedanger lies in wasting precious school time.

In the classroom, teachers usually implement Gardner’s theoryby attacking a concept from many different perspectives or view-points. For example, to teach kids about the oceans, teachers havethem write about cleaning a fish, draw a sea creature, role-play asea creature, use diagrams to compare and contrast ships, and soforth (Collins, 1998).

Again, critics argue that although a teacher may tap into achild’s strongest intelligence by using various instructionalapproaches, that child must still rely on verbal and math skills tosucceed in higher education and a career. Gardner’s theory has yetto be stringently tested. Gardner himself claims, “We are not yetcertain of the goodness of the idea of multiple intelligences.”

Howard Gardner1943–

“I’m sure there are lotsof different intelligences.I’m sure an educational

approach that paysattention to this is goingto be more effective than

one that denies it.”

Profiles In Psychology

triarchic theory: proposesthat intelligence can be dividedinto three ways of processinginformation

ones that are traditionally measured on intelligence tests. The second wayis applying creative thinking to solving problems and dealing with new situations. The third is using practical thinking skills to help adjust to andcope with one’s environment. Sternberg’s ideas stress the point that traditional intelligence tests do not measure and assess intelligences foundin everyday life. Like Gardner’s theory, though, Sternberg’s theory makesit difficult to measure intelligence, at least with traditional types of measurements.

Emotional IntelligenceAnother type of intelligence is called emotional intelligence. It is

related to Gardner’s concepts of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences and has been discussed in the popular press. Emotionalintelligence has four major aspects (Mayer & Salovey, 1997):

• The ability to perceive and express emotions accurately and appropriately

• The ability to use emotions while thinking

• The ability to understand emotions and use the knowledge effectively

• The ability to regulate one’s emotions to promote personal growth


emotional intelligence:includes four major aspects ofinterpersonal and intrapersonalintelligences

Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesGardner proposed that each person has numerous and unrelatedintelligences. He points out that a person can be outstanding insome intelligences and not in others. What is the differencebetween interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence?

Figure 13.6

ability to utilize language skill at learning, using, and understanding languages

Linguistic/Verbal

ability to process and compute logical problems and equations

skill at solving algebra problemsLogical-Mathematical

ability to comprehend shapes andimages in three dimensions

ability to perform and compose music

skill at putting puzzles together or molding sculptures

skills at performing and comprehendingmusic

Spatial

Musical

ability to perceive and control movement, balance, agility, grace

sense of how one’s body should act andreact in a physically demanding situation

Body-Kinesthetic

ability to interact with and understandothers and to interpret their behavior

skill at gauging others’ moods and motivations

Interpersonal

ability to understand and sense oneself skill at using self-esteem, self-enhancement, and strength of characterto solve internal problems

Intrapersonal

ability to identify and classify patterns andrelationships in natural surroundings

skill at distinguishing differences amonglarge numbers of similar objects

Naturalist

Intelligence Description Example

This view of intelligence has intrigued many psychologists. Major propo-nents of this view have linked emotional intelligence to success in theworkplace. Some psychologists, however, argue that emotional intelli-gence is simply a measurement of extraversion. More research needs tobe done to confirm this theory of intelligence (see TIME Reports, p. 372).

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCE TESTSAmong the most widely used and widely disputed tests in the United

States and Canada today are those that are designed to measure intelli-gence in terms of an IQ score. Alfred Binet, a French psychologist, workedwith Theodore Simon to develop a useful intelligence test. In 1904 Binetwas asked by the Paris school authorities to devise a means of picking out“slow learners” so they could be placed in special classes from which theymight better profit. Binet was unable to define intelligence, but he believedit was complex. He thought it was reflected in the things children do—making common-sense judgments, telling the meanings of words, and solv-ing problems and puzzles. Binet also assumed that whatever intelligencewas, it increased with age. That is, older children had more intelligencethan younger children. Therefore, in selecting items for his test, he includ-ed only items on which older children did better than younger children.

By asking the same questions of many children, Binet determined theaverage age at which a particular question could be answered. For exam-ple, he discovered that certain questions could be answered by most 12-year-olds but not by most 11-year-olds. If a child of 11, or even 9,could answer these questions, he or she was said to have a mental age of12. If a child of 12 could answer the 9-year-old-level questions but not thequestions for 10-year-olds and 11-year-olds, he or she was said to have amental age of 9. Thus a slow learner was one who had a mental age thatwas less than his or her chronological age.

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence ScaleBinet’s intelligence test has been revised many times since he devel-

oped it. The Binet test currently used in the United States is a revisioncreated at Stanford University—the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale(Terman & Merrill, 1973). The Stanford-Binet, like the original test,groups test items by age level. To stimulate and maintain the child’s inter-est, several tasks are included, ranging from defining words to drawingpictures and explaining events in daily life. Children are tested one at atime. Examiners must carry out standardized instructions while puttingthe child at ease, getting him to pay attention, and encouraging him totry as hard as he can (see Figure 13.7).

The IQ, or intelligence quotient, was originally computed bydividing a child’s mental age (the average age of those who also receivedthe same score as that child) by chronological (actual) age and multiply-ing by 100.

IQ � � 100Mental Age��Chronological Age


PSYCHOLOGY

Student Web ActivityVisit the UnderstandingPsychology Web site atpsychology.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 13—Student Web Activities foran activity on intelligencetesting.

intelligence quotient (IQ):standardized measure of intelli-gence based on a scale inwhich 100 is average

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/psychology/psych2001/chapter13/webact.html

So an 8-year-old child who scored at the mental age of 8 would have an IQof 100. Although the basic principles behind the calculation of IQ remain,scores are figured in a slightly different manner today. Researchers assign ascore of 100 to the average performance at any given age. Then, IQ valuesare assigned to all the other test scores for this age group. If you have an IQof 100, for example, this means that 50 percent of the test takers who areyour age performed worse than you. In addition, test scores for several abil-ities are now reported instead of one general score, but the test is no longerwidely used (Vernon, 1987). Instead, the Otis-Lennon Ability Test is oftenused. This test seeks to measure the cognitive abilities that are related to astudent’s ability to learn and succeed in school. It does this by assessing astudent’s verbal and nonverbal reasoning abilities.

The Wechsler TestsThree frequently used intelligence tests are the

revised versions of the Wechsler-Adult IntelligenceScale, or WAIS-R (Wechsler, 1981), for adults; theWechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, orWISC-III (Wechsler, 1981), for children 6 to 16years old; and the Wechsler Preschool and PrimaryScales of Intelligences, or WPPSI-R, for children 4 to 61⁄2 years old.

In addition to yielding one overall score, theWechsler tests yield percentile scores in severalareas—vocabulary, information, arithmetic, pic-ture arrangement, and so on (see Figure 13.8).These ratings are used to compute separate IQscores for verbal and performance abilities. Thistype of scoring provides a more detailed pictureof the individual’s strengths and weaknesses thana single score does.

