1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Malaysia is a multiracial and multicultural country. One of the issues that often

arise in a country like Malaysia where over a hundred languages and dialects are spoken

daily by the people is the choice of language (David, 2006). Decisions about language

choice often manifest itself in the daily interaction and social milieu of Malaysian

youth. Thus, it is inevitable that these adolescents are constantly faced with the option

of making meaningful language choices when they interact with family members and

with those from different races in their neighbourhood and in the school domain.

This case study using a multi-fold methodology of a questionnaire, recordings

and observation focuses on languages choices of Malaysian adolescents in three

different domains. It seeks to examine the deployment of language choices by young

Malaysians when they interact with people at home and with people of other descent in

their neighbourhood and in the school domains in a multilingual and multiracial society.

In this study, language choices and code-switching are seen as linguistic strategies

employed by Malaysian youth for specific purposes. The research seeks to describe and

analyse the actual language used by Malaysian youth in their daily interactions with

different people in different domains.

The study will present a description and an analysis of language choices of

Malaysian boys from the three different ethnic groups who are currently studying in a

premier secondary school in Ipoh in three different domains with special emphasis on

their interaction with their peers in school. Based on the assumptions that language

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choice data can provide both social and linguistic information (Holmes, 2001:3), such

an undertaking is deemed viable and useful to linguistic, sociolinguistic and sociological

studies of Malaysian youth. For those who are involved with adolescents such as

linguists, sociologists, politicians, textbook writers, trainers, educators, teachers or even

parents, this research provides useful information about the discourse practices of young

people in their natural setting in multilingual and multiracial Malaysia. It also hopes to

provide an impetus to other studies of linguistic behaviour of Malaysian youth.

1.2 Malaysian Sociolinguistic Profile

Malaysia, made up of Peninsular Malaysia (West Malaysia) and Sabah and

Sarawak (East Malaysia), is a nation of diverse ethnicity. This plural society of 23.27

million in 2000 consist of the Malays and other indigenous people who form about

65.1% of the population of the country; the Chinese, who constitute about 26.0%, form

the second largest group; the Indians who form about 7.7% is the third largest group in

the composite population of Malaysia while the minority groups like the Thais,

Eurasians, Arabs and peoples of other descent are so small in number that they are all

designated under the term ‘other’ (Census 2002, found at the Department of Statistics,

Malaysia website, David 2006; 3-4).

The Malays are the dominant group in the country and they have a tapestry of

minority racial groups with an equally diverse language groups. They consist of the

Austronesian-speaking Malays in West Malaysia, the Kadazan-speaking natives of

Sabah and Iban-speaking Dayaks of Sarawak who form the major Malay groups in East

Malaysia, the Austroasiatic speaking Negritos in Peninsular Malaysia and other smaller

3

groups of speakers speaking amongst themselves a host of Austroasiatic languages

(Baskaran, 2005). The Malaysian Constitution defines a Malay as a native who practices

the Islamic religion, speaks Malay and practices Malay customs. This means that

peoples of Javanese, Bugis and Minangkabau stock are considered Malays too (see

Mohamad Subakir, 1998). Bahasa Malaysia or the Malay Language is the national and

official language in the country. It is the medium of instruction and is a compulsory

language to be learned in school.

The Chinese in Malaysia are also a diverse language group with a variety of

dialectal groups. The main dialectal groups are the Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka,

Teochew and Hainanese (Baskaran, 2005). Although Hokkien is widely spoken in

Penang, Kedah, Malacca, Johor and other parts of the country, Cantonese, which is

mainly spoken in Ipoh and Kuala Lumpur, has gained popularity in recent years

(especially amongst the younger generation due to the influence of Hong Kong movies)

and is now widely spoken across the country. However, Mandarin is the official

Chinese language and is used for all official purposes and in the media. It is also the

medium of instruction in Chinese schools in the country and is fast becoming a popular

language amongst the Chinese community especially with the emergence of China as a

new superpower and the opening of more diplomatic and trade ties with China.

The Indian community in Malaysia is also heterogeneous. The majority of the

Indians are Tamil-speaking followed by the Malayalees, Telugus, Punjabis, Bengalis,

Gujeratis, Sri Lankan Tamils, Pakistanis and Sindhis, each with its own language.

Studies have shown that there is a language shift in the Sindhi community in Malaysia

and the community has moved from their ethnic language to English and Malay (David,

1996).

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The minority groups like the Thais, Eurasians, Arabs and people of other descent

speak their own languages or either English or Malay. Hence, from the description

above, Malaysia is indeed made up of many ethnic groups and has a rich linguistic

heritage. These communities are not homogenous. Each major group has a number of

sub-groups within its community.

According to Asmah (1982), cited in Jariah Mohd Jan (2003), “the social

environment in Malaysia is a situation where various languages are used in daily

communication”. It can be said that communication between Malaysians, where inter

and intra group encounters are a common occurrence, is seldom a straightforward use of

one language, be it Malay, Chinese, Tamil or any vernacular languages (Asmah, 1982;

Jamaliah Mohd. Ali, 1995; Le Vasan, 1996; David, 1999; Jariah Mohd. Jan, 2003). It is

common for Malaysians of the same linguistic background or Malaysians of different

ethnicities, educational background or social strata to pepper their conversation with

linguistic interference, interlingual code-mixing and code-switching. This scenario has

often surprised visitors to the country and prompted Tim Rome, a UK facilitator for the

International Placement of Headteachers (IPH) programme in Sabah and headteacher of

Lovelace Primary School in Surrey to say, “It is also fascinating that teachers and

students can switch between languages so easily. Most UK teachers would find that a

challenge”(Sunday Star, Education, 16 July 2006;9).

The languages considered primary in Malaysia and which are used both for

intra-group and inter-group communication are Malay, the national language, and

English, an international language (Asmah, 1987). English is a compulsory language

taught in all Malaysian schools. The importance of Malay as an element of national

identity of Malaysia was brought about by the rise of nationalism which led to the

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independence of Malaya from the British Colonial rulers in 1957. Since then, the Malay

language has been legislated as the national and official language and is seen by the

Malaysian government as the key to national unity and racial integration for a polyglot

Malaysian society. The aim of the policy planners is to ensure that all Malaysians will

be able to speak this common tongue and become integrated into Malaysian society

(Jariah Mohd. Jan, 2003). According to Asmah (1982: 26), although Malay is accepted

and used by all races as the “national and official language” of the country, it is still

seen as belonging to the dominant group, the Malays.

Like many countries in South East Asia, English is chosen as the principal

foreign language for two main reasons: one, it is a language for international

communication and two, it is a language which is used as a source for the latest

development in science and technology. Thus, English is seen as an asset to the country

and is termed the second language of the nation. According to Asmah (1987:1), the term

‘second language’ refers to ‘….second in importance in the hierarchy of the Malaysian

languages, seen in terms of the official recognition given to the language, its

importance as a language of education instruction, as well as its position as an

important language in the professions”. According to Jariah Mohd Jan (2003), the

status and prestige of the English language was established during the pre-independence

British regime. It came as the language of the rulers and the language itself was

considered a language of power and prestige and was much sought after since then.

Jariah Mohd Jan says, “The Malaysian linguistic scene in the media and social

interaction, shows that English is quite widespread as a communication tool” (Jariah,

2003:43). Nik Safiah (1987:8) states that,

“Malay faces stiff competition from English. While the policy is to use the national

language in all official instances, in many important domains of language………

English is still the preferred language.”

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Today, a number of varieties of both Malay and English are used. Besides the

standard Malay (the high variety taught in schools), a low variety, commonly known as

Bazaar Malay, is also used largely in informal settings. In addition, many dialectal

varieties of Malay are used in different parts of the country, such as Kelantan and

Terengganu dialects (Asmah, 1987). Similarly, the varieties of English used by

Malaysians ranges from the high variety (the acrolect) taught in schools to the basilect

variety (see Morais, 1998). The Malaysian variety of English, according to Schneider in

Baskaran (2005), is undergoing nativization and is widely used in informal settings in

the country today.

Malay is a lingua franca in Malaysia (Abdullah Hassan, 1987). It has also been

noted that the mesolectal or basilectal variety of Malay is more widely used in non-

formal situations in intergroup interactions. In a study of a car assembly plant in

Malaysia, Morais (1998:89) found that Bazaar Malay is used by members of all ethnic

groups in varying degrees in everyday informal communication. The Bazaar Malay

used by the older members of the Chinese and Indian communities varies in terms of

pronunciation and intonation as a result of the influence of the first or ethnic language.

Morais also notes the occurrence of occasional code-mixed variety where lexical items

of the minority languages and even English are inserted in the dominant Malay used. As

for the English used, Morais contends that the lectal varieties of English used at home,

with friends, at school and at the workplace may be indicators of the membership of

Malaysians in different socio-economic and ethnic networks.

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1.2.1 Malaysian Schools

Before the achievement of Independence in 1957, schools in Malaysia were

established to cater for the major ethnic groups. Initially, there were Malay medium

schools for the Malay population, Chinese medium for the Chinese community and

Tamil medium schools for the Indians. By 1872, the Straits Settlement Education

Department was established by the colonial government to see to the establishment of

English medium schools. Methodist, Anglican and Catholic missionaries were allowed

into the country to provide English education. This made the English Language

accessible to Malaysians of all races in towns. Most of these schools were funded either

by the Government, the Christian missionary organization or local private individuals.

