Chapter 1: Overview

PSY 338: MOTIVATION

What Is Motivation?

Motivation The underlying processes that initiate, direct

and sustain behavior in order to needs or wants

The intensity, direction, and persistence of effort a person shows in reaching a goal (physiological and psychological) : Intensity: How hard a person tries Direction: Where? Persistence: How long effort is maintained

The Measurement of Motivation

Intervening variable A causal influence that is presumed to come

between stimuli (S) and responses (R) Deprivation vs. satiation

Performance Variable Temporary nature of motivation is involved here

Characteristics of Motivation

ActivationProduction of behavior is witnessed (overt

behavior)Directionality

Where is effort being channeledPreference Test

Categories of Analysis

Nomothetic vs. Idiographic Explanation Nomothetic: An approach to explanation in

which we seek to identify a few causal factors that generally impact a class of conditions of event

Idiographic: An approach to explanation in which we seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition of event

Categories of Analysis

Innate versus AcquiredInstincts vs. learned motivations

Instinct Theory

Instinct Complex unlearned response triggered by a

stimulus or complex stimulusDo humans have instincts?

Early Darwinian Theory (1800’s) proposed the idea of instinct, arising from genetic endowment

William James (1890) proposed an instinct theory in humans Instincts were goal directed predispositions to

behavior

Instinct Theory

Paradox in Psychology: As others were showing that animal behavior could be

modified by learning (Thorndike), James was proposing that much of human behavior was unlearned

William McDougall (1908) followed… Suggested their were 18 instincts

Instinct Theory

McDougall (1908) theorized that motivated behaviors are instinctual: Unlearned Uniform in expression (do not change with practice)Universal (all members of a species show the same behavior)

Too many limitations…

By 1924 instinct theory was becoming obsolete as there were several criticisms: Too many instincts

Researchers came up with 5759 of them Logic was circular

i.e. the only evidence that an instinct exists was the behavior it supposedly explained He’s an “overachiever” because he’s “hard-working” She’s “hard-working” because she’s an “overachiever”

Just meaningless labels with no explanations

Categories of Analysis

Internal vs. ExternalInner drives, needs, and goals vs. environmental incentivesDrive-Reduction theory vs. Incentive Theory

Drive Reduction Theory

Hull (1943)Supporters of this theory believe that when a need requires satisfaction, it produces drives These are tensions that energize behavior in order to satisfy a need Thirst and hunger are, for instance, drives for satisfying the needs of eating and drinking, respectively

Drive Reduction Theory

Drives have been generally established as primary and secondary… Primary drives satisfy biological needs and must be fulfilled in

order to survive Homeostasis is the motivational phenomenon for primary

drives that preserves our internal equilibrium. This is true, for example, for hunger or thirst

Secondary drives satisfy needs that are not crucial to a person's life 

Criticism Critics felt that this theory was inadequate in explaining

secondary drives

Incentive Theory

Skinner (1938); Spence (1956)Viewpoint on motivation that is different than instinct, drive, and arousal theoriesEmphasizes the role of environmental stimuli that can motivate behavior by pulling people toward them rather than pushing people to satisfy a need (as in the drive-reduction theory)Suggesting that people act to obtain positive incentives and avoid negative incentivesExplains secondary drives much better than drive-reduction theory

Mechanistic vs. Cognitive

Are processes that control motivations triggered automatically or do they stem from controlled processes?Unlearned vs. learned

Levels of Analysis

Physiological Analysis1. Electrical Stimulation of the brain

Olds & Milner (1954) Brain circuits exist that may be active when reward occurs

2. Chemical Stimulation of the brain Insertion of tube; injection of solution

3. Brain Lesions Surgical removal of the brain; resultant change in

motivation4. Recording of natural electrical activity during

motivated states Electrocephalograph (EEG) Depth electrodes Imaging techniques (see next slide)

Levels of Analysis

Imaging TechniquesPositron-emission tomography (PET) scans: measures the metabolic area of different brain regionsMagnetic resonance imaging (MRI, fMRI)