THE USES AND MEANING OF IQ SCORES

In general, the norms for intelligence tests areestablished in such a way that most people scorenear 100 (see Figure 13.9). This means that about95 percent of people score between 70 and 130.Only a little more than 2 percent score at or above130. These people are in at least the 97th per-centile. Those who score below 70 have tradition-ally been classified as mentally handicapped. Morespecific categories include mildly handicapped, buteducable (55–69); moderately handicapped, buttrainable (40–54); severely handicapped (25–39);and profoundly handicapped (below 25).


Typical Items on the Stanford-Binet Test

An examiner has built a tower of blocks (top)and has told the child, “You make one like this.”Why is age important in administering andscoring the Stanford-Binet test?

Figure 13.7

4 “Why do people live in houses?”“Birds fly in the air; fish swim in the ____.”

8 “What should you do if you find a lost puppy?”

“Stephanie can’t write today because she twisted her ankle. What is wrong with that?”

12 “What does regret mean?”“Here is a picture. Can you tell me what is

wrong with it?”

Age Sample Test Item

What do these scores mean? What do the tests measure? IQ scoresseem to be most useful when related to school achievement; they arequite accurate in predicting which people will do well in schools, colleges,and universities. Critics of IQ testing do not question this predictive abil-ity. They do wonder, however, whether such tests actually measure intelligence. As stated earlier, most psychologists agree that intelligence isthe ability to acquire new ideas and new behavior and to adapt to newsituations. Is success in school or the ability to take a test a real indicationof such ability? Generally, IQ tests measure the ability to solve certaintypes of problems. Yet they do not directly measure the ability to pose


Sample Items on the Wechsler TestsThese test items are similar to those included in the various Wechsler intelligencescales. (Not all test items and scales are included here.) How do the Wechslertests compare to the Stanford-Binet Intelligence test?

Figure 13.8

VERBAL SCALE

Information

Arithmetic

Vocabulary

Similarities

Digit Span

PERFORMANCE SCALE EXAMPLE

Picture Completion What part is missing from this picture?

EXAMPLE

What day of the year is Independence Day?

If eggs cost $.60 a dozen, what does one egg cost?

Tell me the meaning of scoff.

In what way are hats and shoes alike?

Listen carefully, and when I am through, say the numbers right after me.7 5 1 8 2 9

Picture Arrangement Arrange the panels to make a meaningful story.

Block Design Put the blocks together to make this picture.

those problems or to question thevalidity of problems posed by others(Hoffman, 1962). This is only part of the reason why IQ testing is socontroversial.

CONTROVERSY OVER IQTESTING

Much of the debate about IQtesting centers around the followingissues: do genetic differences or envi-ronmental inequalities cause two peo-ple to receive different scores onintelligence tests? The question ofcultural bias in intelligence tests hasalso been controversial.

Nature vs. NurtureA technique researchers use to help determine whether genetics or

environment affects scores on intelligence tests is studying the results oftesting of people with varying degrees of genetic relationship. In regardto intelligence, researchers have found a high degree of heritability—


Your IQCan we say that you do well in school because you

have a high IQ? Consider this: a baseball player has a lowbatting average. A fan explains that the player does not geta lot of hits because he has a low batting average. Is thisstatement true? No, that baseball player has a low battingaverage because he does not get a lot of hits. In the sameway, we cannot say that a student does poorly in schoolbecause he has a low IQ score. IQ tests measure the sameskills that schoolwork requires. An IQ score measures per-formance; it does not explain it.

55 70 80 90 100

50%

95%

110 120 130 145

99%

Mentally handicappedBorderlineSlow learnerLow averageHigh averageAbove averageSuperiorGifted

Distribution of IQ ScoresThis normal curve displays intelligence as measured by IQ tests. Theaverage IQ score is 100. What percentage of people score at least145 on IQ tests?

Figure 13.9

heritability: the degree towhich a characteristic is relatedto inherited genetic factors

a measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to inheritedgenetic factors. They found that as genetic relationship increases, say, fromparent and child to identical twins, the similarity of IQ also increases.

The best way to study the effects of nature and nurture is to studyidentical twins who have been separated at birth and raised in differentenvironments. Dr. Tom Bouchard has studied more than 100 sets of twinswho were raised apart from one another. Bouchard concluded that IQ isaffected by genetic factors—a conclusion supported by the discovery of aspecific gene for human intelligence (Plomin, 1997). Bouchard believes 70percent of IQ variance can be attributed to heredity, but others (Plomin etal., 1994) found the hereditary estimate to be only 52 percent.

Regarding environment, studies show that brothers and/or sistersraised in the same environment are more likely to have similar IQs thansiblings raised apart. Environment, therefore, does impact IQs.

Some researchers study the effects of the environment on IQ factors byfocusing on preschool programs, such as Head Start, that expose economi-cally disadvantaged youths to enriching experiences. Some studies showthat quality preschool programs help raise IQs initially, but the increasebegins to fade after some years. Participating children, however, are less like-ly to be in special education classes, less likely to be held back, and morelikely to graduate from high school than are children without suchpreschool experiences (Zigler, Styfco, & Gilman, 1993). Each year of schoolmissed may drop a person’s IQ as much as 5 points (Ceci, 1991). The rich-

ness of the home environment, the quality of food, and thenumber of brothers and sisters in the family all affect IQ.

Both heredity and environment have an impact onintelligence. Advances in behavioral genetics researchcontinue to refine results on the contributions thatheredity and experience have on IQ. It remains clearthat these two factors are both contributing and inter-act in their effects.

Cultural BiasA major criticism of intelligence tests is that they

have a cultural bias—that is, the wording used in ques-tions may be more familiar to people of one social groupthan to another group. For example, on one intelligencetest the correct response to the question, “What wouldyou do if you were sent to buy a loaf of bread and thegrocer said he did not have any more?” was “try anoth-er store.” A significant proportion of minority students,however, responded that they would go home. Whenquestioned about the answer, many explained that therewas no other store in their neighborhood.

Psychologists admit that some tests have been biasedbecause they assess accumulated knowledge, which isdependent on a child’s environment and opportunities inthat environment. As a consequence, efforts have been


Family Size and IQThe classic study of family size and IQ

was conducted in the Netherlands. It wasbased on the military examinations of morethan 386,000 Dutch people. Researchersfound that the brightest children came fromthe smallest families and had few, if any,brothers and sisters when they were born.Thus, the first-born child in a family of twowas usually brighter than the last child in afamily of 10. The differences in IQ, however,from one birth-order position to anotheraverage only about one-quarter point.

The effects of family size on intelligencemay be explained by the impact of a housefulof children on the home environment. Largerfamilies increase the amount of time a childspends with other children and decrease the amount of parental attention he or shereceives. When this happens, developmentof intelligence has been known to suffer(Zajonc & Markus, 1976), but interpersonalskills may improve.

cultural bias: an aspect ofan intelligence test in which thewording used in questions maybe more familiar to people ofone social group than to an-other group

made to make the tests less biased (see Figure 13.10). However, it is unlikelythat a test will ever be developed that will be completely free of cultural bias.All tests are based on the assumptions of a particular culture.


