Chapter 1 the Role of Social Research

7/29/2019 Chapter 1 the Role of Social Research

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“The first swallow from the cup of the natural

sciences makes atheists…but at the bottom of the

cup, God is waiting.” - Werner Heisenburg, Nobel Prize-

winning nuclear physicist

“It is only so long as one is intoxicated by individual

discoveries that one says, „there can‟t be anything

more than this; now we know everything‟. But as

soon as one recognizes the incomparable grandeur

of the whole, one‟s vision penetrates further, and

the question arises about a God who is at the origin

of all things”. – Pope Benedict XVI

LEAD 9341: Intermediate Research Methods



Dr. Carmody-Bubb’s Contact

Information

Office Hours: Mondays throughWednesdays by appointment

Contact numbers:

– Phone: 431-4160

– Email (preferred): [email protected] (this will also belisted on the lakeonline directory). I will respond to your emails within 24

hours (except Sundays and holidays).

mailto:[email protected]






Class Format

Lecture plus questions/discussion and small group exercises. Do nothesitate to ask a question in class, I only ask that you first raise your hand. If you feel that you need an in-depth explanation, however,

please approach me after class.

I base a lot of my powerpoint presentations from your text; however, Ido skip around somewhat. Additionally, I base parts of my lecture onoutside materials and texts when I think they add to an explanation of a

particular topic. My powerpoint slides will always reference thesource of my material.

I typically offer approximate 10 minute breaks about every hour duringthe four-hour class period.



Ground Rules

Write well. You must always present yourselves in a scholarlymanner. Even on assignments where you might be graded more oncontent than writing, points will be taken off for poor grammar, etc.

Don’t plagiarize!

Must use lakeonline…I prefer electronic submissions, but paper assignments will be accepted if you have problems submitting online….



Lakeonline

You must use this.

All important dates, due dates, announcement, etc. will be posted on Lakonline (aka webct/blackboard).

I require that assignments be handed in electronically, via

lakeonline (except in instances of technical difficulties).



Tips on the Course

Read the assigned material carefully before class. Really take time

with the Critical Thinking exercises at the end of the chapters.

Relax, and try not to be intimidated by the words “research mehtods

and statistics". Even if you are somewhat uncomfortable with math,the concepts and tests we will be discussing are really more about

logic. In the real world, you'll use computer programs to do the actual

equations most of the time. You won't be doing a lot of calculations or

solving equations. What you do need to know is the logic behind the

research methods and the statistical tests. You really need to

understand what tests to use and why, and you need to be able to

interpret the results. This is really what you should focus upon in in

this class.



Chapter One

The Role of Social Research



Applications

We will be using several research articles in our small group

discussions and exercises to illustrate and elucidate concepts learned in

the text.



Why is understanding , evaluating and being able to conduct good

research important to Leadership Studies?

Is observation and experience enough…why or why not?

– Bias / probability



Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Tenacity (also called Tradition)

– What is it? Do you have any real-life examples?

– Myths, wivestales, prejudice

– Why does it sometimes work:

• Observation is the first step in the experimental process…we

are hard-wired to look for patterns…see

correlations….problem is with drawing a cause from a

correlation….later…



Ways to Acquire Knowledge (cont)

Authority

– What is it?

– Trust and authority….importance of credibility

– Logical fallacy of “appeal to authority”

Problems with tenacity , authority and experience?

“inability (or unwillingness) of tenacity and authority to change in the

face of contradictory evidence” (Davis and Smith, 2005, p. 5).

– Confirmation Bias

– Examples?




Experience

– “If you are color -blind or tone-deaf, your perception of the world isaltered and your knowledge base may not be accurate”.

– “Even normal individuals under normal conditions may see the world

differently”.

– “Our past experiences and culture may make some events and behaviorsseem more important than others” (Davis and Smith, 2005, p. 5).

• What do the authors mean by these statements and why are they

important?• What do we pay attention to?…..Examples?

• Things that stand out….cocktail party effect; American pilot inGermany story




Reason and Logic

– “This approach is based on the premise that we can apply reasonand logic to a situation in order to gain knowledge andunderstanding” (Davis and Smith, 2005, p. 5).

– Historical perspective?