After the country achieved Independence in 1957, a unified national system of

education was initiated. Malay was made the national language and, together with

English, was made a compulsory language to be taught in all schools. The Chinese-

medium, Tamil-medium and English-medium primary schools were termed national-

type schools whilst the Malay-medium primary schools were termed national schools.

Malay is the medium of instruction in the national schools, which are mostly fully

government aided. Chinese and Tamil are used as the medium of instruction in the

national-type schools. These Chinese and Tamil primary schools fulfill the cultural need

for vernacular language education in the country. However, Malaysian adolescents at

the secondary level have no option but to attend national schools where Malay is the

medium of instruction.

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1.2.2 Malaysian Adolescents

Due to the historical and educational development as well as the diverse racial

composition of the country, most of the adolescents in Malaysia are bilinguals. Many,

however, are trilingual or multilingual.

Most of the Malay adolescents are bilingual having Malay and English as their

main languages. However, there are rare cases of Malay pupils enrolled in a Chinese-

medium or Tamil-medium school. These adolescents speak Mandarin or Tamil in

addition to Malay and English that are taught in school.

The Chinese adolescents are seen mostly as bilingual or trilingual having

Mandarin and/or their dialects as their main language in addition to Malay and English

which they learn in school.

Likewise, the Indian adolescents are also seen as bilingual or trilingual having

their vernacular language which they acquire at home or in a Tamil-medium school as

their main language in addition to Malay and English taught in school. There are also

cases of Indian children enrolled in Chinese-medium school. These adolescents are

competent speakers of Mandarin and some are also users of the Chinese dialects.

However, such cases are not wide-spread.

The same can be said of the other ethnic groups in the country. Most are seen as

speakers of their ethnic language in addition to Malay and English which they learn in

school. Baskaran (2005:16), in discussing the educational development and language

setting in Malaysia, points out that:

9

“With the various official statuses accorded to the four basic languages in the country

(Bahasa Malaysia, English, Chinese-Mandarin and Tamil) along with the diverse range

of languages in actual currency amongst the people of Malaysia, it is small wonder then

that the average Malaysian is at least a bilingual – regardless of educational or socio-

economic background. On the other hand, it is not unusual to find the trilingual or

multilingual Malaysian either.” Baskaran (2005:16)

Therefore, it is indeed inevitable that Malaysian youth are constantly faced with

the options of making meaningful language choices when they interact with people of

different races within their own community and in their own country. Romaine (1989)

and Gumperz (1982) point out that code-changing often follows a change of addressee.

Hence, Malaysian youth have the choice of using the language of their addressee

exclusively to accommodate or converge with the linguistic ability of their addressee.

They can also choose to code-switch by using two languages or to code-mix by using

more than one single lexical item in the other language, or by using at least one word in

a second language. On the other hand, they can even practice divergence or exercise

non-accommodation by using the language which is not the addressee’s preferred

language.

“In a multilingual setting, language is a salient dimension of group identity and is used

to maintain inter-group boundaries” (David, 1999;2).

It has long been acknowledged that code choices and code switching, especially

the use of ethnic language and code switching, can be used as a communicative strategy

and as a marker of ethnic group membership and identity (David, 2003; 1-4).

1.2.3 Background to the Respondents

The school in this study has a total of 2197 students (as of April 2006) and they

range from Form One to Upper Six. More students are expected to enroll in the school

when the lower sixth class begins in July. It is a double session school with the Form 1

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and Form 2 classes being conducted in the afternoon and the upper forms are Form 3, 4,

5, Lower and Upper 6 classes being conducted in the morning. The students are mainly

boys. Girls are admitted only in the Form 6 classes.

The statistics show that there are 534 students of Malay descent, 953 of Chinese

descent, 765 students of Indian descent and 11 students categorized under other races as

of April 2006. In terms of percentage, the school’s enrolment consists of 24.3 %

Malays, 43.4 % Chinese, 34.8 % Indians and 0.5 % other races as of April 2006.

Although the Malays are the dominant group in the country, in this setting, the Chinese

are significantly the bigger group followed by the Indians (see Figure 1.1).

Malay, 24.3

Chinese,

43.4

Indian, 31.8

Others, 0.5

0

10

20

30

40

50

%

Ethnicity

The Ethnic Composition Of the Students

Malay

Chinese

Indian

Others

Figure 1.1

The Ethnic Composition of the Students in the School

Founded in 1912 by the La Salle Brothers in Ipoh, this school is an institution

with a long and colourful history. From its humble beginnings, this school has grown

into one of the premier schools in the city and continues to grow and develop. Like most

missionary schools, the medium of instruction was initially English until 1982 when the

medium of instruction was switched to Bahasa Malaysia in accordance with the

National Education Policy.

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The students come from a number of feeder schools in the area. The majority of

the students come from their two primary schools, SMI 1 and SMI 2 which are next to

the secondary school. A number of the students are from SK Panglima Bukit Gantang

and some other primary schools in the vicinity. Some of the students are from La Salle

in Canning Garden while SK Manjoi 1 and SK Manjoi 2 provide some of the Malay

students. There are a small number of students from the vernacular primary schools in

Ipoh.

The students in Form 4 are placed according to their Penilaian Menengah

Rendah (PMR) or Lower Secondary Assessment results with the better students being

placed in the Science stream while the weaker students are placed in the Arts stream. As

a result, students from various background and ethnicities are grouped together in the

same class. Thus, interactions amongst the various races are inevitable in the class and

this would lead to the formation of adolescent friendship groups. Hence, this would be a

fertile ground for an investigation on language choices of these young Malaysians. In

Malaysia, ethnic descent remains an important organizing principle in determining

social networks. In comparison with home and the adult community, school is still an

important site for ethnic mixing.

This school is chosen for the research because of a number of practical reasons.

Firstly, there are enough students from all the major ethnic groups. A large number of

students in Form Six are the researcher’s former students, a number of Form 4 students

are the researcher’s former Sunday School children and a few are the researcher’s

friends’ children making the job of finding willing informants easier. Finally,

permission was given by the Perak State Education for the study, and the school

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authorities and teachers were very cooperative and helpful throughout the duration of

the research.

1.3 Statement of Problem

The focus of research on educational settings has traditionally been on teacher

discourse and students’ progress in mastering the new language within a classroom

setting. However, children socialize not in the abstract, in a simulated setting like the

classroom but also in authentic real life settings. From the sociolinguistic perspective,

language is associated with use. Peer and friendship groups are the speech community

of the youth. Thus, there is a need to examine the discourse practices of this speech

community in a natural setting and to examine the deployment of language choices by

young Malaysians when they interact with insiders and outsiders in their neighbourhood

and in the school domains in multilingual and multiracial Malaysia. What are the factors

that govern their choice of a particular code on a particular occasion? Why do they

choose to use one code rather than another, what brings about a switch from one code to

another, and why do they occasionally prefer to use a code formed from two other codes

by mixing the two? With these questions in mind, this research seeks to determine the

linguistic choices made by Malaysian adolescents and understand the social and

linguistic meaning of the choices of this speech community when they interact with

people at home, others in their neighbourhood and friends in school.

1.4 The Research Questions

The main aim of this research is to determine the linguistic choices made by

Malaysian male adolescents. The research questions are as follows:

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1. Do they use the national language, Malay, an international language,

English, or their respective ethnic languages or even a mixed discourse

consisting of more than one language?

2. What are their language choices during interactions with their family

members, friends and people from different linguistic, ethnic and cultural

backgrounds in their neighbourhood and their school?

3. Is there a significant difference in the language choices of the various ethnic

groups?

4. Is there a connection between language choices and ethnicity?

5. Do they practice code-switching or language crossing (which is the practice

of using a language variety that belongs to another group) when they mingle

with outsiders (i.e. not of the same ethnicity) in school (Rampton, 1995)?

1.5 Significance of the Study

Little is known about the linguistic choices of young Malaysians in their

interaction with others. To understand why young individuals are motivated to use one

language or another language, or a mixed code in their linguistic repertoire in their

discourse with people of different ethnic background in different domains in this

country is deemed necessary and worthwhile pursuing. The analysis will provide more

insight into the language choices of Malaysian youth in relation to their ethnicity when

they speak to members of their family, people in their neighbourhood and those in their

school.

1.6 Limitation

It is impossible to study language without demarcating the aspect we wish to

study simply because language is a complex phenomenon. This case study limits itself

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to determining the linguistic choices of Malaysian youth regardless of their ethnic

background in the home and school domain.

The nature of the study itself poses some limitations. It is not possible to study

the whole school population nor can the study be conducted as extensively as is desired

due to time and other constraints. It is also not possible to study all the ethnic groups

found in the country nor is it possible to study all different settings due to time

constraints. Hence, this case study focuses only on the major ethnic groups, namely the

Malays, Chinese, and Indians boys in an urban school setting in Ipoh. Minority groups

such as the Punjabi, Kadazans and Semai are not included in the study. The discussion

will focus on the social and linguistic meaning of language choices of Malaysian youth

in this case study.

1.7 Definition of terms

1.7.1 Language choices

In this study, language choices is defined as language, variety or code employed

or utilized by a particular individual for a particular purpose or function in verbal

interactions.

1.7.2 Malaysian English

The variety of English used widely in informal communication by Malaysians

which is the indigenized variety (see Baskaran, 2005; Shanta Nair-Venugopal, 1997:

78-89; Morais, 1997: 90-106).

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1.7.3 Code-switching, code-mixing and borrowing

In this study, the term code-switching, code-mixing and borrowing are seen as

strategies employed by the participants for a purpose. Code-switching is defined as the

use of two or more linguistic varieties or codes in the same conversation inclusive of

dialect and style changes. It encompasses the use of code mixes, code switch and code

alternation as well as tag-switching, inter-sentential switching and intra-sentential

switching.