The Dove Counterbalance Intelligence Test

In the 1960s, psychologist Adrian Dove developed theCounterbalance Intelligence Test to stress that cultural backgroundcan influence performance on an intelligence test. What character-istics would a test without cultural bias have?

Figure 13.10

1. “T-Bone Walker” got famous for playing what?a. Trombone d. Guitarb. Piano e. “Hambone”c. “T-Flute”

2. Who did “Stagger Lee” kill (in the famous blues legend)?a. His mother d. His girlfriendb. Frankie e. Billyc. Johnny

3. If you throw the dice and “7” is showing on top, what is facing down?a. “seven” d. “little Joes”b. “snake eyes” e. “eleven”c. “boxcars”

4. “You’ve got to get up early in the morning if you want to _________.”a. catch the worms c. try to fool meb. be healthy, d. fare well

wealthy, and wise e. be the first one on the street

5. Many people say that “Juneteenth” (June 19) should be made a legal holidaybecause this was the day when _________.a. the slaves were freed in the USA d. the slaves were freed in Californiab. the slaves were freed in Texas e. Martin Luther King was bornc. the slaves were freed in Jamaica f. Booker T. Washington died

1. Review the Vocabulary What are thetwo-factor and triarchic theories ofintelligence?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a chartsimilar to the one below, describe howthe two major tests of intelligence arescored.

3. Recall Information What areGardner’s eight types of intelligence?

4. Think Critically Which has the great-est effect on intelligence—nature ornurture? Explain.

Assessment

5. Application Activity Develop a list of criteriathat you think are essential in determining intelli-gence. Compare your list with your classmates’lists and together create a class list.

Name of Test How Scored

Stanford-Binet

Wechsler tests


reliability of the respected WAIS-R. They knewthe test clearly measured what it is supposed tomeasure; thus, they wanted to see consistentresults. The defending team, however, wantedto see inconsistencies in the test scores of the22-year-old woman in the hopes the defendantwould be set free. Because the WAIS-R holds

much prestige within the psy-chological field, it seemedmost likely that results wouldresemble that of the first test.

Method: The psychologistwho administered the WAIS-Rinformed the court that theodds were against a substan-tial rise in the IQ of the woman.The psychologist, however,also informed the court thatpressure and stress surround-ing the trial could have playeda major impact on how thewoman scored on the first test.With this second scenario

weighing heavily on the minds of the prosecu-tion, the psychologist presented the womanwith the WAIS-R once again.

Results: On the second WAIS-R test, thewoman scored only one point higher than herscore the first time. The psychological testproved reliable.

As mentioned, the factors of validity andreliability are highly valuable in studying andtesting psychological hypotheses. These twoconcepts proved equally important in decidingthe fate of a man accused in a court of law. Theconcept of reliability paved the way for a man tobe found guilty of rape and sentenced to 15years in prison.

WAIS-R:Is It Reliable? Period of Study: Withheld

Introduction: What happens when theresults of psychological testing cross over intoanother field? This situationtakes place numerous timeswithin the judicial system. It iscommon for psychologists tobe called in on a court case toassess the competency andability of certain individuals toplay key roles in the case.Psychologists, in most ofthese cases, use tests measur-ing intelligence levels. Thejudicial system correlates intel-ligence level with the ability ofan individual to take part in alegal proceeding. In theseinstances, the validity of thetests used is assumed.However, the important element is reliability.Psychological tests can be administered to anindividual to gain certain results. If these resultsare not consistent with a repeat testing, the orig-inal results are meaningless.

In a trial involving the alleged statutory rape ofa 22-year-old woman, psychological testingplayed a vital role in the outcome. Even thoughthe victim was of legal age, prosecutors filedcharges of force or threatening of force to commita sexual act, stating that the alleged victim wasincapable of giving meaningful consent becauseof a mental disability. Prosecutors called in a psy-chologist to perform testing on the victim usingthe Wechsler-Adult Intelligence Scale-Revisedtest, or WAIS-R. This specific intelligence test ishighly useful for measuring conditions ofmental handicap in individuals.

The results of the first test indicated thewoman had an IQ below 70, demonstratingsignificant, but not clear, signs of possiblemental handicap. The defense attorneydemanded a repeat test be performed.

Hypothesis: The prosecuting teamexpected the test results to prove the

Analyzing the Case Study1. Why was the WAIS-R used in this instance?

2. Why did the defense on this case want the allegedvictim to retake the test?

3. Critical Thinking What might significantly differentresults on the WAIS-R have meant in this case?

Vin views digging in the garden as fun, not work. What subject fascinates you? What career should you choose? What are yourinterests and aptitudes? Which subject most motivates you to

learn more? Intelligence tests are designed to measure a person’s overallability to solve problems that involve symbols such as words, numbers,and pictures. Psychologists have developed other tests to assess specialabilities and experiences. These include aptitude tests, achievement tests,and interest inventories.

Measuring Achievement,Abilities, and Interests

■ Main IdeaPsychologists have developed tests toassess special abilities and experiences.

■ Vocabulary• aptitude test• achievement test• interest inventory

■ Objectives• Identify the most widely used aptitude

tests, achievement tests, and interestinventories.

• Explain the application of aptitudetests, achievement tests, and interestinventories.


What Are Your Interests?Breathless, Vin dashed into the chem-

istry lab, “Sorry I’m late, Mrs. Baker,” hetold his instructor. “I was helping Mr. Eadsplant marigolds around the flagpole.”

Mrs. Baker sighed patiently. “I’m gladto give you extra help, Vin, but try to beon time.”

“Sorry,” Vin repeated. “I guess I havemore fun in a garden than I do in chem lab.”

Mrs. Baker smiled in surprise. “You liketo garden? A garden is a chemistry lab.”

Now Vin looked surprised. “It is?”“Sure,” Mrs. Baker replied. “Making

food from sunlight, drawing nutrients fromsoil—these are chemical processes. . . .”

—from Shaping Your Future by Eddye Eubanks,Connie R. Sasse, and Linda R. Glosson, 2000


APTITUDE TESTSAptitude tests attempt to discover a person’s

talents and to predict how well he or she will beable to learn a new skill. They are assessed primar-ily in terms of their predictive validity. Two suchtests are the Differential Aptitude Test (DATE) andthe General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB). TheGATB is the most widely used of these tests (seeFigure 13.11). Actually, the GATB comprises ninedifferent tests, ranging from vocabulary to manualdexterity. Test results are used to determinewhether a person shows promise for each of alarge number of occupations. In addition to theGATB, there are aptitude tests in music, language,art, mathematics, and other special fields.

The SAT and the American College Test (ACT)are general aptitude tests. These tests were designedto predict a student’s success in college. The bestpredictor of how a student will do in college is howhe or she did in high school. However, grading stan-dards differ among high schools. So, combined withhigh school grades, the SAT is a fairly good predic-tor of student success in college.

