Page 1

CHAPTER 1+2: FOUNDATIONS, ATOMS

TERMINOLOGY

PURE VS. MIXTURE

ELEMENT VS. COMPOUND

Ar Br2 Sugar (C12H22O11) NO2

Page 2

IONIC COMPOUNDS VS. MOLECULES

Zn:

Na: Metals: Shiny, silvery, solids at room temp, Conductive

S8:

Cl2: Nonmetals: Gases, liquids at room temp, other solids, Nonconductive

PH3

CaBr2

P4

Cu

Element / Compound?

Molecules present?

Page 3

NOMENCLATURE + FORMULAE

ELEMENT NAMES + SYMBOLS TO MEMORIZE 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A

POLYATOMIC IONS TO MEMORIZE

NH4+ Ammonium

Gp 4A Gp 5A Gp 6A

CN– Cyanide NO2– Nitrite OH– Hydroxide

C2H3O2– Acetate NO3

– Nitrate SO32– Sulfite

CO32– Carbonate PO4

3– Phosphate SO42– Sulfate

HCO3– Hydrogen carbonate

(bicarbonate) HPO4

2– Hydrogen phosphate HSO4– Hydrogen sulfate

(bisulfate) H2PO4

– Dihydrogen phosphate

Gp 7A

ClO– Hypochlorite Metals

ClO2– Chlorite CrO4

2– Chromate

ClO3– Chlorate Cr2O7

2– Dichromate

ClO4– Perchlorate MnO4

– Permanganate

1 2

H PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS HeHydrogen Helium

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be B C N O F NeLithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl ArSodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

19 20 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 35 36

K Ca Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Br KrPotassium Calcium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Bromine Krypton

37 38 47 50 53 54

Rb Sr Ag Sn I XeRubidium Strontium Silver Tin Iodine Xenon

55 56 82

Cs Ba PbCesium Barium Lead

↕ Groups or Families ⟷Periods or Rows

Page 4

NAMING CATEGORIES

Ionic Compounds Molecular Compounds Acidic Compounds

Pattern Metal + nonmetal Nonmetals only

Format

Metal + nonmetal –ide Use roman numerals for variable charges

element + element –ide Use prefixes on both

Hydro______ic acid ________ic acid (–ate) ________ous acid (–ite)

Examples NaCl = sodium chloride Fe(NO3)3 = iron(III) nitrate

N2O3 = dinitrogen trioxide HCl = hydrochloric acid HNO3 = nitric acid

IONIC COMPOUND FORMULAE

Ions combine to form neutral compounds.

Elements Potassium + phosphorus Calcium + hydrogen carbonate

Silver + chromate

Formula

IONIC COMPOUND NAMING

• General format: metal element + nonmetal element + ide

• Use roman numerals for metal charge if not in Group 1A, 2A, or part of “1-2-3 diagonal”

• FYI common ions: Cr2+, Cr3+, Cr6+, Mn2+, Mn4+, Mn7+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Co2+, Co3+, Ni2+, Cu+, Cu2+, Sn2+, Sn4+, Pb2+, Pb4+

Ions Formula Name

MgBr2

Cu(NO3)2

Al3+ C2H3O2–

Lead(IV) sulfide

Page 5

MOLECULAR COMPOUND NAMING

Some examples of nitrogen-oxygen compounds:

Formula NO NO2 N2O4 N2O5 N2O

• General format: prefix + first element + prefix + second element + ide

• Prefixes: (1) mono, (2) di, (3) tri, (4) tetra, (5) penta, (6) hexa.

• Mono prefix is not used for the first element (e.g. CO = carbon monoxide)

Formula Name Formula Name

Sulfur hexafluoride P2O5

AQUEOUS ACID NAMING

Complete list of acids for this class:

Without Oxygen With Oxygen Root Polyatomic

Polyatomic name

HF (aq) Hydrofluoric acid HNO2 Nitrous acid NO2

– Nitrite HCl (aq) Hydrochloric acid HNO3 Nitric acid NO3

– Nitrate HBr (aq) Hydrobromic acid H2SO3

Sulfurous acid SO32– Sulfite

HI (aq) Hydroiodic acid H2SO4 Sulfuric acid SO42– Sulfate

HC2H3O2 Acetic acid C2H3O2– Acetate

H2CO3 Carbonic acid CO32– Carbonate

H3PO4 Phosphoric acid PO43– Phosphate

HClO Hypochlorous acid ClO– Hypochlorite HClO2 Chlorous acid ClO2

– Chlorite HClO3 Chloric acid ClO3

– Chlorate HClO4 Perchloric acid ClO4

– Perchlorate

SUMMARY

Formula Name Formula Name

Cu2SO4 Strontium perchlorate

CBr4 Cr(CN)3

= N= O

Page 6

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES (SF) – IN ACTIVITY

NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Assigning Significant Figures (SF) Examples

All non-zero digits and “interior” zeroes (zeroes between other numbers) are significant. 5.025 pounds =

Leading zeroes (zeroes to the left of the first non-zero digit) are not significant.