MRI: allows for the visualization of the brain

fMRI: allows for both visualization of the brain and also to detect differences in metabolism in various parts of the brain

Levels of Analysis

Individual AnalysisResearch at this level is conducted to provide insight into important motivational factors that influence the behavior of the individualStudies usually done with a group of individuals in the hopes of finding statistically significant effect

Levels of Analysis

Social Analysis Behaviors are motivated by situational factors;

the presence of other people

Asch (1951, 1952): Conformity studies

Solomon Asch

Levels of Analysis

Philosophical AnalysisPsychoanalytic theorists

Freud (1957): Motivational states create a condition of tension that the individual then seeks to reduce

Negative view that we are apparently motivated by an aversive state

Humanistic theorists A positive state is pushing the individual to reach

their highest potential (self-actualization)

Major Constructs in Motivation

Energy General or specific?

Physiological Mechanisms Genetically programmed motivations Instinct approach; evolutionary psychology Brain circuits monitor state of body and are activated

when changes are detected and this leads to motivated behavior

Learning Drive-reduction theory Incentive theory Modeling theory

Major Constructs in Motivation

Social Interaction “Bystander effect” is one example

Cognitive Processes Active information processing

The Activation of Motivation Peripheral receptors Central receptors

Homeostasis When body deviates too much from its optimal level

we are motivated to perform behaviors that will bring us back to this level

Major Constructs in Motivation

Hedonism Idea that we are primarily motivated by pleasure and

pain

Growth Motivation The idea that we are motivated to reach our full

potential

Evolution & Motivation

LifeReproduction is motivating factor

Dawkins (1986)Organisms exist for the benefit of DNA; not the other way around

Advantages of Sexual Reproduction

Recombination of genes of the two parents allow their offspring to have greater diversity of genes needed for survival in uncertain and varying environments

Allows for repair of genetic information within the gene pool

Allows for beneficial mutations to spread rapidly within the gene pool without losing the benefits of the original gene

The Pleasures of Sex

Pleasurable sensations enhance chances of successful reproduction Leads to reduced condom usage ; evolutionary

mechanisms fight against “safe sex” practices While humans and some other primates may at

times engage in sexual behavior for pleasure rather than reproduction, evolutionary ideas remain intact; indirect benefits related to survival

Evolution

Natural Selection Those individuals who inherited genes that give

them an advantage in the environment have a better chance of living long enough to reproduce

Sexual Selection Occurs when there is competition for mates or

when one member of a mating pair is chosen by the other member of the pair

Evolution

Mate SelectionMen and women by nature must differ in their optimal mating behaviorsWomen must be highly selective because they are biologically limited in the number of children they can bear and raise in a lifetimeMen can father an unlimited number of children and ensure their reproductive success by inseminating many women

Parental Investment Model

The view that women seek men with resources to help ensure the safe haven for their childrenAlso, men will likely engage in behaviors that display these resources

They feel competition from other males

Women are motivated to engage in behaviors that enhance their reproductive value

Enhance their appearance They feel competition from other females

These studies appear to support this idea…

Buss (1989) Women wanted to marry guys 3.4 years older than they

were

Kenrick & Keefe (1992) Analysis of personal ads: Males:

20s: seek younger woman to slightly older 30-40s: seek women 5-10 years younger 50s: seek women 10-20 years younger

One big exception was found…

Male adolescents were most attracted to women in their “fertile 20s”

Kenrick & Keefe (1992)

Are women selective about earning capacity?

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Studies of personal ads…

Wiederman (1993) A study of 1,111 personal ads found that female

advertisers seek financial resources 11 times as often as male advertisers

Buss (1989) Looked at 10,047 individuals in 37 cultures on 6

continents and 5 islands Found this was not just restricted to American or

Western Societies

Credits

Some slides of this presentation prepared with the help of the following websites: wps.prenhall.com/wps/...ppt/04_langton_fob_3ce_ch04.ppt pirate.shu.edu/~vigorimi/Motivation_and.../chapter1.htm