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CHAPTER 12: TEAMS, TEAMWORK, AND COLLABORATION
© John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Business Leadership: Management FundamentalsJohn R. Schermerhorn, Jr., Barry Wright, and Lorie Guest
o Explain how teams contribute to organizations
o Describe the current trends in the use of teams
o Explain how teams work
o Describe how teams make decisions
o Describe methods of managing conflict
PLANNING AHEAD —
CHAPTER 12 LEARNING
GOALS
• Team:– A small group of people with complementary
skills, who work together to achieve a shared purpose and hold themselves mutually accountable for performance results
• Teamwork: – The process of people actively working together
to accomplish common goals
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
TEAMS IN ORGANIZATIONS
Team and teamwork roles for managers:• Supervisor: serving as the appointed head of a
formal work unit• Network facilitator: serving as a peer leader an
network hub for a special task force• Participant: serving as a helpful contributing
member of a project team• External coach: serving as the external convener
or sponsor of a problem-solving team staffed by others
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
ROLES FOR MANAGERS
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
FIGURE 12.1 TEAM AND TEAMWORK ROLES FOR MANAGERS
Synergy:– The creation of a whole that is greater than the
sum of its parts– A team uses its membership resources to the
fullest and thereby achieves through collective action far more than could be achieved otherwise
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
TEAMWORK PROS
Usefulness of teams:– More resources for problem solving– Improved creativity and innovation– Improved quality of decision making– Greater commitments to tasks– Higher motivation through collective action– Better control and work discipline– More individual need satisfaction
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
BENEFITS OF TEAMS AND TEAMWORK
Common problems in teams:– Social loafing– Personality conflicts– Individual differences in work styles– Ambiguous agendas– Ill-defined problems– Poor readiness to work
• Lack of motivation• Conflicts with other deadlines or priorities• Lack of team organization or progress• Meetings that lack purpose or structure• Members coming to meetings unprepared
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CONS OF TEAMWORK
• People arrive late, leave early, and don’t take things seriously
• The meeting is too long• People don’t stay on topic• The discussion lacks candor• The right information isn’t available, so decisions
are postponed• No one puts decisions into action• The same mistakes are made meeting after meeting
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
SEVEN DEADLY SINS IN MEETINGS
Formal groups:– Teams that are officially recognized and
supported by the organization for specific purposes
– Specifically created to perform essential tasks– Managers and leaders serve “linking pin” roles
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS
Informal groups:– Not recognized on organization charts– Not officially created for an organizational
purpose– Emerge as part of the informal structure and
from natural or spontaneous relationships among people
– Include interest, friendship, and support groups– Can have positive performance impact– Can help satisfy social needs
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS (CONT’D)
Committees, project teams, and task forces:– Committees:
• People outside their daily job assignments work together in a small team for a specific purpose
• Task agenda is narrow, focused, and ongoing– Projects teams or task forces:
• People from various parts of an organization work together on common problems, but on a temporary basis
• Official tasks are very specific and time defined• Disbands after task is completed
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
TRENDS IN THE USE OF TEAMS
• Members come from different functional units of an organization
• Team works on a specific problem or task with the needs of the whole organization in mind
• Teams are created to knock down “walls” separating departments
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CROSS-FUNCTIONAL TEAMS
• Teams of people who work together and solve problems through largely computer-mediated rather than face-to-face interactions
• Sometimes called:– Computer-mediated groups– Electronic group networks
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
VIRTUAL TEAMS
• Potential problems of virtual teams:– Difficulty in establishing good working
relationships– Depersonalization of working relationships
• Potential advantages of virtual teams:– Savings in time and travel expenses– Minimization or elimination of interpersonal
difficulties– Ease of expansion
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
VIRTUAL TEAMS (CONT’D)
• Guidelines for managing virtual teams:– Virtual teams should begin with social messaging– Team members should be assigned clear roles– Team members must have positive attitudes that
support team goals
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
VIRTUAL TEAMS (CONT’D)
• Teams of workers whose jobs have been redesigned to create a high degree of task interdependence– have also been given authority to make many
decisions about how to do the required work on their own
• Also known as autonomous work groups
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
SELF-MANAGING TEAMS