1.7.4 Language convergence and language divergence

Language convergence refers to speakers becoming more similar to their

listeners in terms of the language or languages they use, while language divergence

refers to interlocutors maintaining the use of their own languages.

1.7.5 Domain

Domain is a theoretical construct traditionally used to determine language shift.

The language used in a domain depends on the participants, their role relationships, the

topic under discussion and the settings. In this study, only the home, neighbourhood and

school domains will be used.

1.7.6 Speech Accommodation Theory (Giles and Smith, 1979)

This theory postulates that interlocutors switch to the preferred language of their

speech partners if they intend to create rapport. This linguistic strategy is also known as

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language convergence. However, distancing from the speech partner is achieved by

maintaining one’s preferred code regardless of the preferences of the speech partner.

This concept is also known as language divergence. This theory has been used to

investigate linguistic choices between speech partners of diverse ethnic groups such as

the discourse in a trade setting between buyers and sellers in service encounters in

Malaysia (David, 1999). It has also been used to determine the extent of language

maintenance and shift within a community (David, 2001).

1.7.7 Language Crossing

Language crossing is a term used by Rampton (1995) in his now famous book

Crossing: Language And Ethnicity Among Adolescents. This linguistic phenomenon he

calls “crossing” is concerned with switching into languages that are not generally

thought as belonging to the speaker. There is a clear sense of movement across social or

ethnic boundaries. (see 2.2.3 for further details)

1.7.8 Speech Community.

In this study, the term is defined as ‘any regional or socially definable human

group identified by a shared linguistic system’ (Crystal 1991:323 cited in Lam, 1992).

Thus, peer and friendship groups are speech community of the youth.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In Malaysia, children’s linguistic repertoire include the standard form of Malay

and English they learn in school, the colloquial variety known as Bazaar Malay (see

Asmah, 1987; Morais, 1997) and Malaysian English (Pillai, 2006; Baskaran, 2005).

They use Chinese dialects with friends (for Chinese Malaysians), Tamil (for Indian

Malaysians), Malay dialects (for Malay Malaysians) and other ethnic languages. Their

communicative and linguistic choices are rather complex and unique because within

each ethnic group there is a variety of languages and dialects. It is also not unusual for

speakers of a specific ethnic community in this country to know and use another

language better than they do their own ethnic language (see David, Naji and Kaur, 2003

on the Punjabi community). In some cases, children grow up not knowing how to speak

their parent’s language or have very little knowledge of that language. According to

Asmah Omar (2003:100), English is the L1 of 1% of the people in Malaysia. Based on

the assumption that language choices provide both social and linguistic information, this

case study hopes to provide a greater understanding to social and linguistic behaviour of

Malaysian youth.

Language choice is a very complex issue and the factors which might influence

language choices are equally complicated because the study of language choices is often

linked to other studies like ethnicity, multilingualism, code-switching, language

maintenance and shift, gender and age, solidarity and power. Scholars have different

views of how language choices can be examined. For instance, according to Gumperz

(1982 a), the social meaning of language choice depends to a large extent on situational

18

variables and the relationships between participants and settings. However, according to

Giles (1977) who is well known for his Speech Accommodation Theory, language

choice can be explained in terms of a desire to increase or reduce social distance

between interlocutors of different ethnic groups. Holmes (2001:19-50) cited several

social factors affecting code choices in a community. According to her, people may

choose to use a particular code because it makes it easier to discuss a particular topic,

regardless of where they are speaking. Others may use different languages with

different addressees because they share same code, or the code is commonly used, or to

emphasise their common ethnicity. Although the factors and reasons affecting language

choices may vary, the fact remains that language choices has social meanings. Hence, a

study of language choices can provide social and linguistic information about a speech

community in terms of inter-ethnic relationship amongst Malaysian youth.

In a study on factors affecting Secondary Three students’ choice of code in

informal settings in schools in Singapore (Lam, 1992), Lam Lai Ore stated that there is

no single theory which explains why a person chooses to use one code rather than

another. Lam argues that to derive a fuller understanding of this complex issue, a

number of theories will have to be examined. He posits that some of the factors which

might influence language choices are as follows:

1. Domains

2. Verbal repertoire of the speaker and the listener

3. Speaker’s attitude towards (a) the language and, (b) speakers of that

language

4. Motivation (integrative and instrumental) and

5. Sense of solidarity

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2.1.1 Domains

A domain is a theoretical construct widely used by researchers in sociolinguistic

studies. The concept of ‘domain’ was first used by Schmidt Rohr (cited in Fishman

1966:428). It was popularized by Fishman who defines it as:

“…. A socio-cultural construct abstracted from topics of communication,

relationships and interactions between communication, relationships and interactions

between communicators and locales of communication in accord with the institutions of

society….”

(Fishman, 1972:82)

Fishman states that a community is expected to be sensitive to the domain in

which interactions take place. Scholars agree that the choice of language used in a

domain depends largely on the participants, their role relationships, the topic under

discussion and the setting. The theoretical construct of domain is used to specify to

larger institutional role-contexts of habitual language use in multilingual settings. For

instances, a teacher and a student (participants) talking about a class project (topic) at

the school canteen (setting) would constitute a school domain. Hence, other social

institutions like home, neighbourhood, workplace, and place of worship can be termed

as domains. As Holmes (2001:21) puts it “A domain involves typical interactions

between typical participants in typical settings”. Platt (1977:368-369) points out that it

is “possible to range domains along a scale from the public to more private and to

attribute to them a degree of formality ranging from very formal to the most informal”

in most communities.

Language constitutes a core form of social organisation and agencies like the

family, the neighbourhood and school are important agencies of socialisation (Giddens,

1989). This theoretical construct of domain has proven to be very useful, particularly

when describing code choice in large speech communities and examining ‘typical’

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interactions which involves social factors such as who is talking to whom, where, the

social context and the function and topic of the discussion.

In their study of the Puerto Rican community in New York (cited in David

2001:38), Fishman and Greenfield (1970) used the concept of domain. Respondents

were asked about the language they would use in a number of variables. They found that

Spanish was regularly used in family discourse whereas English was used in education

and employment. In their analysis of the use of English among Italo-Australians in

Sydney, Rubino and Bettoni (1991), cited in Daivd (2001:38), covered 46 situations in 4

domains (family, friendship, work/school and transactions) taking into account the

variables of interlocutors, topic and setting. In another study on the use of English,

Sridhar (1985), cited in David (2001:39) found that Kannada is dominant in intimate

domains while English is dominant in formal and utilitarian domains among students in

the state of Karnataka in South India. However, other studies showed that for some

communities language choice is influenced by role relationship rather than the domain

in which the discourse takes place. In a study of language shift in a Hungarian-German

bilingual community in Oberwaat, Gal (1979) found that the speaker’s age and social

status was the most important single factor in language choice in that community. In

analyzing language choice among the Sindhi community in Metro Manila, Dewan

(1987), cited in David (2001:39), found that interlocutors transcended domain.

According to Holmes (2001; 23), domain is very useful for capturing broad

generalisations about any speech community. It tells us very clearly about the patterns

of language use in a particular community. In other words, it describes which code or

codes are usually selected for use in different situations.

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The linguistic situation in Malaysia is polyglossic and rather complex. The

choice of code is often governed by clear functional differences between the codes. For

example a ‘typical’ Chinese boy growing up in Penang, Malaysia may speak Hokkien

with his parents and informal Malaysian English (if they are from SK or SRK schools)

or informal Mandarin (for those from SRJK (C) schools) which are mixed with Hokkien

and Malay words with his siblings. Informal conversation with friends in school may be

in Hokkien, Malaysian English, Mandarin, Bazaar Malay, or a mixed code, depending

on who the interlocutor is but formal conversation may be in standard Malay and

English. Religious practice will be conducted in the formal variety of Malaysian English

and even Malay for the Christians, but Hokkien or Mandarin for Buddhist or Taoist. In

Ipoh, a ‘typical’ Malaysian Chinese boy may choose to speak Cantonese, the common

local dialect in Ipoh instead of Hokkien like their counterpart in Penang.

Young Malaysians are free to choose between the standard variety of English

and Malay (both belonging to the High variety), or the more informal variety of both

these languages, or even a mixed variety in the school domain.

2.1.2 Verbal Repertoire

The extent of the verbal repertoire one has also influences language choice and

use. Verbal repertoire of a speaker may be defined as the linguistic varieties which are

at a particular speaker’s disposal (Platt and Platt, 1975). Holmes (2001; 19) gives an

example of a 16 year-old boy living in Bukavu, a multicultural and multilingual African

city in eastern Zaire who speaks informal Shi, his tribal language at home with his

family and vendors from his own ethnic group in the market place. He is familiar with

the formal Shi used for weddings and funerals. With people from different tribes, he

22

uses Swahili, the lingua franca of the area. He learned standard Zairian Swahili in

school but uses Kingwana, the local market-place variety, with younger children and

adults in the streets. Although French is the official language of Zaire, he uses standard

Zairian Swahili with officials in government offices when he fills in a form or pays a

bill. With his friends, he uses Indoubil, a variety which is used among the young people

in Bukavu regardless of their ethnicity or tribal affiliations. This 16 year-old boy has an

extensive verbal repertoire at his disposal.

