1.0 An Overview of Manufacturing

The application of science to serve the broad needs of society may be termed technology and one of the numerous protocols associated with technology is the product realization process which governs how new or improved artifacts (products) are conceived, designed, manufactured, brought to market and subsequently supported. This process involves determining customers' needs, translating these needs into engineering specifications, designing the product, determining the appropriate production processes, deciding on the necessary support services, and subsequently coordinating these activities.

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By this means, a broad swath of companies are able to produce and deliver to the marketplace a diverse range of products ..... autos, cell 'phones, contact lenses, apparel, light bulbs, hospital MRls etc etc. Thus manufacturing .... loosely defined as the creation of goods or products .... is an essential ingredient of this product realization process.

- The manufacturing industries represent 20% of the Gross Domestic Product in the USA. But this figure was much higher 20 years ago.

- For a nation to provide its population with a strong economy and a high standard of living, it will need significant natural resources or a strong manufacturing sector to create wealth.

- Historically, the influence of a nation on the world stage is predicated on its ability to manufacture things.

Manufacturing is a complex activity involving people with diverse skill-sets from a broad range of disciplines together with a wide variety of machinery, equipment, and tools, along with various levels of automation, computers, robots and material-handling equipment. These activities must be responsive to market trends and external demands in order to create successful products:

A product must fully satisfy desJgn specifications and engineering codes.

- A product must be manufactured by the most economical and environmentally friendly methods Quality must be engineered into the product at each stage of the product realization process from design to release. Instead of relying on quality testing to identify flaws at the very end of the production line after the product has been created.

- In highly competitive marketplaces, production methods must be flexible to respond to changing demands, types of products, production rates, and production quantities, and to provide on-time delivery to the customer. New developments in materials, production methods, and also computer integration as it pertains to both managerial and technological activities in the manufacturing organization must be

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constantly evaluated with respect to their timely implementation and the economic ramifications.

- Manufacturing activities must be treated as a large system in which individual sections are interrelated. Each manufacturing organization must work closely with the customer in order to secure high-fidelity feedback to fuel continuous product improvement. Furthermore, each manufacturer must strive constantly for higher productivity which may be defined as the optimum utilization of all the controllable resources: materi.als, machines, energy, capital, labor, and technology. The output of each employee per hour must be maximized in all phases of the product realization process.

Definitions of Manufacturing Technically, manufacturing is the application of chemical and physical processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a material in order to create parts or products. The term is also used to define processes where systems are assembled from multiple parts to create products. Generally the manufacture of a specific part requires a series of operations to be performed.

Economically, the term "manufacturing" is the transformation of materials into items of greater value by means of one or more assembly operations, or processing operations. Thus the manufacturing operations add value to the material by changing the properties or the shape.

The Role of a Manufacturing Engineer The manufacturing activities of any enterprise must be organized, coordinated and managed effectively in order to maximize productivity and minimize costs while maintaining the creation of high-quality parts. This is normally the responsibility of manufacturing engineers who must:

- Plan the manufacture of the product and select the most appropriate processes to be employed in its manufacture. The basis of this activity is a comprehensive knowledge of the product and its design specifications. Identify the equipment, machine tools, tooling and the relevant personnel need to execute the vision.

- Interact with materials scientists and design engineers to minimize production costs and optimize productivity.

- Determine the plant layout, machine configurations, materials handling equipment, detailed analysis of production methods, time-and-motion studies, ergonomic analyses, production planning, scheduling and maintenance etc. ,

- Assume responsibilities for evaluating new technologies and their potential applications and implementation. This is a major challenge due to the shear volume of global technological information that is readily available because of the Internet. Economic manufacture has

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traditionally been a desirable attribute for any manufacturer, but it is even more brutal now with an entrenched global competitiveness for cheap high-quality products, and the cheap labor pools are located beyond our national boundaries. In order to survive, manufacturers must benchmark the practices of others, and especially their competitors, and compare them with their own in-house approaches. Competitors' products can be dissected and meticulously scrutinized to prospect for new ideas and also provide a reference for various measurements and comparisons.