ACHIEVEMENT TESTSWhereas aptitude tests are designed to predict

how well a person will be able to learn a new skill,achievement tests are designed to measure howmuch a person has already learned in a particulararea. Such tests not only enable an instructor toassess a student’s knowledge, but they also helpstudents assess their progress for themselves. Theyare validated in terms of their content validity, orhow well they measure students’ mastery of a set ofknowledge.

The distinction between achievement and apti-tude tests has become somewhat blurred. What psy-chologists had thought were tests of aptitude—defined as innate ability or talent—turned out tomeasure experience as well, so that in part they wereachievement tests. On the other hand, achievementtests often turned out to be the best predictors ofmany kinds of occupational abilities, so that theywere in some sense aptitude tests. Because of thisoverlap, the distinction between the two types oftests rests more on purpose and validation than on


1. Which two words have thesame meaning?(a) open (b) happy(c) glad (d) green

2. Which two words have theopposite meaning?(a) old (b) dry(c) cold (d) young

3. A man works 8 hours a day,40 hours a week. He earns$1.40 an hour. How muchdoes he earn each week?(a) $40.00 (b) $50.60(c) $44.60 (d) $56.00

4. At the left is a drawing of a flatpiece of metal. Which objectat the right can be made fromthis piece of metal?

a b c d

The GATBSamples ofitems from theGATB testingverbal skills,mathematicalskills, and man-ual skills areshown here.What is thepurpose of anaptitude test?

Figure 13.11

Medical Aptitude

The Law School Admissions Test (LSAT) andthe Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT)help predict how well a student will do in lawschool and medical school. How do tests likethe SAT, LSAT, and MCAT also measureachievement?

Figure 13.12

content. If a test is used to predict future ability, itis considered an aptitude test; if it is used toassess what a person already knows, it is anachievement test.

Computers are often used to administerachievement tests. One method is called adap-tive testing (Weiss & Vale, 1987). In a standardtest, everyone gets the same questions in thesame order. With adaptive testing, however,the computer changes the question difficultyas it adapts the test to your performance. Ifyou answer several problems correctly, thecomputer challenges you with harder prob-lems. If you miss a question, the computer fol-lows it with an easier problem.

This process enables the computer to iden-tify your ability by finding the difficulty levelwhere you answer most, but not all, of the prob-lems correctly. Adaptive testing is more accuratethan standard testing, especially when test takersare either very high or very low in ability.

Computers can also adapt tests to include moreproblems in areas where your answers are frequent-ly wrong. This procedure is called adaptive instruction(Kasschau, 2000). By increasing the questions posed ontopics you are missing, the computer reinforces morecareful studying in areas least understood (Ray, 1995).

INTEREST INVENTORIESThe instruments for measuring interests are fundamentally different

from the instruments for measuring abilities. Answers to questions on anintelligence test indicate whether a person can, in fact, do certain kinds ofthinking and solve certain kinds of problems. There are right and wronganswers. The answers to questions on an interest or a personality test,however, are not scored as right or wrong. The question in this type oftesting is not, “How much can you do?” or “How much do you know?”but, “What are you like?” or “What do you like?”

The essential purpose of an interest inventory is to determine a per-son’s preferences, attitudes, and interests. Most interest inventories com-pare the person’s responses to the responses given by people in clearlydefined groups, such as professions or occupations. The more a person’sinterest patterns correspond to those of people in a particular occupation,the more likely that person is to enjoy and succeed in that profession.

For example, when constructing the widely used Campbell Interestand Skill Survey (Campbell, 1992), psychologists compared the responsesof people who are successfully employed in different occupations to theresponses of people in general. Suppose most engineers said they liked


Reading CheckWhy is the SAT consid-

ered an aptitude test?

Do interest inventories helpdetermine a career?Interest inventories are used as predictors of howlikely an individual completing the inventory willenjoy and succeed in a profession.

Procedure1. Choose a profession that you might be inter-

ested in pursuing and find information aboutits requirements and responsibilities.

2. Develop a series of questions that wouldaddress and assess a person’s interest inthe particular profession.

3. Administer the inventory to classmates.

Analysis1. Determine whether the responses indicate

an interest in the profession you chose.

2. After you make your determination, askthose who took the inventory if a career inthe profession you chose is somethingthey might enjoy.

3. How would you evaluate your inventoryin terms of its predictive value?

See the SkillsHandbook, page 622,

for an explanation of designing an experiment.

achievement test: measureshow much a person has learnedin a given subject or area

interest inventory: measuresa person’s preferences and attitudes in a wide variety ofactivities to identify areas oflikely success

aptitude test: estimates theprobability that a person will besuccessful in learning a specificnew skill

the idea of becomingastronomers but would not be interested in a coaching job, whereas peo-ple in general were evenlydivided on these (andother) questions. A personwho responded as the engi-neers did would rank highon the scale of interest inengineering. The KuderPreference Record, part ofwhich is shown in Figure13.13, is based on the sameprinciple.

The purpose of thesemeasures is to help peoplefind the career that is rightfor them. It is important tonote that although interestinventories can be of greatvalue to people who areundecided about the careerpath they should take, theyprovide only one source of

information. Along with interests, a student’s abilities should be takeninto account. A person should not make an important decision, such asthat of career, on the basis of a single test or inventory.


1. Review the Vocabulary Write a shortparagraph explaining what aptitude,achievement tests, and interest invento-ries are designed to measure.

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a dia-gram similar to the one below, identifywhy an individual might take an apti-tude, achievement, or interest inventory.

3. Recall Information What is the con-tent validity of a test? What is the pre-dictive validity of a test?

4. Think Critically Do you think a personshould base his or her career choice onthe results of an interest test? Explainyour answer.

Aptitude test

Why would someone take this test?

Achievement test

Interest inventory

Assessment

5. Application Activity Choose a favorite sportor hobby. Devise a short aptitude test that youthink would help predict how well an individualwould be able to learn the skills needed for thesport or hobby you chose.

The KPRShown are items from the Kuder Preference Record (KPR). The indi-vidual taking the test chooses from among three possible activitiesthe one he or she would most like to do and the one he or she wouldleast like to do. What is the Kuder Preference Record designed tomeasure?

Figure 13.13

G. Read a love story H. Read a mystery I. Read science fiction

J. Visit an art galleryK. Browse in a libraryL. Visit a museum

M. Collect autographsN. Collect coinsO. Collect butterflies

P. Watch televisionQ. Go for a walkR. Listen to music

Most Least . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

G.H.I.

J.K.L.

M.N.O.

P.Q.R.

Hippocrates’ adjectives survive today in the words we use to describepersonality types. The explanations for what causes personality dif-ferences, though, have changed dramatically. Psychologists and

psychiatrists use personality tests to assess an individual’s characteristicsand to identify problems and psychological disorders, as well as to predicthow a person might behave in the future. Some of these tests are objectivetests, while others are projective tests.

