Chapter 1- Nature of Psychology Lesson

7/28/2019 Chapter 1- Nature of Psychology Lesson

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Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 1


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What is Psychology?

Psychology - scientific study of behaviorand mental processes. (psyche & logos) Behavior - outward or overt actions and

reactions. Mental processes -internal, covert activity

of our minds.

Psychology is a science Prevent possible biases from leading to

faulty observations

Precise and careful measurementMenu


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Psychologys Four Goals

1. Description

What is happening?

2. Explanation

Why is it happening?

Theory - general explanation of a set ofobservations or facts

3. Prediction

Will it happen again?

4. Control

How can it be changed?Menu


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Pseudopsychologies

Pseudopsychologies - systems ofexplaining human behavior that arenot based on or consistent with

scientific evidence.

Phrenology and Physiognomy readingbumps on the skull; width of theforehead.

Palmistry reading palms.

Graphology analysis of personality

through handwriting.

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Indicate whether each statement is true (T) or false (F)

Once damaged, brain cells never work again. All people dream during a night of normal sleep.

As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases,the time it takes for the victim to get help decreases.

Its impossible for human beings to hear a watch ticking 20feet away.

Eyewitness testimony is often unreliable.

Chimpanzees have been taught to speak.

Creativity and high intelligence do not necessarily gotogether.

When it comes to close personal relationships, oppositesattract.

The majority of teenagers have a good relationship with theirparents.

Answers

F

T

F

F

T

F

T

F

T

Science or common sense?

Copyright Allyn & Bacon 2005


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Psychology and the Scientific Method

Scientific method - system of gathering dataso that bias and error in measurement arereduced.

Steps in the Scientific Method:1. Perceive the question.2. Form a hypothesis tentative explanation of a

phenomenon based on observations.

3. Test the hypothesis.

4. Draw conclusions.5. Report your results so that others can try to replicate -

repeat the study or experiment to see if the sameresults will be obtained in an effort to demonstratereliability of results.

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The Scientific Method


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The Experiment

Experiment - a deliberate manipulation of avariable to see if corresponding changes inbehavior result, allowing the determination ofcause-and-effect relationships.

Operational definition - definition of a variable

of interest that allows it to be directlymeasured.

Independent variable (IV) - variable in anexperiment that is manipulated by theexperimenter.

Dependent variable (DV) - variable in anexperiment that represents the measurableresponse or behavior of the subjects in theexperiment.

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IV: Violent

TV

Definition:

Aggressive

play

DV:

Aggressive

play


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The Experiment

Experimental group - subjects in an experimentwho are subjected to the independent variable.

Control group - subjects in an experiment whoare not subjected to the independent variableand who may receive a placebo treatment

(controls for confounding variables).

Random assignment - process of assigningsubjects to the experimental or control groupsrandomly, so that each subject has an equalchance of being in either group. Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering)

variables.

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Exp

Group:

Watch

TV

Control

Group:

No TV


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Descriptive Methods

Naturalistic observation watching animalsor humans behave in their normalenvironment.

Participant observation - a naturalisticobservation in which the observer becomesa participant in the group being observed(to reduce observer effect).

Major Advantage: Realistic picture of behavior.

Disadvantage: Observer effect - tendency of people or animals

to behave differently from normal when theyknow they are being observed

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Descriptive Methods Laboratory observation watching animals

or humans behave in a laboratory setting. Advantages:

Control over environment. Allows use of specialized equipment.

Disadvantage: Artificial situation that may result in artificial

behavior.

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Descriptive Methods

Case study - study of one individual ingreat detail.

Advantage: tremendous amount of detail.

Disadvantage: cannot apply to others.

Famous case study: Phineas Gage.

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Descriptive Methods Surveys researchers will ask a series of questions

about the topic under study.

Given to a representative sample - randomly selectedsample of subjects from a larger population of

subjects. Population - the entire group of people or animals in which the

researcher is interested.

Advantages: Data from large numbers of people.

Study covert behaviors. Disadvantages:

Have to ensure representative sample (or results notmeaningful).