– Mathematically based…..sets.

Science

– What is it?

– We’ll discuss in a moment how logic and scientific methodologyare related.



The Scientific Approach

The Key Elements of the Scientific Approach:

– “Objective measurements of the phenomenon under consideration.(systematic)

– The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by other individuals ( systematic and replicable).

– Self-correction of errors and faulty reasoning (based on theory).

– Exercising control to rule out the influence of unwanted factors.”

• (Davis and Smith, 2005, p. 6)

“The scientific method attempts to provide objective information thatanyone who wishes to repeat the observation in question can verify”(Davis and Smith, 2005, p. 6).

– What are the important points in this statement?



Experimental/Scientific Methodology

Theory: “a group of logically organized (deductively

related) laws” (Marx, 1973, p. 9)

Two Functions of a Theory: 1) Goal Function: summarize and integrate existing knowledge

2) Tool Function: “A good theory goes beyond the goal function

to suggest new relationships and make new predictions”

(Christenson).



Arguments (Logic)

When developing and testing a hypothesis (different from a

theory), you are building and then testing an argument.

Arguments are divided into 2 types: – Inductive : infer general from particular

– Deductive: infer particular from general

• (note: Hypotheses are primarily inductive; theories

actually have elements of both induction &deduction)



Arguments (Logic)

“A deductive argument is one whose premises are claimed to provide

conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusions” (Copi, 1982, p

177).

Every deductive argument is either valid or invalid :

How do you determine if an argument is valid?

– If the conclusion that follows the premises (preceding statements) is the

only one that a person can reach, if the premises are true.

What is the difference between truth and validity?

– An argument can be valid, even if the premises are not true. However, for

an argument to be sound, it must be valid AND the premises must be true.



Sample (valid) Deductive Argument

All humans are mortal

Socrates is human

Therefore, Socrates is mortal

(Copi, 1982, p. 52)

This argument is valid because, if it is true that all humans are mortal, and

if it is true that Socrates is human, then you can draw no other conclusion than that Socrates is a mortal. This argument is also sound,

because the premises are true. All humans are, in fact, mortal andSocrates is (or was) human.



Sample Inductive Arguments

All cows are mammals and have lungs

All horses are mammals and have lungs All humans are mammals and have lungs

Therefore, all mammals PROBABLY have lungs.

(Copi, 1982, p. 52)



Sample Inductive Arguments (cont)

Hitler was a dictator and was ruthless

Stalin was a dictator and was ruthless Castro is a dictator

Therefore, Castro is probably ruthless

(Copi, 1982, p. 52)



Truth and Validity

Deductive Argument

All dogs are black

Molly is a dog

Therefore, Molly is black

Valid?

This argument is, in fact, valid. If all dogs are black and if Molly is a

dog, then you can draw no other conclusion than that Molly isblack.

True?

The premises are not true (All dogs are not black), so even though theargument is valid, it is not sound.



Truth and Validity (cont)

• You don’t always know if an argument is sound because you don’talways know if the premises are true.

• For example, in the previous example of Molly, you don’t know if Molly is a dog or not.

• While you may not always be able to determine whether or not anargument is sound (I.e. it is both valid and the premises are true), youcan always determine whether or not it’s valid.

• Why is this important?



Logic and Scientific Methodology

How does all this relate to scientific methodology?

See Figure 2.2 and 2.3 on pps. 41-42 in Wolfer (2007).



Scientific Methodology

Observe ---- formulate hypotheses --test hypotheses

Again, logic is involved in both the formulation of hypotheses(inductive reasoning) and the testing of hypotheses (deductivereasoning).



When formulating a hypothesis, you are taking several specific observationsand inferring something general about your area of interest (inductivereasoning).

For example, say you have observed that several primary students (severalparticular observations) who underwent a new reading program increasedtheir grades in that subject. You might hypothesize that that particular program would enhance reading performance for all students (thegeneralization).

You now want to test this hypothesis, so you now have a generalized statement(Reading program A will enhance reading performance for primary schoolstudents) and you are now going to observe, under controlled circumstances,individual or particular scores….so you are now going from the general tospecific observations (deductive logic).