A classification of the Manufacturing Industries Manufacturing is a commercial activity whereby products and services are sold to customers.

- Primary industries exploit opcultivate natural resources. They include agriculture and mining.

- Secondary industries utilize the materials furnished by the primary industries (their output) and transform them into products.

- Service industries comprise the remainder of the industrial sector. These industries include banking, insurance, tourism etc.

Manufactured Products There are two major classifications

1. Consumer products, which are purchased by regular citizens for their own personal use such as a ceramic mug, a pair of roller blades etc.

2. Capital products, which are purchased by other companies to manufacture products (textile machines or machine tools) or provide services (commercial aircraft, hydrofoils). In addition, there are other clasSifications of capital products that serve as the basis for manufacturing final products. These include a variety of raw supplies, materials and components such as nuts and bolts, ball bearings, sheet stock, lubricants, adhesives, machined parts, plastic moldings etc.

Some products such as each carpenter's rail and each paper clip are made from only one material. But most products are made from numerous different materials and different parts. Consider the toaster, the ball point pen, the incandescent light bulb, a computer, or an engine from an automobile. Thus for example, a lawnmower comprises about 300 parts; a typical automobile about 15,000 individual parts; and a Boeing 747-400 series jumbo jet about 6 million parts!

Concurrent Engineering The product realization process is the overarching process adopted by a manufacturer to realize, or deliver to the marketplace, products. It begins typically with market research and ends with the packaging of the product and delivering it to the customer.

Traditionally this process has been a sequential affair called sequential engineering. With this classical process, (still employed by numerous Michigan companies today) each department in the manufacturing enterprise is a loosely­connected set of discrete entities; not a continuum. Thus for example, product designers typically invest considerable time conceptualizing and analyzing cOrTlponents and assemblies before detail' drawings are created and forwarded to other departments in the company. These other departments include materials departments where appropriate metallic alloys and vendors are identified. Subsequently these specifications would be sent to the manufacturing department in order to select production processes etc.

While this approach may sound logical, is has intrinsic flaws. Consider, for example, the need of a manufacturing engineer to introduce a tapered section in a proposed casting in order to enhance castability, or the need of a materials engineer to select an alternative alloy in order to improve the fatigue characteristics of the part. These modifications need to be communicated to the original design engineer so that calculations can be re-worked. Thus this approach is not an efficient use of time, finances and resources. Now recall from your design classes that product design is a critical activity in the product realization process accounting for 70 - 80% of the cost of product development and manufacturing. The associated penalties of a flawed product realization process are very clear!

Concurrent engineering, sometimes called simultaneous engineering, requires teams of professionals to work together c(jlntinuously on the development process from the very beginning to the very end. Consequently the iterations are performed more cost-effectively, the number of design changes is reduced, and the product is delivered to the marketplace quickly. Cooperation between people in a variety of departments is necessary such as individuals in marketing, sales, servicing, advertising, manufacturing, design, materials etc. The objective is to focus on the"big picture" and optimize the complete concept to delivery process instead of optimizing the smaller pieces. For this approach to succeed, it must

1. have the full support of senior management 2. have a multi-functional and interactive collaborative team 3. and all technologies must be exploited fully.

Design for Manufacture The academic community is guilty of teasing apart and dismembering large enterprises or phenomena into small pieces and studying them in isolation. The activities performed in a manufacturing company are no exception. Thus in academia, design and manufacturing are typically treated erroneously as two separate unrelated entities.

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But in the "real world" they are not; they are a complex continuum of inter-related activities. They must never be considered as two academic disciplines. Clearly each part or assembly of a product must not only be designed to satisfy the design requirements but also be manufactured economically and with relative ease after selecting judiciously an appropriate material. These objectives are mandatory in any manufacturing organization for it to remain competitive.