There is always a close link between the language a person chooses to use and

his proficiency in that language. For instance, a speaker may know a number of

languages but the level of proficiency in each of the languages he/she acquires may not

be similar. The speaker is more likely to choose a code that ranks high in his/her verbal

repertoire rather than a code that ranks low in his/her verbal repertoire unless his speech

partner does not know the code he is most comfortable in.

Therefore, another important determinant in language choices is the verbal

repertoire of the listener. A speaker may not always be free to choose to speak the

language he/she is most proficient in. In such cases, the language choice of a speaker is

directly affected by his/her interlocutor’s linguistic repertoire. According to Platt

(1977:371) the verbal repertoire of the listener refers to a type of bilingual (or

multilingual) accommodation where, out of a choice of two (or more) appropriate

choices, the one which is chosen is part of the listener’s verbal repertoire. In other

words, the speaker chooses an appropriate language to accommodate the listener’s

verbal repertoire. The speaker’s language choice is dependent on (a) the speaker’s

previous knowledge of the listener’s verbal repertoire and (b) the information about the

listener’s verbal repertoire elicited by the speaker during the discourse. The linguistic

23

repertoire and level of proficiency of the listener or addressee limits the language

choices of a multilingual speaker. For instance, there is not much choice of which

language or code to use if the speaker and the listener or addressee shares only one code

or language when he/she wants to communicate referential content. However, there are

instances when a speaker wishes to communicate non-referential content such as insults,

abuses or admiration. In this case, any variety in his/her linguistic repertoire that could

carry the affective message across will be chosen. The linguistic repertoire or level of

proficiency of the listener or addressee is no longer a controlling factor.

In her study on the Sindhi community in Malaysia, David (2001:124) gave an

example of a non-English speaking grandmother’s verbal exchange with her sixteen-

year-old grandson. Knowing that Malay is a large part of her grandson’s verbal

repertoire, she chose to speak in Malay rather than the ethnic language to accommodate

her grandson’s lack of competence in the Sindhi language and her own inability to

speak English. In this instance, Malay is the language of accommodation. According to

David (2001:132), there is a tendency for members of the first generation of Malaysian

Sindhis who understand either English or Malay to accommodate the younger

generation’s language preference.

In another study by David (2003:18) on the role and functions of code-switching

in Malaysian courtroom, it was found that Judges tend to use English with counsel and

Malay with witnesses. At times they use English to reprimand counsel, hence saving

their face in front of a third party, with whom the use of the national language is

maintained. According to David, at times there is a genuine linguistic gap between the

interlocutors in the courtroom as Malaysians have differing levels of fluency in different

languages and so code-switching is used as it enables communication to take place.

24

However, she posits that it must not be assumed that code-switching or code-shifting (or

language choices) is always triggered by differing levels of proficiency (David, 1996).

At times situational factors like who is talking to whom, at others metaphorical and

pragmatic reasons warrant the use of mixed discourse in the legal setting, for example,

to issue a directive, to quote someone, to emphasise a point made and to achieve the

legal communicative task at hand such as to coerce the witness into providing the

answer required. In yet another study on code-switching by David (1999) in Malaysian

service encounters, language convergence was rampant as the need to get a good deal is

the main objective of both the buyers and sellers. In contrast, language divergence or

non-accommodation (found in Malaysian courtrooms) indicates power and control of

one party over another party. In short, language choices “are triggered to achieve a

range of strategies and objectives” of the interlocutors (David 2003;19).

There are also instances when speakers choose a code that ranks low in their

verbal repertoire or a code they have not fully acquired yet for a particular purpose. A

good example is a study done on language crossing by Ben Rampton (1995) in Britain

and another by Cecilia Cutler (1999) in New York. Ben Rampton described language

crossing as the practice of using a language variety that belongs to another group in his

1995 book Crossing: Language and Ethnicity Among Adolescents. Rampton describes

how groups of multiracial adolescents in a British working-class community mix their

use of Creole, Punjabi and Asian English. He found that language crossing, in many

instances, constitutes an anti-racist practice and is emblematic (symbol) of young people

striving to redefine their identities. The young people he studied used this mixed code to

contest racial boundaries and assert a new “de-racinated” ethnicity.

25

Using Rampton’s framework, Cutler (1999) studied the language crossing

behaviour of a white suburban teenager in New York City who uses features of African-

American English to signal his affiliation with hip hop culture in New York. Her studies

show that

‘AAVE crossing can have many different purposes: it can express the desire to

be part of the black community; it can locate a young person in the hip hop/rap youth

culture scene; or when used in a pejorative way it can emphasize that the speaker is not a

member of the group being imitated’

(NYU, Department of Linguistics,

1999:http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/lingu/people/grate/cece/york.htm)

Both these studies clearly demonstrate that language choices data can provide insightful

social and linguistic information about adolescents.

2.1.3 Speaker’s attitude towards (a) the language and (b) the speakers of the

language

Another major factor in language choice is the speaker’s attitude towards the

language and the speakers of the language. A speaker is more likely to choose a

language that is perceived positively than a language that is perceived negatively. The

perception may be for personal, social, economic or political reasons. For example, a

speaker is more likely to use a language if the language is perceived by the speaker as a

tool for upward social or economic mobility (see David and Naji, 2000; David, Naji and

Kaur, 2003), or as a marker of high social status and membership of an educated class

(see Jariah, 2003). On the other hand, if a language is perceived as having little social or

economic value, or as a maker of low social status, chances are it will not be chosen.

If a language is seen as prestigious and desirable to use, there will be motivation

for members in the speech community to use it. For instance, in Singapore, English,

Mandarin, Tamil, and Malay share co-official status, but English is seen as having more

26

prestige and functions as a high variety as compared to the other three languages and,

thus, it is more widely used (Saravanan, 1994 and Gupta and Siew 1995 cited in

Ramachandan, 2000). A case study of Malaysian Tamils by David and Naji (2000)

reveals that one of the reasons women in that community shift from Tamil to stand

alone English, and/or a mixed code of Tamil and English or a mix of Tamil, English and

Malay could be due to fact that the new languages (English and Malay) are seen as

languages of prestige, status and power.

In his book, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Wardhaugh says that,

“studies which correlate language attitude and language are not common. However,

some good examples of cases where “code choice becomes a form of political expression,

a move either to resist some other ‘power’, or to gain ‘power’, or to express

‘solidarity’”.

Wardhaugh (1992:106)

According to Wardhaugh, a bilingual French Canadian may deliberately insist on using

French rather than English to an official of the federal government outside Quebec to

assert his/her ‘right’ to use French under the Canadian constitution. On the other hand,

the Italian Australians in Smolicz’s study (1983), a minority group, who see their

language as inferior, possessing low social recognition and prestige, choose not to use

their ethnic language. In contrast, the speakers of Black English, a low-status language

in America, continued to use the language (Milroy, 1982 cited in Ramachandran, 2000).

In this case, the language is used as their identifying symbol because their concern is not

status oriented but rather identity oriented. Similarly, the language crossing behaviour in

Cutler’s study of the white suburban teenager in New York City uses features of

African-American English to signal his affiliation with hip hop culture in New York.

His concern is not status but his affiliation with the hip hop culture. These studies show

that language choice has different social meanings with different speakers in different

settings. They show that speakers’ attitude towards a language and the user of the

language is a major factor in language choice.

27

Fishman and Cooper (1975-cited in Lam, 1992) highlighted the fact that

respondents’ attitudes towards a language may be quite different towards speakers of

that language. A speaker’s language choice may be governed by his attitude towards the

listener’s language-group. According to Lam (1992), this may make things difficult for

researchers because respondents may be hesitant about expressing their private feelings

thus making standard attitude tests ineffective. According to him, the ‘matched-guise’

technique was developed as an indirect measure of attitude towards speakers of a

language and are used by researchers like Anisfield and Lambert (1964); Lambert,

Frankel and Tucker (1966).

Anisfield and Lambert (1961) who carried out a research on Jewish High School

students studying Hebrew at parochial schools in Montreal proved that measures of

attitudes correlated with the measures of achievement among students. The study

examined the relationship between attitude and proficiency level. The students were

questioned as to their reasons for learning Hebrew and their attitude towards the Jewish

culture as well as the Jewish community. Inter-correlation among these tests and

measures of achievement was carried out. The results showed that intellectual capacity

and the attitudinal aspects affect success in learning Hebrew. The researchers proved

how students who held positive attitudes towards learning the language and towards that

other language community were found to be more successful in acquiring a second

language than those with negative attitudes.

As mentioned in chapter 1, language, from the sociolinguistic perspective, is

associated with use. Therefore, the research by researchers like Anisfield and Lambert

(1961) shows that a speaker’s language choice and acquiring a second language may be

governed by his attitude towards the language and the listener’s language-group.

28

Social relationship between people is another factor which is relevant to

language choices. Language choices include how well we know the speaker as well as

their status in the community. Speakers tend to choose their words carefully according

to whom they are talking to. Thus, whom we talk to is relevant to our choice of

language or variety.

2.1.4 Motivation (Integrative and Instrumental)

Motivation is another factor that can affect language choices. Although Gardner

and Lambert (1972:14) made the distinction in the area of language attainment,

motivation affects language choices. According to them, whether integrative motive

results in success in mastering a second language depends on a particular orientation on

the part of the learner, reflecting a willingness or a desire to be like representative

members of the other language community, while instrumental motivation is defined as

‘one characterized by a desire to gain social recognition or economic advantages

through knowledge of a foreign language’ (Gardner and Lambert, 1972:14). It can be

argued that both these factors are likely variables that affect not only language

attainment but also language choices.