People are not always accurate (courtesy bias). Menu


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random sampling from population

POPULATION

SAMPLE

INFERENCE

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Finding Relationships

Correlation - a measure of the relationshipbetween two variables.

Variable - anything that can change or vary.

Measures of two variables go into a mathematicalformula and produce a correlation coefficient (r),which represents two things:

direction of the relationship.

strength of the relationship.

Knowing the value of one variable allowsresearchers to predict the value of the othervariable.

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Schools of Psychology

Structuralism - focused on structure or basicelements of the mind.

Wilhelm Wundts father of modernpsychology

Developed the technique of objectiveintrospection process of objectivelyexamining and measuring ones thoughtsand mental activities.

Edward Titchener

Wundts student; brought structuralism toAmerica.

Structuralism died out in early 1900s.

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Functionalism

Functionalism - how the mind allowspeople to adapt, live, work, and play.

Proposed by William James.

Influenced the modern fields of:

Educational psychology

Evolutionary psychology

Industrial/organizational psychology

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Gestalt Psychology

Gestaltgood figure psychology.

Started with Wertheimer, whostudied sensation and perception.

Gestalt ideas are now part of thestudy ofcognitive psychology, afield focusing not only onperception but also on learning,memory, thought processes, andproblem solving.

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Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis - the theory and therapybased on the work of Sigmund Freud.

Freud stressed the importance of early childhood

experiences.

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Behaviorism Behaviorism - the science of behavior that

focuses on observable behavior only. Must be directly seen and measured.

Proposed by John B. Watson. Based much from work of Ivan Pavlov who

demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned(learned).

Watson believed that phobias were learned. Case of Little Albert taught to fear a white rat.

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Modern Perspectives1. Psychoanalytic approach (modernversion of psychoanalysis)- This perspective states that much ofour behavior stems from unconscious

processes. People may be unaware oftheir fears or desires but thesenevertheless influence behavior. Theseaffect our dreams, slips of speech,mannerisms and even manifest

themselves in emotional problems.

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2. Behavioral perspective when we attempt tounderstand an event, we need to look at theobservable behavior.

Ex. Children are more likely to repeat anaggressive response such as hitting another child ifthey are rewarded (spectators cheers) than whentheir responses are punished (reprimanded byadults)


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Modern Perspectives

3. Humanistic perspective Early founders:

Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers

Humanists held the view that peoplehave free will, the freedom to choosetheir own destiny.

Belief is that an individuals principalmotivational force is a tendencytoward growth and full realization ofhis or her potentials

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Modern Perspectives4. Biopsychological perspective -

attributes human and animalbehavior to biological eventsoccurring in the body, such as

genetic influences, hormones, andthe activity of the nervous system.5. Cognitive perspective - focuses on

memory, intelligence, perception,problem solving, and learning.

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Modern Perspectives6. Sociocultural perspective - focuses

on the relationship between socialbehavior and culture.

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Example

An emotion such as anger can be viewedusing the different

perspectives/approaches


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Biological study the brain circuits thattrigger the physical state of being red in

the face or the possible effect of drugs ona persons mood

Behavioral observable behavior such as

facial expressions and body gestures thataccompany anger


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Cognitive how the different ways weperceive a frustrating situation affect heintensity of anger, and how an angrymood affects our thinking.

Psychoanalytic anger is an outburst ofunconscious hostility or an inborn need to

express aggression

Humanistic report what it means toexperience and express anger from the

individuals point of view.


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Types of Psychological Professionals

Psychiatrist - a medical doctor who has specialized in thediagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.

Psychoanalyst - either a psychiatrist or a psychologist whohas special training in the theories of Sigmund Freud andhis method of psychoanalysis.

Psychiatric social worker - a social worker with some

training in therapy methods who focuses on theenvironmental conditions that can have an impact onmental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress,and drug abuse.

Psychologist - a professional with an academic degree andspecialized training in one or more areas of psychology. Can do counseling, teaching, and research and may

specialize in any one of a large number of areas withinpsychology. Areas of specialization in psychology include clinical,

counseling, developmental, social, and personality,among others.

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AREAS OF

SPECIALIZATION IN

PSYCHOLOGY


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Personality Psychology

The study of consistent behavior patternsand intrapersonal processes originating

within the individual (individualdifferences).