• Typical self-management responsibilities:– Planning and scheduling work– Training members in various tasks– Sharing tasks– Meeting performance goals– Ensuring high quality– Solving day-to-day operating problems– In some cases, hiring and firing team members
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
SELF-MANAGING TEAMS (CONT’D)
• In self-managing work teams, members:– Are held collectively accountable for
performance results– Have discretion in distributing tasks within the
team– Have discretion in scheduling work within the
team– Are able to perform more than one job on the
team– Evaluate one another’s performance
contributions– Are responsible for the total quality of team
products© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
SELF-MANAGING TEAMS (CONT’D)
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
FIGURE 12.2 ORGANIZATIONAL AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF SELF-
MANAGING WORK TEAMS
• A sequence of planned activities used to gather and analyze data on the functioning of a team and to implement constructive changes to increase its operating effectiveness
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
TEAM BUILDING
Characteristics of high-performing teams:– A clear and elevating goal– A task-driven, results-oriented structure– Competent and committed members who work
hard– A collaborative climate– High standards of excellence– External support and recognition– Strong and principled leadership
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
TEAM BUILDING (CONT’D)
Effective teams:– achieve and maintain high levels of task
performance– achieve and maintain high levels of member
satisfaction– retain viability for the future
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
HOW TEAMS WORK
• Team effectiveness may be summarized as:
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
HOW TEAMS WORK (CONT’D)
Team Effectiveness =
Quality of Inputs + (Process Gains - Process Losses)
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
FIGURE 12.3 AN OPEN-SYSTEMS MODEL OF WORK TEAM EFFECTIVENESS
Resource input factors that influence group process in the pursuit of team effectiveness:– Resources and setting– Nature of the task– Membership characteristics– Team size
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
TEAM INPUTS
Group process:– The way the members of any team work together
as they transform inputs into outputs– Also known as group dynamics– Includes communications, decision making,
norms, cohesion, and conflict, among others
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
STAGES IN DEVELOPMENT
Stages of Team Development:– Forming: initial orientation and interpersonal
testing– Storming: conflict over tasks and ways of
working as a team– Norming: consolidation around task and
operating agendas– Performing: teamwork and focused task
performance– Adjourning: task accomplishment and eventual
disengagement
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF A TEAM
FIGURE 12.6 CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING THE MATURITY OF A TEAM
• Norms: – Behaviour expected of team members– Rules or standards that guide behaviour– May result in team sanctions
• Performance norms:– Define the level of work effort and performance
that team members are expected to contribute to the team task
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
MANAGING TEAM NORMS
• Guidelines for building positive norms:– Act as a positive role model– Reinforce the desired behaviours with rewards– Control results by performance reviews and regular
feedback– Orient and train new members to adopt desired
behaviours– Recruit and select new members who exhibit desired
behaviours– Hold regular meetings to discuss progress and ways of
improving– Use team decision-making methods to reach agreement
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
MANAGING TEAM NORMS (CONT’D)
• Cohesiveness:– The degree to which members are attracted to
and motivated to remain part of a team– Can be beneficial if paired with positive
performance norms
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
MANAGING TEAM COHESIVENESS
• Guidelines for increasing team cohesion: – Build agreement on team goals– Increase membership homogeneity– Increase interactions among members– Decrease team size– Introduce competition with other teams– Reward team rather than individual results– Provide physical isolation from other teams
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
MANAGING TEAM COHESIVENESS (CONT’D)
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
FIGURE 12.7 HOW COHESIVENESS AND NORMS INFLUENCE TEAM PERFORMANCE
• Positive norms + high cohesiveness high performance and strong commitments to positive norms
• Positive norms + low cohesiveness moderate performance and weak commitments to positive norms
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
EFFECTS OF TEAM COHESIVENESS AND NORMS
• Negative norms + low cohesiveness low to moderate performance and weak commitments to negative norms
• Negative norms + high cohesiveness low performance and strong commitments to negative norms
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
EFFECTS OF TEAM COHESIVENESS AND NORMS (CONT’D)
• Task activities:– Actions by team members that contribute
directly to team’s performance purpose– Include:• Initiating• Information sharing• Summarizing• Elaborating• Opinion giving
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
TASK AND MAINTENANCE ROLES
• Maintenance activities:– Support emotional life of a team as an ongoing
social system– Include:• Gatekeeping• Encouraging• Following• Harmonizing• Reducing tension