For instance, as we have seen earlier, in Singapore, English is seen as having

more prestige and functions as a higher variety compared to Mandarin, Tamil, and

Malay even though all of them share co-official status (Saravanan,1994 and Gupta and

Siew 1995 cited in Ramachandan, 2000). Hence, Singaporeans are more motivated to

use English than the other three languages and their motivation can be termed as

instrumental. On the other hand, the language crossing behaviour in Cutler’s study

(Cutler, 1999) of the white suburban teenager in New York City who uses features of

29

African-American English to signal his affiliation with hip hop culture in New York is

an example of integrative motivation because his concern is not status oriented.

Therefore, we can say that motivation is yet another variable that can affect language

choices.

According to Brown (1994:34), “motivation is the extent to which you make

choices about (a) goals to pursue and (b) the effort you will devote to that pursuit”.

Thus, motivation can be seen as the need and desire that drives a person to chose a

particular language or the ‘push factor’ in using a particular code.

2.1.5 Sense of solidarity

Language is an individual possession as well as a social possession. One of the

ways speakers achieve group identity with, and group differentiation from, other

speakers is the use of linguistic characteristics (Wardhaugh, 1992; 118). Language (or

dialect) choice can function as a mark of group identification and solidarity (Landweer,

2007). In other words, bonding or a sense of community and solidarity with others can

be achieved through the use of a particular language or dialect, and the inability to use

that language or dialect may result in exclusion from that community of speakers.

Although the caricature of the Cockney flower girl, Eliza Doolittle, in Shaw’s

Pygmalion may be an exaggerated and amusing attempt to achieve a particular code for

the purpose of social acceptability, empirical evidence of using speech as a marker of

social identity shows that speech does provide information pertaining to geographical

origin, sex, occupation, group, membership, social status, and personal disposition

(Scherer & Giles, 1979). In contrast, Hancock (1974; cited in Giles, 1977;2) observed

30

an Afro-American Peace Corps volunteer was quite hurt to learn that the Sierra

Leoneans referred to him as ‘oyimbo’, or ‘white man’, not because of his appearance

but because of his language and behaviour. Thus, it is reasonable to say that the notion

of ‘solidarity’ can best be understood in relation to the concept of ‘speech community’

(Lam, 1992). As language choice can serve as a marker of ethnic identity, so a strong

ethnic identity can influence language choice (Landweer, 2007).

In their study on the issue of threat to ethnic identity as a moderator of second-

language learning in Canada, Taylor, Meynard and Rheault, (1977; 116) found that

those who felt their cultural identity to be threatened were less fluent in the second

language. In another study, Bourhis and Giles (1977) conducted an experiment in a

language laboratory on two groups of Welsh-born adults living in South Wales with

middle-class occupations to provide empirical evidence for the existence of speech

divergence in intergroup behaviour. The analysis of speech changes of the participants

showed that when ingroup membership is salient and language is an important aspect

of a group’s cultural identity, members of that group will make themselves positively

distinct from an outgroup member via accent divergence under certain specified

conditions (Bourhis and Giles, 1977; 131).

In “Towards a Theory of Language in Ethnic Group Relations”, Giles, Bourhis

and Taylor say that,

“…….ingroup speech can serve as a symbol of ethnic identity and cultural

solidarity; language is often the major embodiment of this ethnicity. It is used for

reminding the group about its cultural heritage, for transmitting group feelings, and for

excluding members of the outgroup from its internal transactions………They can

manipulate language in many ways by introducing ethonphaulisms, keeping the group in

a subordinate linguistic position by use of rational arguments, helping them achieve

scholastic success but by assimilationist strategies, and sometimes even enforcing their

linguistic values on subordinate groups by large-scale legislation.”

Giles, Bourhis and Taylor (1977; 307-308)

31

In a multiracial and multicultural country like Malaysia, socio-cultural factors

may be yet another factor which may influence language choices. Besides the five

factors mentioned above by Lam (1992), studies have shown that socio-cultural factors

may be one of the many factors which can influence linguistic choices. One good

example is mentioned by Asmah Hj. Omar (1992:17). According to Asmah (1992:17),

due to the fact that their own language is the official medium of communication and

instruction, some of the Malays in Malaysia do not find it a necessity to acquire another

language. Although English is officially a second language, to most it just means that it

is compulsory as a school subject, and it is not something that one should acquire as an

added asset. Another example of socio-cultural influence is mentioned by Gaudart

(1987) who says that:

“the acquisition of the English language to most of the Malaysian community is

seen as a necessary evil. This attitude spills over to the children in schools, making it

more difficult to have any intrinsic desire to acquire English”.

(Gaudart,1987:34)

Hence, socio-cultural factors influence linguistic choices of Malaysians.

2.2 Code-switching

Being bilinguals or trilinguals living in a multilingual and multiracial country

and having several languages and dialects at their disposal, communication amongst

Malaysian youth could not be ‘the simple straightforward use of a standard language’

which is taught in the classroom (Jamaliah Mohd. Ali, 2000; Le Vasan, 1996; David,

1999; Jariah Mohd. Jan, 2003). There will be a tendency to code-switch from one

language/dialect to another within a turn or utterance and to use code-switching as a

communicative tool, making code-switching an integral part of their speech style like

the adults (see Morais, 1991; Jamaliah Mohd Ali, 1995; Le Vasan, 1996; David, 1999).

This is the result of living in a multilingual and multi-ethnic country.

32

Studies on the language of English-speaking Malaysian youth by David (1997)

show that in multilingual Malaysia, code-switching is a common phenomenon. The

Malaysian youth of today are expected to be bilingual especially in Malay and English.

As a result of proficiency in Malay and English there is a great deal of code mixing,

code switching and borrowing in spontaneous informal interactions and at times even in

formal interactions. According to David, borrowing from languages like Malay, the

Chinese dialect and Tamil are inevitable. She argues that the reality of language choice

in a bilingual, community members have a third choice that is, the use of more than one

language in utterances, resulting at times in a mixed language (David, 2001:45). With

intergroup contact and opportunity to learn other languages, Malaysian youth have the

option of switching languages moving toward the languages in intergroup contact.

‘Code or language choice’, which refers to the use of two languages, i.e. English

and Malay, in the same sentence or discourse is rather common in this country. In her

discussion on the role of English in Malaysia, Jamaliah (1995:94) states that even

though English functions alongside the Malay language especially in urban areas,

Malaysians sometimes code-switch between three languages namely English, Malay

and the ethnic languages. In her book “Verbal Communication: A Study of Malaysian

Speakers,” Jamaliah Mohd Ali (2000) states that there is a tendency for Malaysian

speakers to use loan words from contact languages at the vocabulary level, words

reflecting concepts belonging to Asian cultures, terms of address which are very Asian,

the “lah” or “ah” particles for a variety of functions and the frequent use of local

dialects in their speech in a formal and informal settings. This deviation from Standard

English is uniquely Malaysian and a clear signal of their national identity, ethnicity, and

camaraderie. Baljit (1994), in her study on turn-taking, observes that there is a tendency

for Malaysians to code-switch when speaking to a person from a different ethnic group.

33

She claims that code-switching in this context is a “strategy” to establish rapport among

interlocutors.

In her study, David (1999) noted different kinds of language behaviours of

interlocutors. Firstly, there is the limited intrusion of linguistic items from another

language in the phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax of the language which are

often discussed under terms ‘borrowing’ or ‘interference’ (e.g. Dorian, 1981; Romaine

1989). Secondly, speakers at times use two languages more extensively and switch

between them more purposefully which they termed as ‘code-switching’ (Blom and

Gumperz, 1972: 424-426; Gumperz, 1982: 60-61; Heller, 1988:5). In addition, there are

also cases where speakers alternate rapidly between two languages in a stretch of speech

or combine two codes into a distinctive variety which scholars term as ‘code-mixing’.

For the purpose of this study, code-switching is used as an umbrella term to cover code

mixes, code switches and code alternation (see David, 1996). Here, code switching is

defined as the alternative use of two languages at the word, phrase, clause, or sentence

level.

Code-switching is not seen as language interference in Malaysia. In a country

where inter and intra ethnic group encounters are everyday occurrences, code-switching

is often used as a sociolinguistic tool by Malaysians as a means of communicating

solidarity, camaraderie, and affiliation to a particular group or to create a specific group

identity, thus providing a linguistic advantage rather than an obstruction to

communication. In Ipoh, Cantonese speakers often switch from English to Cantonese to

signal the speaker’s ethnic identity and solidarity with the addressee. In Penang, where

Hokkien is the dominant dialect, Malaysian Chinese speakers often intersperse English

with the Penang variety of Hokkien.

34

2.2.1 Reasons for Code switching

Code-switching has many social meanings. Volumes have been written about

the reasons, role and functions for its use in different settings in different societies. In a

study to examine the ways code-switching is employed by pre-school Malaysian

children, Karen Kow (2003;62) listed 10 conditions which are favourable for code

switching:

• lack of one word in either language;

• some activities have only been experienced in one of the languages;

• some concepts are easier to express in one of the languages;

• a misunderstanding has to be clarified;

• one wishes to create a certain communicative effect;

• one continues to speak the language latest used because of the trigger effect;

• one wants to make a point;

• one wishes to express group solidarity;

• one wishes to exclude another person from the dialogue.

According to Holmes (2001;8-10), people sometimes switch codes within a

domain or social situation. A speaker may switch to another language as a signal of

group membership and shared ethnicity with an addressee. Holmes argues that solidarity

between participants has an important influence on speech style. She states that

language varies according to its use as well as its users, according to where it is used

and to whom, as well as according to who is using it. She states that the better we know

someone, the more casual and relaxed the speech style we will use to them. According

to her, people use considerably more standard forms with those they do not know well,

and more vernacular forms with their friends.