Scientific Methodology (cont)

Step 1: Identify Problem and Formulate Hypothesis(es)

– 4 sources from which problems originate:

• Theories• Everyday life / observations

• Practical issues

• Past research




Step 2: Design Experiment or Non-Experimental Research Study

– Experimental : Manipulate the Independent Variable (IV) and

measure the Dependent Variable (DV). Everything else, you

Control. What you cannot control, you Randomize.

– Non-Experimental: careful measurement of existing groups (often

through surveys, observation, etc). Any time you measure existing

groups (male vs. female; older generation vs. younger, etc, it is

non-experimental because you have not manipulated anything; you

are just measuring).




Step 3 : Conduct Experiment (Manipulate; i.e., assign to groups and

Measure) or Research Study (Measure differences among pre-

existing groups)

Step 4 (Test Hypotheses – Stats)




Step 5 (Report Results)

Format of Any Scientific Report:

– Introduction

• The dissertation is a specific type of research report, so it also

includes a review of the literature as a specific section

– Methods (Subjects/Participants, Apparatus/Instruments,

Procedures, Research Design/Methodology)

– Results – Discussion




We talked about some of the potential problems with other

methods of knowledge acquisition (tenacity, experience,

etc)…..

– How does the scientific method avoid some of the

problems associated with tenacity, authority,

experience, etc?

– Can you still encounter problems with the scientific

method? How?



Specific Components of the Scientific

Method (Review)

Objectivity

– Empirical observations

– Operational definitions

Replication

– What is it and why is it important?

Self Correction

– What is it and why is it important?



Problem Formulation

What’s the hardest part of problem formulation?

– Coming up with a manageable / realistic study

How do we (researchers) use a Review of the Literature to helpformulate research question(s)?

– To see what is already known about the topic

– To see what research gaps need to be filled

– To see where conflicting findings might exist



Hypothesis Formulation

What is a hypothesis?

– “A hypothesis is a statement that researchers can empirically test .

Notice the choice of words here: A hypothesis is a statement about

how two variables are related. It is not a question and, to that end,

it is different from a research question that is usually broad

and does not specifically link two or more specific concepts.

Hypotheses consist of independent and dependent variables. …

– The dependent variable is the outcome you are interested in

studying – the effect. The independent variable is the variable that

is producing a change in the dependent variable – the cause”

(Wolfer, 2007, p. 44) -- My note: I don’t like calling it “the

cause”….



Operationalization

Defining something in terms of how you are going to

measure it…..

“Frequently, the terms that need to be operationalized are

those that appear in a hypothesis or research question”

(Wolfer, 2007, p. 45).



Method of Observation

“Which method a researcher chooses depends largely on the research

question, the concepts being studied, and real-life considerations such

as time and money. Some methods are better suited for some topics

than others.” (Wolfer, 2007, p. 46).

Considerations?

– The nature of the research

– Resources (practicality)

– Access to subjects/participants



Measurement

“Measures are also frequently called variables because

they are free to vary. In other words, for each measure,

there is more than one possible response that people may

select; consequently, what people can say varies (hence the

name…) (Wolfer, 2007, p. 47).

Can also borrow... Another purpose for literature

review…especially with surveys.



Data Gathering

Sample vs Population…what’s the difference?

What is a random sample and why do we use it? (Discuss

in more detail in Chpt 5).



Coding and Analysis

Coding….discuss

Analysis…reported in the Results section….tables, graphs,

and specific format for reporting….



Empirical Generalizations:The Discussion Section

“During this section, researchers often remind readers of

the limitations of the research and any research flaws that

may unavoidably exist….” (Wolfer, 2007, p. 49).



Purposes of Social Research

What’s the difference between qualitative and quantitative

research?

Exploratory

Description

Explanation

Evaluation



Being a critical reader

What does this mean?

Discuss excerpts p. 19 and 20 Wolfer (2007)



Evaluating Research Titles

Pps.24 – 27

Small group exercise articles (handouts in class)

– Situational Awareness and Transformational Leadership in Senior

Military Leaders;

– Transformational Leadership in Labor Organizations;

– Leadership in Labor Organizations; Motivating Peak Performance:

Leadership Behaviors that Stimulate Employee Motivation and

Behavior

Documents

Chapter 1 the Role of Social Research