Design-for-manufacture (DFM) is a broad comprehensive approach to the product realization process that integrates the primary design considerations with consideration of appropriate manufacturing protocols, the selection of materials, process planning, the assembly of parts, testing procedures, and quality assurance.

In the broad activities associated with DFM, quantitative approaches are needed in order to optimize the process. Computational technologies and software have permitted computer-aided-design and computer-aided-manufacturing methodologies to flourish so that today computer simulations, artificial intelligence and expert systems enable complex iterative processes to be optimized.

An under-pinning for this broad approach is a suite of design principles for economic manufacturing. These include:

- Each design must be as simple as possible to manufacture, assemble, service and recycle. The selection of materials must be based on the service conditions that they will be subjected to and also their ease of shaping during manufacture. Dimensional accuracy and surface roughness must be specified to be as cheap as possible to manufacture (select the roughest surface and the largest tolerances) based on the design requirements. Secondary manufacturing operations, such as de-burring and painting, should be avoided and/or minimized because the associated costs are high.

Environmentally - Responsible Manufacturing U.S. consumers and industries discard enough aluminum every three months to rebuild the nation's entire commercial airline fleet. In addition, they discard more

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than five billion tons of plastic products every year.

Indeed, for many years numerous by-products from manufacturing facilities have polluted the local waterways, the air, and hazardous wastes have seeped from landfills. These phenomena have ultimately contributed significantly to damaged eco-systems, acid rain, the depleted ozone layer, the greenhouse effect and global warming. Consider for example, discarded sand additives used in casting operations; slag from welding operations and foundries; and fluids from plating operations and heat-treatment facilities.

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Clearly manufactur.ing engineers and thei(management have a moral obligation to the ~eneral'publl~ ~o ~elect environmentally-safe materials and manufacturing operations which minimiZe harmful effects. Thus design-for-the-environment pr!n?i~les should b~ adopted ~y teams practicing concurrent engineering that minimiZe the potentially negative affects of materials, products and manufacturing processes. Guidelines include:

- Reduce the use of hazardous materials in products and processes. - Reduce the amount of material used in a product. - Reduce the amount of material wastage throughout the product

realization process. - Ensure that waste materials are handled safely and disposed of

appropriately. - Continuously improve recycling activities, waste treatment, and the

reuse of materials.

Production Quantity and Product Variety The quantity of products manufactured in a plant has a major influence on the organization of the production procedures, the people and the facilities. An ad hoc classification can be introduced for the annual production quantity: - Low production - quantities ranging from one to 100 units per year

Medium production - quantities ranging from 100 to 10,000 units annually High Production - quantities from 10,000 to millions of parts annually

Production quantity is the number of units manufactured annually for a particular type of product. Product variety refers to the different product designs produced in a particular plant. If the production quantity is high, then the product variety in a plant will be low. Conversely, if the product variety is high, then its production quantity will be low.

Materials in Manufacturing Materials, production systems, and production processes together comprise the triumvirate underpinning the field of manufacturing. In the first category, engineering materials can be classified as metals, ceramics, and polymers, and from these three groups of materials the field of advanced composites emerges.

Metals - usually alloys which comprise two or more elements. - By far the most important group of metals is the ferrous metals

• Steel is the most versatile member of this group, with less than 2% carbon content, and it is frequently alloyed with other elements (such as chromium, manganese, nickel etc) to further enhance its properties

• Cast iron, with more than 2% carbon, is available in several compositions and is used in the sand casting process.

- Non ferrous metals comprise alloys and the principal elements are zinc, aluminum, magnesium and copper

Ceramics - compounds with metallic and' nonmetallic elements. Clay, silica, alumina, carbides, nitrides The two latter groups are widely used as bits for metal cutting tools

Polymers - compounds containing repeated structural units whose atoms share electrons to form very large molecules.

• Thermoplastic polymers (such as polyethylene and polyvinylchloride) can be subjected to repeated heating and cooling cycles without altering their properties.

• Thermosetting polymers (such as epoxies and phenolics) transform chemically upon curing into rigid structures upon cooling from a warm viscous state.