In Malaysia numerous numbers of studies on code-switching have been

investigated. Although code-switching is more rampant in informal discourse, it is also

used in formal settings. In a study by David (2003), the role and function of code-shift

(the use of different languages with different interlocutors) and code-switches (moving

35

from one language to another with the same speaker) occur often in Malaysian court

rooms. She explains that

“…..as Malaysians have different levels of fluency in different language, they

would consequently be obligated to code-switch to convey meaning effectively.

However,………… at times there is a genuine linguistic gap between interlocutors, which

warrant the use of code-switching, it cannot be assumed code-switching and code-

shifting is always triggered by differing levels of proficiency.”

David (2003;18)

Her study shows that,

“……….language choice and the use of mixed discourse in the Malaysian

courts are triggered to achieve a range of strategic and professional objectives.”

David (2003;19)

In another study on code-switching in Malaysian service encounters, David

(1999) used the concept of linguistic strategies of convergence and divergence (Giles,

Taylor and Bourhis, 1973) to analyse the choice of languages used in trading

encounters.

She found that language convergence rather than language divergence was

rampant as negotiation was the goal of both the buyer and seller. She concluded that the

result of such code accommodation is the emergence of a linguistic variety – which

should be seen a language in its own right or a hybrid variety in the Malaysian setting.

She states that the mixed discourse in the study satisfies the functions of convergence to

the speech variety of the speech partners but at the same time helps the speaker to

maintain his identity or ethnic boundary.

An educated Malay using bazaar or pidgin Malay with a less educated

interlocutor shows “budi bahasa” or good manners/upbringing by using appropriate

language (i.e. pidgin Malay) in Malaysian society. According to David (1999), the use

of English in the mixed discourse or standard Malay instead of pidgin Malay can also be

used to denote and signal status. She argues that code-switching has many functions and

36

is a valuable resource in both intra and inter ethnic interactions. It is a resource by

which a range of social meanings is expressed. According to her, code-switching is

often used as a distancing strategy, for intimacy, as a repair strategy, as an awareness of

being members of an ethnic community, and a resource to mitigate a face-threatening

act or to withhold information in a discourse. In the Malaysian service encounters, code-

switching is seen as

“……….a socio-psychological accommodative strategy where both buyers and

sellers, despite not having much proficiency in the other’s language, may attempt by the

use of this linguistic device to some extent to identify with the customers’ ethnicity and

language preferences.”

(David 1999;5)

In this study, David (1999;5) defines speech convergence as “a general strategy

by which an individual adapts to each other’s speech and non-verbal behaviours on

many dimensions including language choice.” According to David, the notion of speech

convergence is based on the belief that it reflects a speaker’s motivation to gain social

approval. She states that Giles and Coupland empirically determined that

“the more effort in convergence a speaker was perceived to have made….

The more favourably the speaker was evaluated, and the more the listener would converge in return.”

(David,1999;6-7).

Although studies have shown that convergence does bring positive social

benefits that speakers anticipate, according to David, there are instances where

convergence may not always bring positive results. She cited an example when Malay

was used by an upper income car owner with a Malay attendant, the latter shifted to

English and stated that he could speak English. In this instance, English has elite

connotations and the convergence was viewed as a “put-me-down” (David, 1999;7).

Many reasons have been cited for linguistic convergence and divergence. Giles

and Johnson and Sachdev and Bourhis (1990) cited in David (1999;2) argued “that in

multilingual settings language may become one of the most salient dimensions of group

37

identity and as such it can be used to reduce, create or maintain intergroup

boundaries”. She argues that “according to the Communicative Accommodation Theory

(Giles et al, 1987) divergence is a function of a speaker’s desire for a distinctive self-

image, to disassociate from the interlocutor and to define the encounter in intergroup

terms” (David, 1999;2). It is a device used by a speaker to gain respect and approval

besides making himself or herself better understood. Jariah Mohd Jan (2003;46) argues

that,

“The linguistic signaling of power and solidarity can be seen as a way in which

an interlocutor locates himself in his social world when he speaks. As such, their access

and participation in the forums of society in the speech community is dependent on

knowing the linguistic signals and language used in a social context; and how using that

language power enables personal and social goals to be achieved.”

(Jariah, 2003;46)

In other words, the inability to do so may deny them access and participation in

the forums of society. Jariah Mohd Jan (2003) also argues that,

“In a multi-cultural society like Malaysia, effective communication means the

ability to correctly perceive the cultural nuances accompanying verbal and non-verbal

language. Effective communication can only take place when inter-ethnic, socio-cultural

as well as linguistic differences can be bridged in a language mutually comprehensible to

the participants”.

(Jariah, 2003;46).

An interlocutor, she says:

“…has to accommodate others and so the language choice for discourse is

linked with the interlocutor’s needs to earn the approval of the listener. In order to create

rapport with the listener, it is best to converge to the speech style of the listener”.

(Jariah, 2003;46).

Thus, we can say that language choice can signify the awareness of “the other”

and of “the self” in inter-group encounters. In other words, if using language mutually

comprehensible to the participants can bridge inter-ethnic, socio-cultural as well as

linguistic differences, language can also be used to increase inter-ethnic, socio-cultural

differences. We can also argue that linguistic convergence is an effort by multi-ethnic

Malaysian youth to win respect and approval and to make themselves better understood.

But if the youth chooses to diverge linguistically or exercise non-accommodation, it

could mean a conscious or unconscious attempt by these adolescents to signify ethnic

38

boundaries, intra-group solidarity, group isolation or separation from others, denying

others access or mutual participation in a discourse.

Linguistic divergence can signify a conscious or unconscious attempt to

segregate self from others or a conscious or unconscious self-isolation from other

groups. No accommodation and strong ethno-linguistic vitality in inter-ethnic

relationship could mean group separation in a multilingual setting. Although other

factors may also cause group separation or polarisation, language choice plays a

significant role in intra and inter-ethnic relationship in a multilingual, multiethnic

society like Malaysia. Language can be a factor in the formation of youth peer or

friendship groups. The finding in this research is therefore important as language choice

and attitude has many ramifications in a multiracial country.

2.2.2 Types of Code switching: situational and metaphorical code-switch

Auer (1990) in Rampton (1995: 276), stated that code switching which he terms

as ‘code alternation’, as a kind of ‘contextualisation cue’ and functions like prosodic

and gestural cues ……… ‘by which speakers signal and listeners interpret what the

activity is, how semantic content is to be understood and how each sentence relates to

what precedes or follows’ (Gumperz 1982 a: 131).

Blom and Gumperz (1972) on the other hand, made a distinction between

situational and metaphorical code-switching. According to these scholars, situational

code switching is governed by participants, setting and topic. David (2001: 52) cited an

example of this type of code switching by Gardner-Chloros (1991: 113).

39

An analysis of language choices of a family in Strasbourg, revealed that the

parents switched from Austrian to French depending on whether they talked to older

interlocutor or to their children Gardner-Chloros (1991: 113). However, situations alone

do not always determine language choice. Other factors such as speaker motivation also

come into play.

Gumperz (1982, a), gave examples of metaphorical or discourse code switching

which involves the switching of codes when citing or quoting a third party, repeating a

message in two codes for emphasis, switching to withhold information, as a distancing

strategy and for intimacy (cited in David, 2001: 53).

Holmes (2001; 40-41) provided an example of a skilled bilingual village

entrepreneur who uses code-switching between Buang and Tok Pisin for rhetorical

reasons. Buang, the local tribal language is used to emphasise his membership of the

Buang community and his solidarity with them, while Tok Pisin, a valuable lingua

franca and an official language, is used to emphasise his role as a skilled businessman

with contacts in the outside world of money and marketing as well as his superior

knowledge and experience as a man of the wider world. Each code represents a set of

social meanings.

The speaker draws on the associations of each code, just as people use metaphor

to represent complex meanings. The deployment of language choices and the use of

code-switching in this case becomes an art or a creative communicative strategy for a

specific purpose. Thus, situations alone do not always determine language choice. Other

factors such as speaker motivation, emphasising group membership, distancing,

purposeful use for comic effect and citing a third party also influence language choices.

40

2.2.3 Language Crossing

There is another kind of code switching which Rampton (1995) terms as ‘code-

crossing’ in his now famous book Crossing: Language And Ethnicity Among

Adolescents. According to Rampton, code-switching is usually seen as a device used to

affirm participants’ claim to membership and the solidarity of a group in contrast to

outsiders. The focus of his study, however, was on the use of code switching by people

who are not accepted members of the group associated with the second language they

use. This linguistic phenomenon he calls “crossing” is concerned with switching into

languages that are not generally thought as belonging to the speaker. There is a clear

sense of movement across social or ethnic boundaries.

Rampton describes language crossing as the use of language varieties associated

with social or ethnic groups that the speaker does not normally ‘belong’ to (Rampton,

1995;14). In his ground-breaking study of sociolinguistic processes in urban youth

culture in a multiethnic neighbourhood in a town in the South Midlands of England,

Rampton provided examples of the use of Punjabi by adolescents of African-Caribbean

and Anglo descent, the use of Creole by Punjabi and Anglo youths, and the use of

stylized Indian English by adolescents of Anglo and African-Caribbean descent. He

describes the use of crossing in three different situational contexts adolescent

interaction with adults, informal peer-peer interaction and interaction focused around

performance art (Rampton, 1999; 30).