Personality Testing

■ Main IdeaPersonality tests are used to assess anindividual’s characteristics and to identify problems.

■ Vocabulary• personality test• objective test• projective test

■ Objectives• Identify the most widely used person-

ality tests.• Describe the use of personality tests.


Why Do You Have Your Personality?What makes people different from one

another? The ancient Greeks thought theanswer had something to do with the fourbasic body fluids or humors: blood,phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile.According to the Greek physicianHippocrates (460–371 B.C.), there werefour possible personality types. Sanguineindividuals had an abundance of blood:they tended to be cheerful, optimistic, andactive. Phlegmatic people were listless,sluggish, and tired because they had toomuch phlegm. Sad, brooding melancholictemperaments resulted from too muchblack bile, and choleric (easy to anger) personalities resulted from an excess ofyellow bile.

—from Psychology: Science, Behavior, and Lifeby R.H. Ettinger, Robert L. Crooks, and Jean Stein, 1994


personality test: assessesan individual’s characteristicsand identifies problems

OBJECTIVE PERSONALITY TESTSSome of the most widely used tests in personality testing are based

on simple pencil-and-paper responses. Objective tests are usually con-structed in a limited- or forced-choice format; that is, a person must selectone of a small number of possible responses.

The MMPIOne of the most widely used tests for general personality assessment

is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). (TheMMPI was revised, updated, and published in 1990. The new version iscalled MMPI-2.) Like other personality tests, the MMPI-2 has no rightor wrong answers. The test consists of 567 statements to which a personcan respond true, false, or cannot say. Some examples of test statementsare: I like tall women; I wake up tired most mornings; I am envied bymost people; and I often feel a tingling in my fingers.

The items on the MMPI-2 reveal habits, fears, delusions, sexual atti-tudes, and symptoms of psychological disorders. Psychologists originallydeveloped the test to help diagnose psychiatric disorders. Although thestatements that relate to a given characteristic (such as depression) arescattered throughout the test, the answers to them can be pulled out andorganized into a single depression scale. There are 10 such clinical scalesto the MMPI (Graham, 1990) (see Figure 13.14). In scoring the MMPI,a psychologist looks for patterns of responses, not a high or low score onone or all of the scales. This is because the items on the test do not, bythemselves, identify personality types.

In creating the original MMPI, the test makers did not try to think upstatements that would identify depression, anxiety, and so forth. Rather,

they invented a wide range of statements about allsorts of topics and gave the test to groups of peoplealready known to be well adjusted, depressed, anx-ious, and so on. They also retained for the test thosequestions that discriminated among these groups—questions, for example, that people suffering fromdepression almost always answered differently fromother groups (Hathaway & McKinley, 1940). As aresult, many of the items on the test may cause criticsto question the test’s face validity. For example, if youanswer false to “I attend religious services frequently,”you will score one point on the depression scale. Thisand other items like it were included simply becausemore depressed people than nondepressed peopleanswer false to this item.

One of the ways in which the MMPI-2 identifiesindividuals who give inaccurate responses is that anuntrue response to one statement may be caught bythe rephrasing of the same question at a later point.


?Did You Know?Did You Know?

The Validity of Horoscopes How canastrologers and horoscopes accuratelydescribe you and your life? Horoscope writ-ers and astrologers actually describe yourpersonality traits in such a way that theyapply to almost everyone. They use what iscalled the Barnum principle. Named aftercircus owner P.T. Barnum, it is a method ofnaming general traits, not specific traits.This means horoscopes lack validity, anessential factor in any good personalitytest. Because horoscopes are aimed atapplying to everyone, they do not measurewhat they are supposed to measure—individual personality traits (Plotnik, 1999).

objective test: a limited- orforced-choice test in which aperson must select one of sev-eral answers


MMPI ScalesThe MMPI is a true-false self-questionnaire that is designed toassess major patterns of personality and emotional disorders.Clinical scales identify the specific areas whose content includes ref-erences to a specific disorder. Validity scales assess whether the testtaker was lying or faking answers. Why is the MMPI considered anobjective test?

Figure 13.14

expresses stress in physical termsHs–Hypochondriasis

experiences depression and hopelessnessD–Depression

expresses emotion without insight

is maladaptive and fights authority

Hy–Conversion Hysteria

Pd–Psychopathic Deviate

rejects, confuses, or questions traditional gender rolesMf–Masculinity-Feminity

has a tendency to misinterpret others’ motivesPa–Paranoia

worries obsessivelyPt–Psychasthenia

has a situational problem, not necessarily schizophreniaSc–Schizophrenia

has too much energy and is unable to get anything doneMa–Hypomania

is withdrawnSi–Social Introversion

Corresponds with the number of items left unanswered?–Question

Some individuals fail to truthfully mark items and describe someonewhom they envision as having a perfect personality

L–Lie

Some individuals are unwilling to cooperate with the test instructionsand mark items in a random manner; others exaggerate their difficultiesto get special attention

F–Infrequency

Some individuals deny certain characteristics about themselves and theirfamilies and so slant their answers to hide something

K–Correction

Validity Scales

Clinical Scales High score indicates that the test taker:

The subject of thousands of studies, the MMPI has been one of themost frequently used psychological tests (Lubin, Larsen, & Matarazzo,1984). The MMPI-2 includes revisions aimed at modernizing the lan-guage, removing sexist terms or phrases, and adding items reflecting current issues such as Type A personalities, alcohol abuse, drug abuse,eating disorders, and suicide. The test can also differentiate commondemeanors such as extraversion-introversion and assertiveness. Most psy-chologists believe that scores on the MMPI-2 should be supplementedand confirmed with interviews and observation for proper diagnosis. Thetest is best for diagnosing extreme cases of psychological disorders.

The CPIThe California Psychological Inventory (CPI) is similar to the MMPI but

is developed for more general use. Even though it uses some of the samequestions, it does not have any of the questions that reveal psychiatric ill-nesses (Gough, 1987). It measures traits such as responsibility, self-control,and tolerance. The CPI is used to predict things like adjustment to stress,leadership, and job success. Although it is known to be fairly valid and reli-able, the CPI can prove faulty for an individual. The test results may pointout that the individual has a problem when that individual really does not.Like all personality tests, the CPI is useful for general screening and in locat-ing individuals who may need help. If an individual’s scores indicate that aproblem exists, though, the test should be followed by one-on-one discussionwith a counselor or psychologist for further investigation.

The Myers-Briggs TestAnother popular personality test is the Myers-Briggs Test (MBTI).

The test focuses on how a person takes in information, makes decisions,and approaches day-to-day tasks. This test characterizes personality onfour different scales—extraversion vs. introversion, intuition vs. sensing,feeling vs. thinking, and judging vs. perceiving.

