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OBSERVATION METHODS
Chapter 11
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the role of observation as a business
researchmethod
2. Describe the use of direct observation and
contrivedobservation
3. Identify ethical issues observation studies
4. Explain the observation of physical objects and
messagecontent
5. Describe major types of mechanical observation6. Summarize
techniques for measuring physiological
reactions112
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
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Observation in Business
Research Observation
The systematic process of recording actual behavioral patterns
of
people, objects, and events as they happen.
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EXHIBIT 11.1 What Can Be Observed
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What Cannot Be Observed?
Limitations of Observations in General
Observation can describe the event that occurred but cannot
explain why the event occurred.
Observation over long periods is expensive or even
impossible.
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The Nature of Observation
Studies Visible Observation
Observation in which the observers presence is known to the
subject.
Hidden Observation
Observation in which the subject is unaware that observation
istaking place.
Advantages of Observation over Surveying
Data are free from distortions, inaccuracies, or other
response
biases.
Data are recorded when actual and nonverbal behavior takes
place.
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EXHIBIT 11.2 Observing and Interpreting Nonverbal
Communication
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Observation of Human
Behavior Complementary Evidence
Observation provides an additional source of information
that
helps explain other research findings.
Response Latency
The amount of time it takes to make a choice between
twoalternatives; used as a measure of the strength of
preference.
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Direct and Contrived
Observation Direct Observation
A straightforward attempt to observe and record what
naturally
occurs.
Contrived Observation
Observation in which the investigator creates an
artificialenvironment in order to test a hypothesis.
Environment may increase the frequency of certain behavior
patterns to be observed.
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Errors Associated With Direct
Observation Observer Bias
A distortion of measurement resulting from the cognitive
behavior or actions of a witnessing observer.
Recording events subjectively
Recording events inaccurately
Interpreting observation data incorrectly
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Ethical Issues in the
Observation of Humans Issues Respondents right to privacy
Contrived observation as entrapment
Researchers feel comfortable collecting observational data
if:
The observed behavior is commonly performed in public where
others
can observe the behavior.
The behavior is performed in a setting that assures the
anonymity of
the person being observed.
The observed person has agreed to be observed.
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Observation of Physical Objects
and Content Analysis Physical-Trace Evidence A visible mark of
some past event or occurrence.
Example:
Wear on library book
Packages in trash
Content Analysis
The systematic observation and quantitative description of
the
manifest content of communication.
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Mechanical Observation
Television Monitoring
Computerized mechanical observation used to obtain
television
ratings.
Monitoring Web site Traffic
Hits and page views
Unique visitors
Click-through rate (CTR)
Proportion of people exposed to an Internet ad who actually
click on
its hyperlink to enter the Web site; click-through rates are
generally
very low.
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Mechanical Observation
(contd) Scanner-Based Research
Scanner-based consumer panel
A type of consumer panel in which participants purchasing
habits
are recorded with a laser scanner rather than a purchase
diary.
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Measuring Physiological
Reactions Eye-Tracking Monitor
Records how the subject actually reads or views an
advertisement.
Measures unconscious eye movements.
Pupilometer Observes and records changes in the diameter of the
subjects
pupils.
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Measuring Physiological
Reactions Psychogalvanometer
Measures galvanic skin responseinvoluntary changes in the
electrical resistance of the skin.
Assumes that physiological changes accompany emotional
reactions.
Voice Pitch Analysis
Measures emotional reactions through physiological changes in
a
persons voice.
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