In his study, he found that language crossing often constitutes an anti-racist

practice and is emblematic of young people striving to redefine their identities. They use

mixed code to contest racial boundaries and assert a new deracinated ethnicity.

41

The following chapter will describe the methodology used in this study. It will

describe the research design used and provide information pertaining to the collection of

the data for analysis.

42

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter will provide a description of the research design used in this case

study. The investigative approach used in this study is both qualitative and quantitative.

In order to study the language choices of Malaysian youth, a multi-fold methodology of

a questionnaire, recordings and observation were used. Although the application of

multi-fold methodology in one research entails a lot more time and work for the

researcher, it was deemed necessary to obtain a fuller understanding of the linguistic

choices of this speech community. A questionnaire is used to provide a macro-

perspective of their linguistic choices while the fieldwork of recording and observation

was used to provide a micro-perspective and a deeper understanding of these choices.

These are discussed in detail below.

3.2 The Research Site

The primary data for this research was collected from respondents in a premier

urban school in the city of Ipoh which has a total enrolment of 2197 students ranging

from Form One to Upper Six as of April 2006 (not including the lower sixth class which

begins in July). The Form 1 and Form 2 classes were in the afternoon session while the

upper forms of Form 3, 4, 5, Lower and Upper 6 classes were in the morning session.

The students are mainly boys. Girls are admitted only in the Form 6 classes. Like most

missionary schools, the medium of instruction was initially English until the switch to

Bahasa Malaysia in accordance with the National Education Policy in 1982. The school

has a mixed ethnic student population which is suitable for this research. (see Figure

1.1)

43

3.3 Respondents of the study

The respondents in this case study were from the Form Four classes studying in

the morning session. All the 365 students in Form 4 were boys. There were a total of

nine classes in Form 4, of which six were Science stream classes and three were Arts

stream classes. 103 boys were of Malay descent, 129 of Chinese descent, 132 of Indian

descent and 1 of Semai descent.

Although the Malays are the dominant group in the country, in this setting, the

Indians formed the biggest group, followed by the Chinese. However, within the Malay

group there was one student from the indigenous community who does not see himself

as Malay. Likewise, within the Indian group, there were a number of Punjabi boys who

do not see themselves as Indians but as Punjabi. Although it is common practice in

Malaysia to group indigenous people such as the Kadazan and the Semai as Malay and

the Punjabi as Indians however, in this school, the Kadazan and Semai students do not

see themselves as Malays and Punjabi students do not see themselves as Indians. The

minority groups like the Punjabi, Kadazan and Semai in this school see themselves as

separate groups. The Form 4 student’s ethnic composition was as follows:

Table 3.1

Total number of Students in Form 4

Class Malay Chinese Indians Others Total

4 Science 1 2 23 17 0 42

4 Science 2 7 19 19 0 45

4 Science 3 9 25 11 0 45

4 Science 4 15 18 13 0 46

4 Science 5 9 14 21 0 44

4 Science 6 11 12 19 1 43

4 Arts 1 23 5 6 0 34

4 Arts 2 18 7 11 0 36

4 Arts 3 9 18 15 0 29

Total 103 129 132 1 365

44

A total of 121 (about one third or 33%) of the Form Four boys from this

controlled secondary school were invited to participate in the survey. About one third of

the students from each major ethnic group, namely the Malays, the Chinese and the

Indians, took part in the survey.

3.3.1 The Sampling Procedure

The Form 4 students were selected as respondents in compliance with the

conditions set by The Educational Planning and Research Division, Ministry of

Education which states that only students from non-examination classes may be

involved in a research study. This means that the Form 3 students who were preparing

for the Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR), the Form 5 students who were involved in

the Malaysian Certificate Examination (SPM) and the Upper Six students who were

getting ready for the Malaysian Higher Certificate Examination (STPM) were not

eligible to participate in the study.

The researcher did not use sampling procedures such as random sampling or

selective sampling procedure in the strict sense. Instead, a request was made to the

school authority for 121 Form 4 students. The number of students required in each

major ethnic group (about 33%) was clearly stated in the request by the researcher to the

school authority. It was left to the Principal, the Senior Assistant of Student Affairs

(Penolong Kanan Hal Ehwal Murid) and the counseling teacher to assign the classes and

the students for the survey. In other words, the decision on who gets selected as

respondents for the survey was not determined by the researcher but by the school

authority based on the availability of the students in the Form 4 classes on the day the

survey was conducted. It was agreed that the respondents for the survey would be taken

from any Form 4 classes which were available on the day. Students in classes which

45

were not involved in any prearranged activities such as educational talks, contests,

physical education lessons, or lessons in the science laboratory were invited to

participate in the survey. This process was carried out until the required number for

each ethnic group was fulfilled. The students involved in the survey were as follows:

Table 3.2

No. of Respondents According to their Ethnicity

Class Malay Chinese Indians Total

4 Science 1 - - 3 3

4 Science 2 4 8 18 30

4 Science 3 7 20 9 36

4 Science 4 10 14 12 36

4 Science 5 - - - -

4 Science 6 - 1 - 1

4 Arts 1 1 - - 1

4 Arts 2 4 - - 4

4 Arts 3 8 - 2 10

No. of respondents 34 43 44 121

3.3.2 Profile of the respondents’ Primary Education

There is always a close correlation between education and linguistic repertoire.

People the world over have expanded their linguistic repertoire because of the languages

that they learn or acquired in the schools they attended as children or as an adult. The

impact of education on the linguistic repertoire of a person is therefore very significant.

In Malaysia, one of the strategies of promoting national unity and nation-

building is through the use of the National Language. English, on the other hand, is used

as a link to the rest of the world (see 1.2.1 for more information on the sociolinguistic

profile of Malaysians). The impact of these two languages on the linguistic repertoire

of the school children is thus very significant. Therefore a description of the primary

education of the Malaysian youth in this study must be provided before any attempt to

analyse and describe their language choices can begin (see 1.2.2 for more information

on Malaysian schools).

46

In this case study, 13.4% of the respondents attended the National primary

schools and 80.3% attended former missionary primary schools where the medium of

instruction is Malay, 3.1% attended Chinese primary schools where the medium of

instruction is Mandarin, 2.4% the Tamil primary schools where the medium of

instruction is Tamil and 0.8% an International school where the medium of instruction

is English.

Among the Malay respondents, 70.6% of them in this study attended former

missionary schools for their primary school education where English is more widely

spoken. The remaining 29.4% attended the National primary school where Malay is

more widely used.

The majority of the Chinese respondents (88.4%) also attended former

missionary schools, an English-speaking environment; 2.3% attended the National

primary school, a Malay speaking environment, 2.3% attended the International school

where English is the medium of instruction and 7.0% attended Chinese primary school

where Mandarin is widely spoken.

The majority of the Indian respondents (84.1%) attended former mission

schools, 9.1% the national schools and 6.8% attended Tamil primary schools where

Tamil is the dominant language (see Table 3.3 below).

Table 3.3

Profile of Respondents’ Primary Education

Ethnic Groups

Schools

Malay Chinese Indians Total

No % No % No % No %

National (SK) 10 29.4 1 2.3 4 9.1 15 12.4

Mission (SRK) 24 70.6 38 88.4 37 84.1 99 81.8

Chinese [SRJK (C)] - - 3 7.0 - - 3 2.5

Tamil [SRJK (T)] - - - - 3 6.8 3 2.5

International - - 1 2.3 - - 1 0.8

Total 34 100 43 100 44 100 121 100

47

3.4 Research Instruments

The main method employed in this case study is the survey method. This method

is chosen for several reasons. The survey method using a questionnaire has long been

known to be an effective and inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large

number of respondents. The standardised instructions and the structured responses in the

questionnaire are additional advantages of using this methodology. It is relatively

objective in nature and requires only a brief moment to respond to the questions. This

helps the respondents to stay focused and is especially useful with a captive audience

like the respondents in this case study.

This case study which is a data driven sociolinguistic research aims to find

patterns of regularities in the language choices of Malaysian youth. It seeks to analyse

and describe the actual language used by Malaysian youth of various ethnic groups in

their daily interaction with their family members with their friends in the

neighbourhood, their teachers and friends in school.

3.4.1 Description of the Questionnaire

The questionnaire adapted from a number of sources (Azmah bt Ghaus, 2001;

David, 1996; Lam, 1992), is written in both Malay and English. The questionnaire has a

total of 53 items and is divided into two sections as follows:

Section A: Questions 1-15

48

This section entitled ‘Getting to know you’ consists of 15 questions and the aim

is to gather general information about the personal background of the respondents. The

purpose is to find out their age, ethnicity, primary education and other demographic

information. Such information is essential to make connections between response and

ethnicity.

Section B: Questions 16 – 53

This section is entitled ‘Getting To Know Your Language Habits’ consists of 38

questions. The purpose is to determine the language choices of the respondents in the

domains of home, neighbourhood and school. Respondents are asked to choose one of

the options provided by putting a tick (√) (see Appendix A). The objective of this

section is to collect the data necessary to enable the researcher to analyse the pattern of

language choices among the respondents in the different domains with different

interlocutors. Questions 18 to 23 seek information on the language choices in the home

domain with different members of the family. Questions 24 to 29 are designed to reveal

the patterns of language choices with Malay, Chinese, and Indian peers and shopkeepers

in the neighbourhood. Questions 30 to 41 enquire about their language choices when

they interact with Malay, Chinese and Indian teachers and friends in school. Questions

42 to 44 and questions 48 to 50 are designed to reveal language choices for bonding

while questions 45 to 47 and questions 51 to 53 are aimed at revealing the language

choice for divergence.