For example, an extravert prefers engaging in activities involving otherpeople, whereas an introvert enjoys solitude. Sensing and intuition refer tothe contrast between using senses primarily in a practical way (“I have tosee it to believe it”) or believing something without knowing exactly why.In the thinking and feeling contrast, thinking is more logical, whereas feel-ing involves using a personal, values-oriented way of responding to eventsand people. Finally, in the judging vs. perceiving contrast, those who pre-fer judgment tend to have a more organized and structured manner, whilethose who prefer using perceptive abilities are more flexible.

The creators of the MBTI believe that each person’s personality is acombination of these characteristics. Your personality type influencesyour communication style, how you carry out personal relationships,your work style, as well as other lifestyle choices. The purpose of the testis to offer test takers an evaluation of their personalities so that they maybetter understand how they relate to others and how others relate tothem. With this knowledge, the creators of the test hope to help peoplelive more productive, rewarding lives. Businesses may use this test tomake better decisions about whom to hire and promote. Students can usethis test to optimize the match between their learning style and the teach-ing style of their instructor.

PROJECTIVE PERSONALITY TESTSUnlike objective tests, projective tests encourage test takers to

respond freely, giving their own interpretations of various test stimuli.These tests are open-ended examinations that invite people to tell storiesabout pictures, diagrams, or objects. The idea is that the test material hasno established meaning, so the story a person tells must say something


Taking theRorschach Test

In interpreting a per-son’s responses to the ink blots on theRorschach test, asmuch attention may bepaid to the style of theresponses as to theircontent. What are pro-jective tests?

Figure 13.15

Reading CheckWhat is the purpose of

the MMPI?

projective test: an unstruc-tured test in which a person isasked to respond freely, givinghis or her own interpretation ofvarious ambiguous stimuli

about his or her needs, wishes, fears, and other aspects of personality. Inother words, the test taker will project his or her unconscious feelings ontothe test items.

The Rorschach Inkblot TestPerhaps the best-known and most widely discussed projective mea-

sure is the Rorschach inkblot test, developed by Swiss psychiatristHermann Rorschach in 1921. Rorschach created 10 cards with inkblotdesigns and a system for interpreting responses (see Figure 13.15). After10 years of researching responses to thousands of ink blots, he chose 10specific ones that elicited emotional responses in people. Five of the blotsare black and gray on a white background; two have red splotches plusblack and gray; and three cards have a mixture of different colors.

To administer the test, a psychologist hands the ink blots one by one tothe test taker, asking the person to say what he sees. The person might saythat a certain area represents an airplane or an animal’s head. In a secondround, the psychologist asks certain general questions in an attempt to discover what aspects of the ink blot determined the person’s response.There are no right or wrong answers. The psychologist may keep a recordof things the test taker does, such as what he says he sees, where and howhe holds the cards, and the length of time he pauses before answering.

The theory underlying the test is that anything that someone does orsays will reveal an aspect of that person’s personality. There are severalsystems for scoring Rorschach responses. Some are very specific; forexample, according to one system, a person who mentions human move-ment more often than color in the ink blots is probably introverted, whilean extrovert will mention color more than movement. Other systems arefar more intuitive—for example, noting whether the test taker is open orhostile. Many researchers have criticized the Rorschach, charging that thescoring systems are neither reliable nor valid and that the results oftendepend on the psychologist’s expectations. The test, though, continues tobe used by therapists as an introduction to therapy.

The TATThe second most widely used projective measure was developed by

Henry Murray (1943). The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of aseries of 20 cards containing pictures of vague but suggestive situations (seeFigure 13.16). The individual is asked to tell a story about the picture, indi-cating how the situation shown on the card developed, what the charactersare thinking and feeling, and how it will end. The TAT is used to urge clientsto speak freely about their problems (see Chapter 12 for more on the TAT).

As with the Rorschach, there are many different scoring systems for theTAT. The interpreter usually focuses on the themes that emerge from thestory and the needs of the main characters: Are they aggressive? Do theyseem to have needs for achievement, love, or sex? Are they being attackedor criticized by another person, or are they receiving affection and comfort?The responses are used to assess the motivation and personality character-istics of the individual taking the test. The test can also be used to assess thepersonality problems of individuals.


A person taking the TATmight be shown a picturesimilar to this and askedto make up a story aboutwhat the woman is think-ing. What does the TATassess?

Taking the TATFigure13.16


It is important to note that personality tests, as with aptitude, achieve-ment, interest, and intelligence tests, are just one tool that a psychologist canuse to evaluate a person’s psychological state. A conscientious psychologistshould pair testing with other evidence gained through interviews and obser-vation before drawing any conclusions or making any diagnoses.

Approaches to Reducing Test AnxietyMany people worry about taking any kind of test. When someonecomes to a psychologist complaining of test anxiety, the psychologistmay approach the problem in a variety of ways, depending on his orher theoretical orientation. How would a behaviorist attempt toreduce testing anxiety?

Figure 13.17

Reduce anxiety through stress-reducing activitiesBiological (focus on physiological arousal, i.e.sweaty palms)

Channel worry into studyingCognitive (focus on thinking/excessive worrying)

Increase study time by selecting a good place tostudy, rewarding yourself for studying, keeping arecord of your study time, establishing priorities,specifying time for specific tasks

Work to change personality characteristics, such asprocrastination

Behavioral (focus on actual behaviors)

Psychoanalytic (focus on personality problems thatunderlie bad study habits)

Teachers work with students so that students developfeelings of competence and reach their full potential

Humanistic (focus on conscious beliefs andperceptions)

Students from different cultures have different val-ues and resources; work to understand differencesand similarities

Sociocultural (focus on influence of culture and ethnicity)

Source: Adapted from Plotnik, 1999.

Approach Solution

1. Review the Vocabulary What is thedifference between objective and pro-jective tests?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a chartsimilar to the one below, identify thecharacteristics of the Rorschach inkblottest and the Thematic ApperceptionTest (TAT).

3. Recall Information How does the CPIdiffer from the MMPI? How does theCPI differ from the Myers-Briggs test?

4. Think Critically What are the advan-tages and disadvantages of using objec-tive personality tests versus projectivepersonality tests?

Name of Test Characteristics

Rorschach test

Thematic Apperception Test

Assessment

5. Application Activity Choose two personalitytraits. Develop several test questions that youthink would assess these traits. Discuss and evalu-ate your questions with your classmates.

Summary and Vocabulary

Chapter Vocabularyreliability (p. 344)validity (p. 345)percentile system (p. 346)norms (p. 346)intelligence (p. 348)two-factor theory (p. 349)triarchic theory (p. 350)emotional intelligence (p. 351)intelligence quotient (IQ) (p. 352)heritability (p. 355)cultural bias (p. 356)aptitude test (p. 360)achievement test (p. 360)interest inventory (p. 361)personality test (p. 363)objective test (p. 364)projective test (p. 366)

Characteristics of Psychological Tests■ There are three basic ways of determining a test’s

reliability: test-retest, scorer or interscorer, andsplit-half reliability.

■ One of the chief methods for measuring validity isto find out how well a test predicts performance.

■ Tests have to be standardized; they must beadministered and scored the same way every time,and they must have established norms.

