Chapter 10

Gender Inequality

Chapter Outline

The Global Context: The Status Of Women And Men

Sociological Theories Of Gender Inequality Gender Stratification: Structural Sexism The Social Construction Of Gender Roles:

Cultural Sexism

Chapter Outline

Social Problems And Traditional Gender Role Socialization

Strategies For Action: Toward Gender Equality Understanding Gender Inequality

Sexism

The belief that there are innate psychological, behavioral, and/or intellectual differences between women and men and that these differences connote the superiority of one group and the inferiority of the other.

Double or triple jeopardy - When a person is a member of 2 or more minority groups.

Question

How comfortable are you with the gender roles our society defines as appropriate for males and females?

A. Very comfortableB. Somewhat comfortableC. UnsureD. Somewhat uncomfortableE. Very uncomfortable

Gender and Sex

Gender is the social definitions and expectations associated with being female or male.

Sex is one's biological identity.

Question

If you could temporarily be the other gender, how long would you like to do so?

A. One day

B. One week

C. I have no desire to be the other gender

Gender Gap Rankings: Top 10 Countries

Country Rank Country Rank

Sweden 1 New Zealand 6

Norway 2 Canada 7

Iceland 3 United Kingdom 8

Denmark 4 Germany 9

Finland 5 United States 10

Gender Gap Rankings: Bottom 10 Countries

Country Rank Country Rank

Venezuela 49 Korea 54

Greece 50 Jordan 55

Brazil 51 Pakistan 56

Mexico 52 Turkey 57

India 53 Egypt 58

Structural Functionalist Perspective

Pre-industrial society required a division of labor based on gender.– Women nursed and cared for children.– Men were responsible for material needs.

Industrialization made traditional division of labor less functional, belief system remains.

Conflict Perspective

Continued domination by males requires a belief system that supports gender inequality.

Two beliefs– Women are inferior outside the home.– Women are more valuable in the home. 

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Gender and gender roles are learned through socialization process.

Women are socialized into expressive roles; men are socialized into instrumental roles.

Question

Symbolic interactionists emphasize that through the socialization process both females and males are taught the meanings associated with being feminine and masculine.

A. True

B. False

Answer: A. True

Symbolic interactionists emphasize that through the socialization process both females and males are taught the meanings associated with being feminine and masculine.

Education and Structural Sexism

Worldwide, women are less likely than men to be literate.

In U.S. men are more likely to have doctorate degrees.

Women are socialized to choose marriage and motherhood over career preparation.

Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded to Women, 2003

Income and Structural Sexism

Women with same level of education will earn, on average, 60% of what men earn.

The higher the percentage of females in an occupation, the lower the pay.

Employers channel women and men into different jobs that have different wages.

Work and Structural Sexism

Women make up 1/3 of world’s labor force. Women tend to work in jobs with little prestige

in roles where they are facilitators for others. Women are more likely to have little or no

authority in workplace.

Occupational Sex Segregation: Reasons

Through socialization, females and males learn different skills and acquire different aspirations.

Women are given fewer opportunities in higher-paying male-dominated jobs.

Women have primary responsibility for childcare and choose professions with flexible hours and career paths.

Sex Segregation

Between 1983 and 2003:– female physicians increased from 16% to 30%– female dentists increased from 7% to 22%– female clergy increased from 6% to 14%

Public school teaching is even more dominated by women today than it was two decades ago.

Women are still heavily represented in low-prestige, low-wage, pink-collar jobs that offer few benefits.

Highly Sex-Segregated Occupations 2003

Female Dominated Occupations % of Female Workers

Child-care workers 95

Dental hygienists 99

Dieticians 91

Elementary and middle school teachers

82

Librarians 84

Paralegals 84

Highly Sex-Segregated Occupations 2003

Female Dominated Occupations % of Female Workers

Prekindergarten and kindergarten teachers

98

Receptionists 93

Registered Nurses 92

Secretaries 97

Speech therapists 95

Teacher assistants 92

Travel Agents 83

Highly Sex-Segregated Occupations 2003

Male Dominated Occupations % of Male Workers

Pilots and Navigators 97

Architects 78

Auto mechanics 98

Civil engineers 91

Clergy 86

Construction Workers 97

Dentists 78

Highly Sex-Segregated Occupations 2003

Male Dominated Occupations % of Male Workers

Firefighters 96

Grounds Maintenance Workers 94

Lawyers 76

Mechanical Engineers 96

Physicians 70

Police Officers 88

Question

Do you approve or disapprove of a married woman earning money in business or industry if she has a husband capable of supporting her?

A. Approve

B. Disapprove

C. No opinion

Gender Gap Hypotheses

Devaluation hypothesis– Argues women are paid less because the

work they do is socially defined as less valuable than the work performed by men.

Human capital hypothesis– Argues that female-male pay differences

result from differences in women's and men's education, skills, training, and work experience.

Comparable Worth

The belief that individuals in occupations, even in different occupations, should be paid equally if the job requires “comparable” levels of education, training, and responsibility.

