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Chapter 1
Psychological Science
What is Psychology?
the science of behavior and mental processes
Psychology’s Current PerspectivesPerspective Focus
Neuroscience How the body and brain create emotions, memories, andsensory experiences
Behavior How much our genes, and our environment, influence ourgenetics individual differences
Behavioral How behavior is learned
Evolutionary How nature selects traits that promote the perpetuation ofone’s genes
Psychodynamic How behavior springs from unconscious drives andconflicts
Cognitive How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information
Social-cultural How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures
Current Perspectives
Perspective Focus
Neuroscience How the brain creates emotions, thoughts, and behaviors
Evolutionary How nature selects traitsthat promote survival ofour genes
Current PerspectivesPerspective Focus
Behavior Genetics How much our genes are responsible for individual differences
Psychodynamic How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
Current Perspectives
Perspective Focus
Behavioral How we learn observablebehavior
Cognitive How we encode, process, store and retrieve
information
Current Perspectives
Perspective Focus
Social-cultural How social situations and culture influences behavior and thought
Eclectic Drawing from two or more of the perspectives to explain behavior or thought processes
Psychology vs. Psychiatry
Clinical Psychology (Ph.D) a specialty in psychology clinical psychologists uses psychotherapy to treat psychological
disordersPsychiatry (M.D.)
a specialty in medicine psychiatrists may prescribe medication and use
psychotherapy
The Scientific Method
generate or refine
research and observations
lead to
hypothesis
theories
Scientific Method
Goal is good theory theories explain behavior
Science guards against faulty explanations hindsight bias
Faulty Explanations Intuition and The Hot Streak
Hindsight Bias
tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
The Scientific Method
Theory a general explanation as to why
a behavior occursHypothesis
a testable prediction often derived from a theory Example: I predict A will cause B
The Scientific Method
generate or refine
research and observations
lead to
hypothesis
theories
The Scientific Method
Operational Definition a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables
for example, intelligence may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures”
The Scientific Method
Replication repeating the procedures of a research study with another sample of participants
to see whether the results are also repeated
Types of Scientific Methods
1. Case Study2. Survey3. Naturalistic Observation4. Correlation Coefficient5. Experiment
Types of Scientific Methods
1. Case Study in depth observation of one person in hopes of revealing universal laws
Types of Scientific Methods
2. Survey a questionnaire about attitudes or behavior given to a sample of people
A Key Distinction: Population versus Sample
Population a specific group of interest to the researcher (e.g., all children!)
a sample is drawn from a population
Drawing a Sample
Male subjects, neurosis, and sex!
Good Samples
Representative Sample a sample that is a perfect reflection of a population, only smaller in size
Random Sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member of the sample had an equal chance of being chosen
Types of Scientific Methods
3. Naturalistic Observation observing and recording behavior in
naturally occurring situations, trying not to manipulate the situation
Types of Scientific Methods
4. Correlation Coefficient a measure that shows the extent to which two variables change together
good for prediction Note: correlation does not imply causation!
Correlation and CausationThree possible cause-effect relations
could cause(1)
Low self-esteemDepression
(2)Depression
Low self-esteem
Low self-esteem
Depression
(3)Distressing events
or biologicalpredisposition
could cause
could cause
or
or
and
Types of Scientific Methods
5. Experiment a procedure for identifying the
causes of behavior all experiments have two variables:
Independent Variable: variable manipulated by a researcher
Dependent Variable: observed consequence of IV on some behavior or mental process
The Dependent Variable
Dependent Variable the variable that is being measured value of DV depends on value of IV
ExperimentExperimental Group
these participants are exposed to the independent variable (treatment)
Control Group these participants do not receive the independent
variable is a comparison group we use to be able to see
the effect of the independent variable (treatment)Note: the measure (DV) is taken for both groups
Experiment
Random Assignment assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance
minimizes preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
Experiment
Placebo an inert substance (e.g., sugar pill)
instead of an active agent (e.g., drug) placebo is administered to see if it
triggers the same reaction as the active agent (IV)
Placebo Effect any effect on behavior caused by a
placebo
Experiment
Single-blind Procedure Research participants don’t know if they
are getting the placebo or active agent.Double-blind Procedure
Participants don’t know …. Also, research staff doesn’t know (blind)
who is getting the active agent vs. placebo
The Scientific Method
Comparing Research MethodsResearch Method Basic Purpose How Conducted What is
Manipulated
Descriptive To observe and Case studies, surveys, Nothing(Goal: Describe) record behavior and naturalistic
observations
Correlational To detect naturally Computing statistical Nothing(Goal: Predict) occurring relationships; association, sometimes
to assess how well among survey one variable predicts responses
Experimental To explore cause Manipulating one or Independent(Goal: Explain) and effect more IVs and using variable(s)
random assignmentto eliminate preexistingdifferences among subjects
Practice: Hypothesis Testing
Drug A makes children more attentive in school
The larger the family, the duller the childrenCigarette smoking causes lung cancerTelevision violence is related to aggression
in childrenAbsence makes the heart grow fonder