• Elastomers (such as polyurethane, neoprene and natural rubber) are polymers with significant elastic characteristics.

• Composites (such as carbon epoxy and glass polyester) assume many forms because they comprise combinations of metals, ceramics and polymers. They consist of two or more ingredients which are created separately before being bonded together. Typically fibers or particles are bonded together by an adhesive.

Manufacturing Processes There are primarily two classes of processes: assembly operations and processing operations.

Assembly operations - two or more separate parts are joined to create a new artifact or assembly - The new artifact can be joined permanently or semi-permanently. - Permanent joining processes include welding, brazing, soldering and

adhesive bonding. Mechanical joining processes can be employed to create an assembly that may be dis-assembled. o Threaded fasteners are important methods for assembling parts o Rivets, press fits and thermal expansion fits can also be employed

Processing Operations - add value to a material by using energy (thermal, mechanical, chemical or electrical) to alter a part's shape, physical properties, or appearance. The raw material is fed into the process, energy is applied by the ~achinery and tooling, the material is transformed, and then the new part emerges from the process. There are three categories of process: shaping, property-enhancing and surface treatments.

- Shaping operations - involve the application of heat and/or a mechanical force to change the geometry of the material. Not all

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manufacturing processes produce finished parts or products, and secondary operations must often be employed to create additional refinements. Thus for example, a drop-forged part might not have acquired the desired dimensional accuracy or surface finish, and grinding operations or machining operations might be necessitated. Unfortunately these secondary operations are relatively expensive, and this observation has triggered a trend towards near-net shape manufacturing where parts are made as close to the final specified dimensions, specifications and tolerances as possible. o Solidification processes - where the initial state of the material is a

heated semi-fluid or liquid that cools in a constrained environment and undergoes a phase-change process to create a solid object. There are many casting pro(j:esses for the metals and molding processes for the plastics.

o Parliculate processes - where the initial material is in powdered form before it is heated in a constrained domain to create the desired part shape. Its frequently called powder metallurgy.

o Deformation processes - where the initial material is a ductile solid in a constrained domain that is deformed to the desired shape. Forging and extrusion are common methods.

o Material removal processes - where the initial material is a solid object that is cut by a hard object to create the desired part geometry. Machining operations, such as drilling, turning and milling, are the most important group of processes.

Property-enhancing processes - improve the physical or mechanical properties of the part without altering its shape. o Heat treating of metals to anneal or strengthen metals is common. o Sintering is commonly used in the processing of metal powders to

strengthen the part.

Surface Processing - operations include cleaning, shot peening, sand blasting, thin film deposition, and painting.

Production Machines and Tooling The essential ingredients of manufacturing operations are people, machinery, and tooling. The configuration of these ingredients will be dependent on the volume and the variety of parts of parts manufactured. Thus for example, in low­quantity production the equipment will be general-purpose, the floor layout will be flexible to accommodate a variety of parts, and the workforce will be highly skilled.

Machine tools are power-driven machines which control the motion of cutting tools to shape workpieces .... artifacts being shaped to create products. They are very versatile.

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Other types of machine tools include mills for rolling sheet steel, welding machines, drop forges for closed die forging, and presses for stamping operations. In addition there are special-purpose machines that perform only one specific operation, and there are classes of general-purpose machines that offer versatility.

Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is common. With this approach to automation, digital computers are an integral part of the process. They can be used to control and optimize individual manufacturing processes or large manufacturing systems; material handling operations; assembly operations; inspection and testing; inventory control and numerous management activities. CIM facilitates:

o Responsiveness to rapid changes in the marketplace and product modification

o Better use of materials, machinery and personnel, and a reduction of the inventory

o Better control of production, and the more effective management of the total manufacturing operation

o And the manufacture of high-quality products at low cost.

Production machinery operates in conjunction with tooling. The tooling depends on the manufacturing process and includes jigs, fixtures, dies and molds. Tooling must be designed specifically for a particular part, when used in conjunction with a general-purpose machine tool, but it can become more integral with the machine tool when used on piece of mass-production equipment.