Tests evaluate academic performance and measure mental abilities or personality characteristics. The usefulness of a testdepends upon how well it is constructed and the extent to whichscores are related to actual performance.

Main Idea: To be use-ful, tests have to exhibitreliability, validity, andstandardization.

Intelligence Testing■ Charles Spearman proposed that two factors

contributed to a person’s intelligence.■ L.L. Thurstone proposed that intelligence is

composed of seven primary mental abilities.■ Howard Gardner proposed that there are eight

types of intelligence.■ Two major intelligence tests are the Stanford-

Binet and the Wechsler tests.■ Much of the debate about IQ testing centers

around whether genetic differences or environ-mental inequalities affect performance on intelligence tests.

Main Idea: Several IQ tests are used tomeasure intelligence,although there are manyviews about what con-stitutes intelligence.

Measuring Achievement, Abilities, and Interests■ Aptitude tests are used to identify a person’s tal-

ents and to predict how well he or she will beable to learn a new skill.

■ Achievement tests are designed to measure howmuch a person has already learned in a partic-ular area.

■ Interest inventories are used to determine a per-son’s preferences, attitudes, and interests.

Main Idea:Psychologists havedeveloped tests toassess special abilitiesand experiences.


Personality Testing■ Personality tests can be objective or projective.■ One of the most widely used objective personality

tests is the Minnesota Multiphasic PersonalityInventory (MMPI).

■ The two major projective personality tests are theRorschach inkblot test and the ThematicApperception Test (TAT).

Main Idea: Personalitytests are used to assesspersonality characteris-tics and to identify problems.

Assessment

Reviewing VocabularyChoose the letter of the correct term or conceptbelow to complete the sentence.

1. A test’s __________ are the percentiles estab-lished on the basis of the scores achieved by astandardization group.

2. The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure is its __________.

3. Researchers often investigate __________, ameasure of the degree to which a characteristicis related to genetic factors.

4. The ___________ of intelligence proposes thatintelligence can be divided into three ways ofprocessing information.

5. In a(n) __________ test, a person is asked togive his or her own interpretations of varioustest stimuli.

6. __________ occurs when the wording used inquestions may be more familiar to people of onecultural group than to another.

7. The ability of a test to yield the same resultunder a variety of different circumstances is its__________.

8. A person’s __________ is related to concepts ofinterpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences.

9. __________ is the ability to acquire new ideasand new behavior and to adapt to new situations.

10. In a(n) __________ test, a person must selectone of a small number of possible responses.

Self-Check QuizVisit the Understanding Psychology Web site at psychology.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 13—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the Chapter Test.

a. validityb. reliabilityc. normsd. intelligencee. triarchic theory

f. emotional intelligenceg. heritabilityh. cultural biasi. objectivej. projective

Recalling Facts1. What is the validity of a test? How is the valid-

ity of a test determined?2. Explain what norms are. How are norms

established?3. Using a chart similar to the one below, explain

the following views of intelligence: Thurstone’s,Gardner’s, and Sternberg’s.

4. Explain the difference between an aptitude testand an achievement test. Give an example ofeach type of test.

5. What are the two basic types of personalitytests? What are some of the differences betweenthe types? Give an example of each test.

Critical Thinking1. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Which

theory of intelligence discussed in the chapterdo you agree with the most? Give reasons foryour choice.

2. Synthesizing Information If you were asked torate people on an intelligence scale of your ownmaking, what criteria would you use and howwould you make your decisions? What roleswould memory, creativity, and emotional matu-rity play in your scale?

3. Evaluating Information Only a few tests havebeen used to predict how happy people will bewith their lives or how successful they will be intheir careers. Explain why you think this may bethe case.

4. Making Inferences How accurate do you thinkthe scoring for projective tests is? Can the scor-ing for these kinds of tests be standardized?Explain.

5. Applying Concepts Do you think personalitytests should be used by employers to make deci-sions about hiring employees? Explain.

PSYCHOLOGY


Theory View of Intelligence

L.L. Thurstone

Howard Gardner

Robert Sternberg

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/psychology/psych2001/quiz.shtml?BOOK=006&CHAPTER=13&TITLE=Psychological+Testing

Psychology Projects1. Characteristics of Psychological Tests Ask

one of your academic teachers if you can spendsome time after class talking about how he orshe makes up a test. How does the teacherdecide the number and type of questions? Doesthe teacher consider the validity or reliability ofthe test? How is the test scored? Present yourfindings in a written report.

2. Intelligence Testing Research various intelli-gence tests. Determine the criteria used to mea-sure intelligence. Report your findings in a chart.

3. Achievement and Personality Tests In recentyears, controversies have surrounded the use ofachievement tests and personality tests.Research newspapers and magazines to findarticles that explain these controversies.Summarize them in a short paper. Include youropinion of the arguments involved.

4. Personality Testing Contact the human resourcesdepartment of a business in your community.Find out what criteria the company uses for hiring employees. Specifically, find out if thecompany uses personality tests or interviews tohelp in the hiring and what kinds of tests areused. Report your findings in a presentation.

Technology ActivityIn recent years, take-at-home com-puterized IQ tests have become

increasingly popular. Search the Internet to findexamples of these kinds of tests. Also, find out aboutintelligence tests offered on CD-ROMs that parentscan administer to their children. Evaluate the prosand cons of using these kinds of intelligence tests.

Psychology JournalReread your journal entry about selecting thebest teaching prospect from among a group

of applicants. Devise a test to use in your assessment.Consider and list in your journal the behaviors youmost want to evaluate in the applicants.

Assessment


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Practice and assess key socialstudies skills with Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook CD-ROM,Level 2.

Building SkillsIdentifying Cause-and-Effect RelationshipsReview the cartoon below, then answer thequestions that follow.

1. Which person shown in the cartoon is the“brains of this outfit”?

2. How does this cartoonist illustrate thecharacters’ intellects?

3. What assumptions are being made by thecartoonist?

See the Skills Handbook, page 624,for an explanation of identifying

cause-and-effect relationships.

t turns out that a scientist can

see the future by watching four-year-olds interact with a marsh-mallow. The researcher invites the

children, one by one, into a plainroom and begins the gentle torment.You can have this marshmallow rightnow, he says. But if you wait while Irun an errand, you can have twomarshmallows when I get back. Andthen he leaves.

Some children grab for the treatthe minute he’s out the door. Somelast a few minutes before they give in.But others are determined to wait.They cover their eyes; they put theirheads down; they sing to themselves;they try to play games or even fallasleep. When the researcher returns,he gives these children their hard-earned marshmallows. And then, sci-ence waits for them to grow up.

By the time the children reach highschool, something remarkable has hap-pened. A survey of the children’s par-ents and teachers found that those whoas four-year-olds had the fortitude tohold out for the second marshmallow

generally grew up to be better adjust-ed, more popular, adventurous, confi-dent and dependable teenagers. Thechildren who gave in to temptationearly on were more likely to be lonely,easily frustrated and stubborn. Theybuckled under stress and shied awayfrom challenges. And when some ofthe students in the two groups took theScholastic Aptitude Test, the kids whohad held out longer scored an averageof 210 points higher.