0.0618 g =

0.0000000005 g =

Trailing zeroes (zeroes to the right of the last non-zero digit) are significant only if a decimal point is written.

74.0 mL =

50 cm = 50. cm =

Exact numbers (definitions, non-measured values) have an infinite number of SF. 3 drops; 1 dozen =

CALCULATIONS

MULTIPLYING/DIVIDING

Answer matches #SF as value with smaller #SF.

#.%&%×(%)*+

%.%%,(* =

ADDING/SUBTRACTING

Answer matches precision (place value) of least precise value.

12.0 ˚C + 0.075 ˚C =

(2,060 cm)(7.0 × 10–5 cm/s) =

25,000 in + 1,070.5 in =

Scientific Notation

Positive exponent = big number >1

Negative exponent = small number <1

Page 7

TRICKIER UNITS

,&,(%%,%%%./01

(3.&45)(%.%&%, 7./) =

SF RULES SIMPLIFY ERROR ANALYSIS

Adding / Subtracting:

Example: 8.0 ˚C ± 0.1 ˚C

+ 2.08 ˚C ± 0.01 ˚C

10.08 ± 0.11 ˚C

Multiplying / Dividing:

Example: (13.15 cm)(12 cm) = 157.8 cm2

± 0.01 cm ± 1 cm

D(xy) = (157.8 cm2) 8 %.%(9*(3.(&9*

+ (9*(,9*

; = 13.27 cm2 Thus 157.8 ± 13.27 cm2

MIXED OPERATIONS (×/÷ AND +/–)

Keep track of SF in between operations (can round midway).

3.21×103 g2( )1/2

5.326mL + 0.5mL=

Maximum Error (FYI)

Adding/Subtracting:

Multiplying/Dividing:

Δ(x + y) = Δx +Δy

Δ(xy)xy

=Δxx+Δyy

Page 8

TEMPERATURE – IN ACTIVITY

Equations are on the equation sheet:

𝑇= = (𝑇? − 32˚𝐹) E5˚𝐶9˚𝐹

I

𝑇? = E9˚𝐹5˚𝐶

I𝑇= + 32˚𝐹

𝑇J = 𝑇= + 273.15

All values given are exact numbers (∞ SF). Sample Problem: Convert 103.4 ˚C to Kelvin and Fahrenheit.

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS – IN ACTIVITY

UNITS + PREFIXES

Quantity Unit Other Quantity Unit Other

Mass Kilogram (kg) g, mg Temperature Kelvin (K) ˚C

Length Meter (m) cm, mm Volume Cubic meter (m3) dm3 ≡ L

Time Second (s) cm3 ≡ mL

Abbreviation Prefix Multiply by Equalities

mega M 1,000,000 (or 106) 1 Mm = 106 m

kilo k 1,000 (or 103) 1 km = 103 m 1 km = 1000 m

deci d 0.1 (or 10–1) 1 dm = 0.1 m 10 dm = 1 m

centi c 0.01 (or 10–2) 1 cm = 0.01 m

milli m 0.001 (or 10–3) 1 mm = 0.001 m

micro µ 10–6 1 µm = 10–6 m

nano n 10–9 1 nm = 10–9 m

Page 9

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

How many minutes are in 3 hours?

Sample Problems:

The tallest building on Earth is the “Burj Khalifa” in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It was completed in December 2009 and is 828 m tall. How many feet tall is the building?

Imagine that you need to fill your car’s gas tank near the western USA-Canada border; is it cheaper to get gas in Seattle1 (where the gas price is $3.34/gallon) or Vancouver (134.2 cents/liter)?

What is the price of Vancouver gas (134.2 cents/liter) in US dollars/gallon given the currency conversion2 of 1 CA$ = 0.733581 US$?

FYI, average gas prices3 in Iran is $0.91/gallon, France is $6.82/gallon.

1 Average gas prices were found on gasbuddy.com on 12-29-18. 2 Currency rate for 12-29-18 found on https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=CAD&To=USD 3 From mytravelcost.com on 7-2-18, reported in US dollars/gallon

Page 10

MORE DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS – IN LECTURE

Sample Problems:

The world’s smallest periodic table is etched on a single strand of hair from Professor Martyn Poliakoff (English scientist, search YouTube for “World’s smallest periodic table”). How many of these tiny periodic tables could be lined up side to side (long end) on a large Post-it note?

What is the volume (in m3) of a cylinder with a height of 11.20 inches and diameter of 5.67 inches? Given: 1 inch = 2.54 cm (exactly), and Vcylinder = pr2h.