The design and cost of tooling, the lead-time required to begin production and the effect of workpiece materials on tool and die life are primary considerations in manufacturing. In addition the cost of tooling can be substantial, depending on the size of the tooling, the service life and the design of the product being made. For example, a set of dies for stamping sheet-metal fenders for automobiles would cost about two million dollars.

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Die-cast aluminum valve cover

Centrifugal cast-iron cylinder bores

Aluminum/copper/nickel journal bearings

Steel pistons with friction-welded skirt and crown and chrome/ molybdenum disulfide coated piston ring Titanium turbocharger

compressor wheel

Forged steel connecting rods with precision­fractured joint

Fiberglass hood

Copper tube, aluminum fin coolers

High-strength steel bolts

FIGURE 1.1 Model 8430 tractor, with detailed illustration of its diesel engine, showing the variety of materials and processes incorporated. Source: Courtesy of John Deere Co'mpany.

Robotically applied, advanced arc-welding processes provide consistent, high-quality assembly of castings, extrusions, and sheet components

Die-cast nodes are thin-walled to maximize weight reduction yet provide high performance

Strong, thin-walled extrusions Advanced extrusion bending processes exhibit high ductility, energysupport complex shapes and tight radii absorption, and toughness

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.5 (a) The Audi A8 automobile, an example of advanced materials construction. (b) The aluminum body structure, showing various components made by extrusion, sheet forming, and casting processes. Source: Courtesy of ALCOA, Inc.

Silicon microprocessors with gold-plated connectors

FIGURE 1.2 Importance of manufacturing to national 40 economies. The trends {h

CI)shown are from 1982 until ::>

o2006. Source: After lA. g 30 Schey with data from the World Development Report, $ World Bank, various years. 'g. 20

(.)

Co a.

~ 10 CJ

TABLE 1.2

Kuwait

~

10 15 20 25 30 ~5 40 45 Contribution of manufacturing to GDP, %

. 1 :~ ".. - .' ~"

Shape or feature Production methodQ

Flat surfaces Rolling, planing, broaching, milling, shaping, grinding Parts with cavities End milling, electrical-discharge machining, electrochemical

machining, ultrasonic machining, blanking, casting, forging, extrusion, injection molding, metal injection molding

Parts with sharp fearures Permanent-mold casting, machining, grinding, fabricating,b powder metallurgy, coining

Thin hollow shapes Slush casting, e1ectroforming, fabricating, filament winding, blow molding, sheet forming, spinning

Tubular shapes Extrusion, drawing, filament winding, roll forming, spinning, centrifugal casting

Tubular parts Rubber forming, rube hydroforming, explosive forming, spinning, blow molding, sand casting, filament winding

Curvature on thin sheets Stretch forming, peen forming, fabricating, thermoforming Openings in thin sheets Blanking, chemical blanking, photochemical blanking, laser

machining Cross sections Drawing, extrusion, shaving, turning, centerless grinding,

swaging, roll forming Square edges Fine blanking, machining, shaving, belt grinding Small holes Laser or electron-beam machining, electrical-discharge

machining, electrochemical machining, chemical blanking Surface textures Knurling, wire brushing, grinding, belt grinding, shot

blasting, etching, laser texturing, injection molding, compression molding

Detailed surface fearures Coining, investment casting, permanent-mold casting, machining, injection molding, compression molding

Threaded parts Thread cutting, thread rolling, thread grinding, injection molding

Very large parts Casting, forging, fabricating, assembly Very small parts Investment casting, etching, powder metallurgy,

nanofabrication, LIGA, nllcromachining

Notes: "Rapid prototyping operations can produce all of these -features to some degree. bFabricating refers to assembly from separately manufactured components.