Personality is consistent.


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Developmental Psychology

A field of psychology that examines theimpact of maturational processes and

experience on behavior. Focus on child development from infancy

through adolescence.

Adult development and aging.


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Abnormal Psychology

(Clinical Psychology) An area of psychology that studies the four

Ds: deviance, distress, dysfunction, anddanger.

Deviant - different, extreme, unusual, or bizarre.

Distressful unpleasant and upsetting to theindividual.

Dysfunctionaldisruptive to the persons abilityto conduct daily activities in a constructivemanner.

Dangerous potential to inflict harm on

themselves or others.


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Biopsychology

The field that relates behavior to bodilyprocesses, especially the workings of the

brain. The main goal of this area of study is to

understand behavior and experience in

terms of their biological source.


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Cognitive Psychology

The study of mental processes such asperceiving, remembering, thinking and

reasoning. The study of mental processes is

important because these processes are

responsible for much of the behavior wefind interesting.


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Industrial Organizational

Psychology Social Psychology applied to the workplace setting.

Studies individual differences in behavior and jobperformance, and with measuring and predicting such

differences. Topics include but are not limited to: Motivation,

performance appraisal, employee satisfaction, personnel,employee selection, work-family conflict.


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Counseling Psychology

A field of psychology that providesservices to moderately disturbed patients.

Less clinical.

More working with people who just wantto talk and less clients with psychological

diagnoses.


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School Psychology

A field of psychology involvingpsychoeduational testing and evaluating,

and other related services in a schoolsetting.


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Example

Scenario: A student gets handed backan exam at school with a failing grade.

The student bursts into tears and runs outof the classroom.

How would different areas of psychologyinterpret this event?


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A Social Psychologist would say:

This student maybe had a bad day upuntil this point. Perhaps they recently

experienced an argument with a familymember or friends. They were vulnerableto react in this manner due to situational

influences (the power of the situation).


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A Personality Psychologistwould say:

This student individual has a tendency tooverreact regardless of the situation.

Even as an infant, their temperamentcould have predicted this type of reaction.


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A Developmental Psychologistwould say:

This student is obviously less mature thanother students their age. They are at a

maturation level in which they are unableto put a poor grade in perspective. Theyare developing and maturing at a slower

rate than their peers.


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An Abnormal (or Clinical)Psychologist would say:

This student is obviously suffering frommajor depression, generalized anxiety

disorder, or bipolar disorder.


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A Biopsychologist would say:

This students parents probably behavedin a similar manner when they were

students. This behavior is probably aresult of genetics. Parents that overreactare bound to produce children who

overreact.


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A Cognitive Psychologist would say:

This student was probably repeatingmaladaptive (negative) thoughts over and

over in their head all morning. They wereprobably thinking:

I am going to fail that test, and when I do, I

will make a fool of myself and run out of theroom crying. I just know I will cause a scenewhen I receive that failing test grade.


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An I/O psychologist would say:

A happy worker is a productive worker,and this student is not happy in school,

therefore they are experiencing failureacademically. The emotional reaction isdue to work-stress.


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A Behavior Oriented Psychologistwould say:

The failing grade is the unconditionedstimulusthat provoked the unconditioned

response(crying and running out of the room).

In the future when the teacher passes backtests or papers (conditioned stimulus)the

student will continue to run out of the roomcrying (conditioned response).


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A Counseling Psychologist wouldsay:

This is a reaction that needs to beaddressed in individual or group

counseling. Talking about and processingthe incident through counseling will leadto individual growth.


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A Statistician would say:

We need to collect data on the frequency,duration, time of day, antecedents, and

consequences of this particular incidentand any proceeding incidents of similarnature. Perhaps through inferential

statistics and regression equations, we canbetter understand and predict this type ofbehavior in the future.


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A School Psychologist would say:

It is important to determine whether ornot this behavior is impacting this

students ability to learn. A functionalbehavioral assessment should beconducted and a behavior intervention

plan should be implemented. If thisbehavior continues to occur andnegatively impact this students education,a CSE referral may be warranted.

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Chapter 1- Nature of Psychology Lesson