When we think of brilliance we seeEinstein, deep-eyed, woolly haired, athinking machine with skin and mis-matched socks. High achievers, weimagine, were wired for greatness frombirth. But then you have to wonderwhy, over time, natural talent seems toignite in some people and dim in oth-ers. This is where the marshmallowscome in. It seems that the ability todelay gratification is a master skill, atriumph of the reasoning brain overthe impulsive one. It is a sign, in short,of emotional intelligence. And it does-n’t show up on an IQ test.

For most of this century, scientistshave worshipped the hardware of thebrain and the software of the mind; themessy powers of the heart were left tothe poets. But cognitive theory couldsimply not explain the questions wewonder about most: why some peoplejust seem to have a gift for living well;why the smartest kid in the class willprobably not end up the richest; whywe like some people virtually on sightand distrust others; why some peopleremain buoyant in the face of troublesthat would sink a less resilient soul.What qualities of the mind or spirit, inshort, determine who succeeds?

The phrase “emotional intelli-gence” was coined by Yale psychologistPeter Salovey and the University of

New Hampshire’s John Mayer fiveyears ago to describe qualities likeunderstanding one’s own feelings,empathy for the feelings of others and“the regulation of emotion in a waythat enhances living.” Their notion,handily shortened to EQ, is the subjectof a new book, Emotional Intelligence.

Author Daniel Goleman has broughttogether a decade’s worth of behavioralresearch into how the mind processesfeelings. His goal, he announces on thecover, is to redefine what it means to besmart. His thesis: when it comes topredicting people’s success, brainpow-er as measured by IQ and standardizedachievement tests may actually matterless than the qualities of mind oncethought of as “character” before theword began to sound quaint.

“You don’t want to take an averageof your emotional skill,” arguesHarvard psychology professor JeromeKagan, a pioneer in child-develop-ment research. “That’s what’s wrongwith the concept of intelligence for

mental skills too. Some people handleanger well but can’t handle fear. Somepeople can’t take joy. So each emotionhas to be viewed differently.”

EQ is not the opposite of IQ. Somepeople are blessed with a lot of both,some with little of either. Whatresearchers have been trying tounderstand is how they complementeach other; how one’s ability to handlestress, for instance, affects the abilityto concentrate and put intelligence touse. Among the ingredients for suc-cess, researchers now generally agree

The EQFactorNew research suggeststhat emotions, not IQ,may be the true measureof human intelligence

I

By NANCY GIBBS SE

YM

OU

R C

HW

AS

T/P

US

HP

IN

G

RO

UP

IN

C.

372 TIME, October 2, 1995

that IQ counts for about 20%; the restdepends on everything from class toluck to the neural pathways that havedeveloped in the brain over millionsof years of human evolution.

It is actually the neuroscientists andevolutionists who do the best job ofexplaining the reasons behind the mostunreasonable behavior. In the pastdecade or so, scientists have learnedenough about the brain to make judg-ments about where emotion comesfrom and why we need it. Primitiveemotional responses held the keys tosurvival: fear drives the blood into thelarge muscles, making it easier to run;surprise triggers the eyebrows to rise,allowing the eyes to gather more infor-mation about an unexpected event.Disgust wrinkles up the face and clos-es the nostrils to keep out foul smells.

Emotional life grows out of an areaof the brain called the limbic system,specifically the amygdala, whencecome delight and disgust and fear andanger. Millions of years ago, the neocor-tex was added on, enabling humans toplan, learn and remember. Lust growsfrom the limbic system; love, from theneocortex. Animals like reptiles thathave no neocortex cannot experienceanything like maternal love; this is whybaby snakes have to hide to avoid beingeaten by their parents. Humans, withtheir capacity for love, will protect theiroffspring, allowing the brains of theyoung time to develop. The more con-nections between the limbic systemand the neocortex, the more emotionalresponses are possible.

Without these emotional reflexes,rarely conscious but often terribly pow-erful, we would scarcely be able tofunction. “Most decisions we makehave a vast number of possible out-comes, and any attempt to analyze all ofthem would never end,” says Universityof Iowa neurologist Antonio Damasio,author of Descartes’ Error: Emotion,

Reason and the Human Brain. “I’d askyou to lunch tomorrow, and when theappointed time arrived, you’d still bethinking about whether you shouldcome.” What tips the balance, Damasiocontends, is our unconscious assigningof emotional values to some of thosechoices. Whether we experience asomatic response—a gut feeling ofdread or a giddy sense of elation—emo-tions are helping to limit the field in anychoice we have to make. If the prospectof lunch with a neurologist is unnervingor distasteful, Damasio suggests, theinvitee will conveniently remember aprevious engagement.

When Damasio worked withpatients in whom the connectionbetween emotional brain and neocor-tex had been severed because of dam-age to the brain, he discovered howcentral that hidden pathway is to howwe live our lives. People who had lostthat linkage were just as smart, buttheir lives often fell apart nonetheless.They could not make decisionsbecause they didn’t know how they feltabout their choices. They couldn’t reactto warnings or anger in other people. Ifthey made a mistake, like a bad invest-ment, they felt no regret or shame andso were bound to repeat it.

How much happier would we be,how much more successful as individ-uals and civil as a society, if we weremore alert to the importance of emo-tional intelligence and more adept atteaching it? From kindergartens to

business schools to corporations acrossthe country, people are taking serious-ly the idea that a little more time spenton the “touchy-feely” skills so oftenderided may in fact pay rich dividends.

The problem may be that there is aningredient missing. Emotional skills aremorally neutral. Just as a genius coulduse his intellect either to cure cancer orengineer a deadly virus, someone withgreat empathic insight could use it toinspire colleagues or exploit them.Without a moral compass to guide peo-

ple in how to employ their gifts, emo-tional intelligence can be used for goodor evil. Columbia University psycholo-gist Walter Mischel, who invented themarshmallow test, observes that theknack for delaying gratification thatmakes a child one marshmallow richercan help him become a better citizenor—just as easily—an even more bril-liant criminal. Given the passionatearguments that are raging over moralinstruction in this country, it is no won-der Goleman chose to focus more onneutral emotional skills than on the val-ues that should govern their use. That’sanother book—and another debate. π

—For the complete text of this article and related

articles from TIME, please visit www.time.com/teach

A n a l y z i n g t h e A r t i c l e

1. What is the purpose of the marshmallow test? How does it

demonstrate EQ?

2. CRITICAL THINKING Is EQ the same as morality? How

are they related? Do you think you can teach EQ to children?

TIME, October 2, 1995 373

http://www.time.com/teach

Documents

Chapter 13: Psychological Testing · 2020. 8. 27. · A history test will not measure general learning ability. A test you take in physical education class may not measure your knowledge