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Computer-aided design (CAD)

Computer-aided manufacturing and process planning (CAM and CAPP)

p:;~""""~~~~~~~~~;;!!.i!'~ :r-.••••••••iI........ :Computer-integrated : manufacturing (CIM) I I

~-- Inspection and quality assurance I I

(b)

FIGURE 1.3 (a) Chart showing various steps involved in designing and manufacturing a product. Depending on the complexity of the product and the type of materials used, the time span between the original concept and the marketing of a product may range from a few months to many years . (b) Chart showing general product flow, from market analysis to selling the product, and depicting concurrent engineering. Source: After S. Pugh.

.. ' _ .. ~' iII

Iterations

(a)

--

Manufacturing process

Manufacturing process

Processed part

mlim Scrap and .·

l!l mwaste

Starting material

$

Starting material

(a)

FIGURE 1.1 Two ways to define manufacturing: (a) as a technical process, and (b) as an economic process.

102 104

Production quantity

Processing operations

Manufacturing processes

Assembfy operations

FIGURE 1.4 Classification of manufacturing processes.

FIGURE 1.2 Relationship between product variety and produdion quantity in discrete product manufacturing.

Solidification processes

Particulate processing

Deformation processes

Material removal

Heat treatment

Cleaning and surface treatments

Coating and deposition processes

Welding

Brazing and soldering

Adhesive bonding

Threaded fasteners

Permanent fastening methods

Value added $$

$$$

Processed part

Shaping processes

Property enhancing processes

Surface processing operations

Permanent joining processes

Mechanical fastening

Material in processing

(b)

Equipment (modile)

(a) (b)

Workstation Equipment Conveyor

~B;;B: ~j ~V~ ~~~~

(c) Workers (d)

FIGURE 1.9 Various types of plant layout: (a) fixed-position layout, (b) process layout, (c) cellular layout, and (d) product layout.

TABLE 1.4 Production equipment and tooling used for various manufacturing processes.

Process Equipment Special tooling (function)

Casting Molding Rolling Forging Extrusion Stamping Machining

Grinding Welding

Molding machine Rolling mill Forge hammer or press Press Press Machine tool

Grinding machine Welding machine

Mold (cavity for molten metal) Mold (cavity for hot polymer) Roll (reduce work thickness) Die (squeeze work to shape) Extrusion die (reduce cross-section) Die (shearing, forming sheet metal) Cutting tool (material removal) Fixture (hold workpart) Jig (hold part and guide tool) Grinding wheel (material removal) Electrode (fusion of work metal) FIXture (hold parts during welding)

'Various types of casting setups and equipment (Chapter 11).

FIGURE 1.5 Casting and

Sprue and runner

process consists of (1)

'""'1---- Pouringmolding processes start with ladle a work material heated to a fluid or semifluid state. The

(to be trimmed) pouring the fluid into a

mold cavity and (2) Downsprue --+.-M."f-Solid casting PartingallOWing the fluid to solidify,

lineafter which the solid part is removed from the mold.

Mold (sand)

(1) (2)

------- --

FIGURE 1.6 Particulate processing: (1) the starting material is powder; the usual process consists of (2)

pressing and (3) sintering.

FIGURE 1.7 Some common deformation processes: (a) forging, in which two halves of a die squeeze the workpart, causing it to assume the shape of the die cavity; and (b) extrusion, in which a billet is forced to flow through a die orifice, thus taking the cross-sectional shape of the orifice.

Starting Workpiece diameter Chip

(2)

(3)

Workpart during sintering

(1 )

ExtrudedChamberv, F cross section

Ram

v, F

(a)

Diameter "p Rotationafter turning

Die

r-1-­ Flash (to be trimmed)

Die

tFeed

cutter

RotationMilling

Rotation MaterialDrill bit removed(workLf

Work part ~. _ ~.~,. ~ ~c Work

:!----:-:- ' Hole

Feed tool Feed

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1.8 Common machining operations: (a) turning, in which a single-point cutting tool removes metal from a rotating workpiece to reduce its diameter; (b) drilling, in which a rotating drill bit is fed into the work to create a round hole; and (c) milling, in which a workpart is fed past a rotating cutter with multiple edges.