If a character on the game Fortnite is assumed to be 5 ft 7” (170 cm), the land can be calculated to be ~1.884 square kilometers. How many square miles is this? Given 1 mi = 1.609 km.

Periodic Table Post-It

89.67 µm

46.39 µm

7.63 cm

Page 11

DENSITY

DEFINITION, EXAMPLES

Substance Density (g/mL) Substance Density

(g/mL) Substance Density (g/mL)

Air 0.00123 Water (22 ˚C) 0.998 Copper 8.96

Alcohol 0.789 Aluminum 2.70 Gold 19.32

Sample Problems:

Styrofoam (d = 0.05 g/mL) Steel (d = 8.05 g/mL) Alcohol (d = 0.789 g/mL)

• Which has more mass, 1 g Styrofoam or 1 g of steel?

• Would 250 kg Styrofoam float or sink compared to alcohol?

• Which has a greater mass, 1 mL Styrofoam or 1 mL steel?

• Which has a greater volume, 1 g Styrofoam or 1 g steel?

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

A solid copper penny has a volume of 0.347 mL. What is the mass of the penny (dCu = 8.96 g/mL)?

Mass Volume

Page 12

Sample Density Problems:

A spherical ball of silver (d = 10.49 g/cm3) with a mass of 67.5 g, is placed in a graduated cylinder containing 53.2 mL of water.

a. To what level on the graduated cylinder does the water rise to?

b. What is the radius of the silver ball in cm?

What is the volume of 26.53 g of zinc pellets (dZn = 7.13 g/cm3)?

Page 13

HISTORICAL EXPERIMENTS

THOMSON (1897)

Cathode ray tube experiments that showed a beam of electricity was repelled by the negative pole of an electric field (thus the beam is negatively charged, “electrons”). The beam was also deflected by a magnetic field, and the amount of deflection enabled him to calculate the electron’s charge-to-mass ratio.

𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∝ 9TUVWX*UYY

= –1.76 × 108 =W

Generating the electron beam from multiple metals gave the same result, thus the electron must be in all atoms. Since atoms are neutral, Thomson assumed there was a positively charged particle as well. He postulated the “plum pudding model” of the atom: a diffuse cloud of positive charge and electron “raisins.”

400 200 0 200B.C. A.D.

400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

400 B.C.

Four elements: Fire, Earth, Water, Air

Alchemy 1661:

Boyle made quantitative

measurements of gases

"Founder of modern

chemistry"

1660 1680 1700 1720 1740 1760 1780 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940

1661:

Boyle measured

gases

1808:

Dalton's Atomic Theory

1789:

Law of Conservation

of Mass (Lavoisier)

1897:

Electron discovered (Thomson)

Robert Boyle John Dalton

1960 1980 2000 2020

1848:

Idea of absolute

zero (Kelvin)

1869:

First modern periodic

table(Mendeleev)

1900:

Ideas about radioactivity

(Curie, Rutherford)

1913:

Start of quantum

mechanics(Bohr)

1935, 1937:

Synthesis of nylon

(DuPont co.)Cracking petroleum(Houdry)

1942:

Manhattan Project-

atomic bomb

1966:

High level control of chemical reactions

Page 14

MILLIKAN (1909)

The Millikan oil-drop experiment showed that charged oil droplets could be suspended by adjusting the voltage across two plates: at this point the force of gravity on the drop balanced the repulsive force between the charged plate and charged drop. The mass of the oil drop (determined by its radius) and voltage were used to calculate the charge, which was always a whole number multiple of a value, which he deemed the charge on an electron.

His electric charge = 1.592 × 10–19 C Accepted electric charge = 1.602 × 10–19 C

RUTHERFORD (1909)

Radioactivity was discovered by Becquerel around 1896, who found a uranium ore could produce an image on a photographic plate below it.

Rutherford sent alpha particles (He2+) toward thin, gold foil. Most of the particles went straight through the foil, but some were deflected at odd angles.

Page 15

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

Particle Abbrev. Charge Charge Mass Mass (u)

Electron –1.602 × 10–19 C 9.109 × 10–28 g

Proton +1.602 × 10–19 C 1.673 × 10–24 g

Neutron 1.675 × 10–24 g

ISOTOPES

Page 16

ATOMIC NOTATION

𝐶#(Z

Drawing

Symbol

𝑂,\(]

Complete the following table with the subatomic particles in each.

Symbol Element Atomic # Mass # # p+ # n0 # e–

𝐹(^

𝑍𝑛,`3%##

𝑃𝑏Z`],,%#

Erbium 68 166 70

e–

e–

e–

e–

e–

5 p+

6 n02e– 4 p+

5 n0