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
TASK AND MAINTENANCE ROLES (CONT’D)
• Distributed leadership roles:– Make every member responsible for recognizing
when task and/or maintenance activities are needed and taking actions to provide them
– Leading through task activities focuses on solving problems and achieving performance results
– Leading through maintenance activities helps strengthen and perpetuate the team as a social system
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
TASK AND MAINTENANCE ROLES (CONT’D)
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
FIGURE 12.8 DISTRIBUTED LEADERSHIP HELPS TEAMS MEET TASK AND
MAINTENANCE NEEDS
• Disruptive activities that detract from team effectiveness:– Being aggressive– Blocking– Self-confessing– Seeking sympathy– Competing– Withdrawal– Horsing around– Seeking recognition
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
TASK AND MAINTENANCE ROLES (CONT’D)
• Methods of team decision making:– Lack of response– Authority rule– Minority rule– Majority rule– Consensus– Unanimity
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
DECISION-MAKING IN TEAMS
• Greater amounts of information, knowledge, and expertise
• Expands number of action alternatives considered• Increases understanding and acceptance• Increases commitment to follow through
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
ASSETS OF TEAM DECISION MAKING
• Social pressure to conform• Individual or minority group domination• Time requirements
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
POTENTIAL DISADVANTAGES OF TEAM DECISION MAKING
Symptoms of Groupthink:– Illusions of group invulnerability– Rationalizing unpleasant and disconfirming data– Belief in inherent group morality– Negative stereotypes of competitors– Pressure to conform– Self-censorship of members– Illusions of unanimity– Mind guarding
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
GROUPTHINK
• Have each group member be a critical evaluator• Don’t appear to favour one course of action• Create subteams to work on the same problems• Have team members discuss issues with outsiders• Have outside experts observe and provide feedback
on team activities• Assign a member to the devil’s advocate role• Hold a second-chance meeting
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
METHODS FOR DEALING WITH GROUPTHINK
• Creativity in team decision-making:– Brainstorming:• Engages group members in an open,
spontaneous discussion of problems and ideas– Nominal group technique:• Structures interaction among team members
discussing problems and ideas
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CREATIVITY IN TEAM DECISION-MAKING
• Conflict:– A disagreement between people on:• Substantive issues regarding goals and tasks,
allocation of resources, distribution of rewards, policies and procedures, and job assignments• Emotional issues arising from feelings of
anger, distrust, dislike, fear, and resentment, as well as personality clashes
– Conflict that is well managed can help promote creativity and high performance
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CONFLICT
• Functional conflict:– Moderately intense conflict– Constructive and stimulates people toward
greater work efforts, cooperation, and creativity• Dysfunctional conflict:– Low-intensity and very high-intensity conflict– Destructive and hurts task performance
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CONFLICT (CONT’D)
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
FIGURE 12.9 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONFLICT AND PERFORMANCE
• Causes of conflict:– Role ambiguities– Resource scarcities– Task interdependencies– Competing objectives– Structural differentiation– Unresolved prior conflicts
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CAUSES OF CONFLICT
• Structural approaches for resolving conflicts:– Appealing to superordinate goals– Making more resources available– Changing the people– Altering the physical environment
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
• Integrative devices for resolving conflicts:– Using liaison personnel, special task forces,
cross-functional teams, or a matrix organization– Changing reward systems– Changing policies and procedures– Training in interpersonal skills
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION (CONT’D)
• People’s conflict management styles reflect different combinations of co-operative and assertive behaviour:– Co-operativeness is the desire to satisfy the
other party’s needs and concerns– Assertiveness is the desire to satisfy one’s own
needs and concerns
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION (CONT’D)
• Conflict management styles:– Avoidance (withdrawal):
• Unco-operative and unassertive– Accommodation (smoothing):
• Co-operative and assertive– Competition (authoritative command):
• Unco-operative and assertive– Compromise:
• Moderately co-operative and assertive– Collaboration (problem solving):
• Co-operative and assertive© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION (CONT’D)
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
FIGURE 12.10 ALTERNATIVE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES
• Conflict management styles:– Lose-lose conflict:• Management by avoidance or accommodation
– Win-lose conflict:• Management by competition and compromise
– Win-win conflict:• Management by collaboration
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION (CONT’D)
© John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.
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