.,. " \: . - , _.~. 1 - 0:"1: ' "'''Q:'' ' .. I :~....- , " '

Polymer processing

; ' ,.., ~~ : ~".... -' -::'~r:'~,~'-"~'I':;;,~":,.. ....~ "-r..'''1,;''' ''~

Thermoplastics · Thermosets " ;;., , , J.;:c; .t ' ••.•.::.... _ . , ' ... .. ,.

StereolithographyCompression molding

Fused deposition modeling Pultrusion

o 0 0 0" 0 0 '0 0

Three-dimensional printing Vacuum-bag forming

Transfer molding Laminated-object manufacturing

Extrusion

Injection molding

'. ' # . " ii:.\i:--'" . « ,g. ~l.):

i.;,~ -' .._~.':1Blow molding

Thermoforming

FIGURE 1.7d Schematic illustrations of various polymer processing methods .

Fusion welding • -"". ~ -" """ ' - ' -"""" ••• ::>- ",~.!.. • . •;'.,;:,-~• .•~ .... " .• •••• •

'4:\ . \ I , .." . \ \.~I! :' . . \ "- . ~~ " /i./-Shielded metal arc welding

Gas-metal arc welding

Flux-cored arc welding

Gas-tungsten arc welding

Friction stir welding

Resistance welding

Fastening and bonding -1 ,...... " . ...';O',.;. <: ," '-',.;.;:.>. ~,•..:".::. .......I . U!

Adhesive bonding

Bolted .connection

Wave soldering

Brazing

Explosion welding

FIGURE 1.7f Schematic illustrations of various joining processes.

- - --

--

Bulk deformation . "

processes ..... . . " =-t," •. ~:o .~,. '•• r; .•~... ..,.. .

Flat rolling

. . . .

. .. . . . " . ' , ' -1 ~ Shape rolling

. , . ... j i ~ .~ . . _' '.:;.

'. . .~

. .

Ring rolling

Roll forging

/; ...

. ' . . . . ~

Open die forging

-~ .. ­-'~'-'l

--~ --- ~-

Closed die forging

Heading

Piercing

Direct extrtision

Cold extrusion

Drawing

Tube drawing

FIGURE 1.7b Schematic illustrations of various bulk deformation processes.

. , r··', .• ... -<:..,, ~,...... . -,,,... .~ ~

Expendable pattern and mold and other

lrivestment casting

Lost· foaincasting

Srngle"crystal casting

Melt-spinning process

: Casting processes

silnd casting

Shell-mold casting

Ceramic7mold casting

Permanent-mold casting

Die casting

Centrifugal casting

'e:..!ft. : . it .~.':. " .. ' . . . ,"j~' : . .:... ... .~

. ~ "'-- , ,

::', ' " .... 1 ~ " •.: .... ' u , :. ,•

Squ~eie casting

Expendable mold, permanent pattern

•. . ' t · """,,' " ' ' _ . ....... . ...,.~.' • .,. _

Permaneilt mold

FIGURE 1.7a Schematic illustrations of various casting processes .

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Blanking

Slitting

Punching

Piercing

Sheet metal processes

,..,

Bending

Hemming

Roll forming

Deep drawing

Stretch forming

Hydrofarming

Spinning

Magnetic-pulse forming

FIGURE 1.7c Schematic illustrations of various sheet-metal forming processes.

? Machining and finishing , . processes ,,:,,,,,~,:t-~...... --= . ,...:.u,,, ~ - .J.I r.. "M' ,,-",

Machining . ....~, • ~':'. -" .'..:0;-."...... ,',

... -11........ Turning Surface grinding

Drilling Centerless grinding

Milling Lapping

Broaching Electrochemical polishing

Advanced maGhining - ' , '>..

Wire EDM

Chemical machining

La$er machining

~l~. ~

,'F!.( Water-jet machining

FIGURE 1.7e Schematic illustrations of various machining and finishing processes .