In a comparable worth lawsuit, nurses successfully sued the City of Denver for paying them less than other employees (e.g., tree trimmers, sign painters) who had less education.

Ratio of Women’s to Men’sEarnings Across the U.S., 2002.

Effects of Education and Sex on Income of Full-Time Workers, 2004

Educational Attainment Men Women

Total, 25 years old and over 39,624 31,148

Less than 9th grade 20,748 19,292

9th to 12th grade(no diploma)

26,000 23,712

High school graduate (includes equivalency)

33,540 29,848

Some college, no degree 38,948 33,384

Associate degree 40,976 36,088

Effects of Education and Sex on Income of Full-Time Workers, 2004Educational Attainment Men Women

Bachelor’s degree or more 59,436 51,272

Bachelor’s degree 54,288 47,632

Master’s degree 66,924 57,304

Professional degree 84,656 71.604

Doctorate degree 80,288 72.696

% of Women Elected by Level and Type of Government Position, 2005

Position Number of Seats Number of Women

U.S. President 1 0

U.S. Vice President 1 0

U. S. Congress 535 80

Governors 50 8

State Legislators 7,382 1,662

Question

Do you agree or disagree with this statement: Most men are better suited emotionally for politics than are most women.

A. Agree

B. Disagree

GSS National Data

EducationNo High School Degree

High School Degree

College Education

Agree 37% 24.9% 18.8%

Disagree 63 75.1 81.2

Cultural Sexism

The ways in which the culture of society (norms, values, beliefs, symbols) perpetuates subordination based on sex classification.

Explanations for the Continued Traditional Division of Labor

1. Time-availability approach– Claims role performance is a function of

who has the time to accomplish certain tasks.

2. Relative resources approach – The spouse with the least power is

relegated the most unrewarding tasks.

Explanations for the Continued Traditional Division of Labor

3. Gender role ideology – The division of labor is a consequence of

traditional socialization and accompanying attitudes and beliefs.

Question

Steve and Linda are married and both work full time outside the home. Steve works as a lawyer and Linda works as an elementary school teacher. Linda finds that she performs the majority of household tasks. Using this example which of the following ideas explains the continued traditional division of labor?

A. "relative resources approach"B. "time-availability approach"C. all of these choicesD. "gender role ideology"

Answer: C

Steve and Linda are married and both work full time outside the home. Steve works as a lawyer and Linda works as an elementary school teacher. Linda finds that she performs the majority of household tasks. Using this example all of the following ideas explains the continued traditional division of labor:– "relative resources approach”– "time-availability approach”– “gender role ideology"

Question

Which of the following two types of relationships would you prefer

A. A relationship where the man has the main responsibility for providing the household income and the woman has the main responsibility for taking care of the home and family.

B. A relationship where the man and woman equally share responsibility for providing the household income and taking care of the home and family?

GSS National Data

Marital Status

Married Widowed Div./Sep.Never

Married

Relationship A

36.3% 38.5% 25.8% 16.1%

Relationship B

63.7 61.5 74.2 83.9

The School Experience and Cultural Sexism

1990 study of storybooks used in schools:– Males were depicted as clever, brave,

adventurous, and income-producing.– Females were depicted as passive and as

victims in need of rescue. Timed, multiple-choice tests favor males.

The Feminization of Poverty

Many female households are young women with children and women who have outlived their spouses.

“Report card” released by U.S. Women Connect gave U.S. an “F” for efforts to reduce female poverty.

International Women’s Bill of Rights

Adopted by united nations in 1979. Establishes rights for women in education,

politics, work, law, and family life. Has not been ratified by required 2/3 vote of

the U.S. Senate. Every industrialized country except

Switzerland and the U.S., has ratified the treaty.

Quick Quiz

1. George is a Hispanic and a known homosexual. On the job he encounters discrimination because of his membership in two minority groups. This is known as:

A. intensive discrimination.

B. polysemia.

C. double jeopardy.

D. dual prejudice.

Answer: C

George is a Hispanic and a known homosexual. On the job he encounters discrimination because of his membership in two minority groups. This is known as double jeopardy.

2. Which is true about women regarding gender inequality in the U.S.?

A. Women have lower incomes.

B. Women earn fewer graduate degrees.

C. Women hold fewer prestigious jobs.

D. All of these choices.

Answer: D

The following statements are true about women regarding gender inequality in the U.S.:– Women have lower incomes.– Women earn fewer graduate degrees.– Women hold fewer prestigious jobs.

3. In hunting and gathering society, men hunted and women gathered. This division of labor based on gender became defined as normal and natural over time. Which sociological perspective views this division as purposeful for the time?

A. conflict theory

B. structural functionalism

C. symbolic interactionism

D. exchange theory

Answer: B

In hunting and gathering society, men hunted and women gathered. This division of labor based on gender became defined as normal and natural over time. The structural functionalism sociological perspective views this division as purposeful for the time.