Chapter 10

VOTING AND ELECTIONS

The Contested 2000 Presidential Election In 2000, George W. Bush won in the Electoral College,

with 271 votes compared Al Gore’s 267.Yet Gore won in the popular vote, with 500,000 more votes

than Bush.Although many Americans thought that the election

outcome was unfair, most accepted the legitimacy of the Bush Presidency.

Although the final tally was thus highly charged, the actual campaign was lackluster.both candidates clung to centrist and non-ideological

themes, striving to capture the “median voter”

Elections and Democracy

Elections are essential for democratic politics.

Elections are the principal means by which popular sovereignty and majority rule are supposed to work.

Can elections ensure that governments will do what the people want?

Theories of democratic two-party control of government

Prospective (or Responsible party) voting model Theory: voters decide what government will do

in the near future by choosing one or another responsible party (a party that takes a clear stand on the issues and enacts them as policy)

Problems: American parties may not behave as “responsible

parties”voters may actually be choosing the “less

unpopular” stand rather than the one that they prefer (as the public does not choose the party platforms)

Electoral Competition Voting ModelTheory: parties seeking votes move

toward the median voter or the center of the political spectrum

Problems: voters must consider nothing but the issues and must know exactly where the parties stand

Still, electoral competition is probably one of the main reasons that government policy is significantly influenced by public opinion.

Retrospective (or Reward and Punishment) Voting ModelTheory: voters look back at the performance

of a party in power and cast ballots on the basis of how well it did in office

Problems: often, an incumbent’s record is mixedno guarantee that future leaders will be

better

Imperfect electoral democracy

Each of these three processes of democratic control works to some extent.

None of them works well enough to guarantee perfectly democratic outcomes.Each requires more unified political parties

than we have.Money givers, activists, and leaders of

organized groups have more influence than do ordinary citizens.

American Elections in Comparative Perspective

The U.S. has more elections than any other democratic nation.

Elections in the U.S. are separate and independent from one another.

Elections fill government positions that have fixed terms of office.

National (and state-wide) elections are held on a fixed date.

Elections in the U.S. are almost always based on “first past the post.”

Political Participation

Political participation refers to political activity by individual citizens.Unconventional participation —

includes activities such as demonstrations and boycotts

Conventional participation — includes activities such as voting, writing letters, contacting officials, giving money

Expansion of the franchise

The franchise was quite restricted in the early years of the United States.

The expansion of the right to vote has been one of the most important developments in the political history of the United States.

Direct partisan elections

Low Voting TurnoutDuring the first century of American

history, suffrage expanded to more groups, and larger and larger proportions voted.

Since then, voting rates have declined dramatically.

The ideal of political equality is violated by low rates of voter turnout.

Causes of low voter turnoutBarriers to voting

RegistrationNon-holiday election day

Lack of attractive choicesAlienationLack of voter mobilization by political parties

(eg., failure of both parties to register low-income citizens)

Increase in the number of people who are ineligible to vote (eg., recent immigrants and convicted felons)

Campaigning Involvement

Despite low voter turnout levels, Americans are more likely than people in other countries to participate actively in campaigns.

Areas of involvementContact officialsGive money Attend meetingsAttend political ralliesWork actively in a campaign organization

Who Participates?

IncomeEducationRace and ethnicityAgeGender

Does It Matter Who Votes?

Two contrasting points of viewThe rate of participation is unimportant because the

preferences of those who vote are similar to those who do not vote.

A low voter turnout rate may be a positive factor since more educated people vote.

Nonvoters are clearly different from voters.

Participation can make a change.Broader participation would increase

popular sovereignty and political equality.

Campaigning for Office

Contending for a Presidential nominationCharacteristics of nominees — who has

a chance?Getting startedPrimaries and caucusesNational conventions

The autumn campaign The fall campaign traditionally began on Labor Day, but

now tends to start right after the conventions or earlier. Campaign organizations set up in each state Intense money raising, combined with a new round of

public financing Media blitz Focus groups Voter registration and voter turnout campaigns Informing voters

issuespast performancepersonal characteristics

Nomination Politics and Democracy

Crucial role of party activists and money givers

Incumbents

Money and Elections

Presidential campaigns cost enormous amounts of money.

The cost has increased rapidly over time.Campaign spending may not look so big

when compared with corporate advertising.

The source of campaign money is far more problematic for democracy than the cost of Presidential elections. Where does the money come from?

Government subsidiesPACssoft money

Does money talk?Role in nomination processRole in policy formationSpecial interests of money givers

Result: political inequality

How Voters DecideParties, candidates, and issues all have

substantial effects on how people vote.Social characteristicsParty loyaltiesCandidates Issues

retrospective votingthe economyforeign policynew issues

The Electoral College When voting for President, American voters are

actually voting for a slate of electors who have promised to support the candidate.

Almost all states now have winner-take-all systems.

The “college” of electors from the different states never meets; instead the winning slates are sent to D.C.

Consequences of the electoral college system magnifies the popular support of the winner may let the less popular candidate win (1876, 1888,

2000) discourages third parties

Voting, Elections, and Democracy

U.S. elections help make the public’s voice heard, but political equality is damaged by providing more political influence to some types of people than to others.