3.4.2 Recordings

The second major data gathering tool was the MP3 digital-microphone

recordings. Through the contact with one of the informants known to the researcher,

49

four Form 4 boys were selected as informants and were asked to wear the recording

device. They were told briefly that this was a language study project for a Masters

Degree programme and their co-operation was needed. They were also told how the

operation would be carried out but they were not told what they researcher was looking

for in the data.

The informants were told that they would be equipped with a miniature MP3

digital recorder and their duty was to leave the recorder on as they went about their

usual routine. They were instructed to hang it round their neck and put the recorder into

their shirt pocket.

The informants were given the MP3 player before school started in the morning

and were told to return it after break. The researcher then listened to the recording

together with the informant at the school library so as to elicit information from the

informant regarding the setting, the interlocutors, and the topic captured in the

recordings.

Scholars have acknowledged that this kind of live data can provide much social

and linguistic information about peer or friendship group interaction and verbal

exchanges (Rampton, 1999). The purpose is to use the information to cross-validate the

findings and patterns from the survey and the observations made by the researcher.

3.4.3 Observation

While the recording was in progress, the researcher took field notes of verbal

exchanges of students at various locations such as the assembly ground, the school field,

along the corridor, at the school canteen and at the school library. The researcher spent

50

four weeks from 10 April 2006 to 5 May 2006 observing students and noting down their

verbal exchanges. The verbal exchanges between the school prefects on duty and the

students were also noted as well as the verbal exchanges between the librarians on duty

and the students in the school library. The notes from the observation were used to

cross-validate the findings and patterns that emerge from the other sources of

information.

The main reason for using a multi-fold methodology is to gather information

from different sources. By using different sources of information, the researcher can

cross-validate findings, patterns and conclusions that emerge from the analysis of the

raw data collected in the study.

3.5 Pilot Study

A pilot study was carried out by the researcher to test the items in the

questionnaire and the equipment. Several recording devices (audio-visual devices) were

tested for their suitability and reliability as well as clarity of the recordings of the youth

in their natural settings. Before the questionnaire was administered to the study

respondents, a pilot study was carried out and as a result the questions refined.

Adjustments were made to some items based on the feedback from the participants in

the pilot study.

3.6 Limitation

Like other research, this case study has some limitations. In terms of the

participants, all the respondents in this study are boys who are currently studying in one

51

school. Therefore, it is gender biased. This research also only focuses on the three major

ethnic groups in the country in From 4 in a particular school in an urban setting. Other

ethnic groups are not included in the study due to time and other constraints. Only three

domains are selected for investigation. It is by no means an exhaustive study of the

social and linguistic behaviour of Malaysian youth but it hopes to provide and set the

impetus to other studies on this speech community.

3.7 Proper procedure for an academic exercise using school children.

Approval from various Government Departments must be obtained by the

researcher first before the academic exercise using school children can commence. The

proper procedure to obtain approval is in the following order:-

The Educational Planning and Research Division

Ministry of Education

The Perak State Education Department

The Principals of the target school

The Principal and the senior teachers were the ones who determine the time and

the duration to carry out the research in their school. The questionnaire was

administered with the help of the counseling teacher in June 2006.

The following chapters will present the findings and the description of the

deployment of language choices of the respondents in different domians. The analysis

will be divided into three separate chapters according to the domains and each section

52

will be followed by discussions and summary of each chapter. The discussions and

analysis will be based on the use of frequency count on all the responses and statements

in a table format.

CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS ON THE FINDINGS:

FOCUS ON THE FAMILY AND NEIGHBOURHOOD

4.1 Data Analysis

The aim of the data analysis in this and the subsequent chapters are to provide

answers to the following research questions:

1. Do the respondents use the national language, Malay, an international language,

English, or their respective ethnic languages or even a mixed discourse

consisting of more than one language?

2. What are their language choices during interactions with their family members,

friends and people from different linguistic, ethnic and cultural backgrounds in

their neighbourhood and their school?

3. Is there a significant difference in the language choices of the various ethnic

groups?

4. Is there a connection between language choices and ethnicity?

5. Do they practice code-switching or language crossing (which is the practice of

using a language variety that belongs to another group) when they mingle with

outsiders (i.e. not of the same ethnicity) in school (Rampton, 1995)?

This study analyses (a) the responses to the questionnaires from the 121

respondents on their language choices, (b) the language used within each friendship

groups by the informants and (c) the linguistic choices by these adolescents in relation

to their ethnicity. The focus of the findings and discussion in Chapter 4 is on the family

and neighbourhood domain. Chapter 5 will focus on the school domain while Chapter 6

53

will focus on the functions of the linguistic choices of these adolescents. Chapter 7 will

provide further insights from recordings and observations.

The most helpful part was undoubtly the findings from the questionnaire. They

helped the researcher to analyse the language choices of these adolescents in specific

domains with specific groups of people they interact with. The findings also provided

the necessary data to enable the researcher to see the link between ethnicity and

language choices of these adolescent in in-group and out-group interactions.

The recordings helped the researcher to establish the finer aspects of language

choice. They helped the researcher to set the range of ‘majority’ and ‘less’ as used in the

questionnaire (as in ‘majority English less Malay’). From the recordings, the researcher

was able to set the range of ‘majority’ as 80% and above whereas ‘less’ was set as 20%

or less. The observations, on the other hand, helped the researcher to cross-validate the

findings and patterns that emerged from the findings from the questionnaire.

4.2 Analysis of Questionnaire

The complete analysis for each item from Questions 16 to 50 in this

questionnaire can be seen in Appendix C (page 207). They are presented in the form of

tables. The figures in the columns do not equate to 100% because many of the

respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of

mixed-codes in their interactions with others.

4.2.1 Verbal Repertoire Then and Now (Q16 and Q17)

This section will present the analysis of the verbal repertoire of the adolescents

in this study. The objective is to determine the linguistic repertoire and language

54

preferences of each ethnic group before we proceed to examine the link between the

languages they choose to use and the languages in their verbal repertoire when they

interact with different interlocutors in different domains.

4.2.1.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth Then and Now

All the Malay respondents (100%) used their mother tongue as children. Out of

the 34 Malays, 3 of the respondents (8.8%) used exclusively Malay and no other

languages as children. Another 3 (8.8%) of the respondents said they used stand alone

English in their childhood. However, a large majority (91.2%) used a mixed code of

majority Malay less English as children and only 5.9% used a mixed-code of majority

English less Malay. This suggests that English, an important second language in the

country, is not being used much by this ethnic group during their childhood although

they live in the state capital. The Malay adolescents in this study say they used almost

exclusively Malay as children. It indicates that the ethno-linguistic vitality of urban

Malays in this sample is high during their childhood then and now (see Table 4.1).

Table 4.1

Languages Choices of the Malay Youth Then and Now

No.

Then and Now

Language Choices

As children

(Then)

Currently

(Now)

No. % No %

1. Malay 34 100 34 100

2. English 3 8.8 9 26.9

3. Tamil - - 1 2.9

4. Terengganu dialect - - 1 2.9

5. Majority Malay less English 31 91.5 29 85.3

6. Majority English less Malay 2 5.9 4 11.8

7. Majority English less Tamil - - 1 2.9

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others.

In nos. 5, 6 and 7, the set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

The data also shows that currently all the Malay adolescents (100%) still

maintain the use of their mother tongue (see Table 4.1). 8.8% use stand alone English.

55

However, there is a marginal increase (from 8.8% to 26.9%) of the Malay respondents

using stand alone English. One of the respondents stated Tamil as one of the languages

he uses today and another respondent stated that he uses the Terengganu dialect. The

Malay adolescents still use mixed codes but there is a slight decline (from 91.2% to

85.3%) in the use of the majority Malay less English mode and an increase (from 5.9%

to 11.8%) in the use of the majority English less Malay combination.

This change in linguistic behaviour could be the result of their primary and

lower secondary school education where Malay and English are compulsory languages

(see Table 3.3). Most of the Malay respondents in this study had their primary school

education in former mission schools (70.6%) where English is widely spoken. Malay

continues to be the dominant language (100%) although there is a slight increase (from

8.8% to 26.9%) in the use of the English Language among the adolescents now

compared to when they were children. The emphasis on English in the Malaysian school

system seems to have had some impact on these respondents. However despite many

years of learning English as a subject in school, only 26.9 % use stand alone English

and 11.8% use majority English less Malay code switch. A large majority (85.3%) use

the majority Malay less English combination. This signifies that despite the emphasis on

English in the Malaysian school system the use of English by these respondents is

limited.

4.2.1.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth Then and Now

The majority of the Chinese adolescents (72.1%) used their mother tongue

(Cantonese) as children. Slightly more than half (53.5%) of the 43 Chinese respondents

said they used stand alone English during their childhood, 14% used stand alone

56

Mandarin, 4.7% used stand alone Malay but only 2.3% used stand alone dialect

(Teochew). However, there are 2 (4.7%) respondents who do not know Cantonese,

Mandarin or any Chinese dialect at all.

Table 4.2

Languages Choices of the Chinese Youth Then and Now

No.

Then and Now

Language Choices

As children

(Then)

Currently

(Now)

No. % No %

1. Malay 2 4.7 9 20.9

2. English 23 53.5 28 65.1

3. Mandarin 6 14.0 3 7.0

4. Cantonese 31 72.1 28 65.1

5. Teochew 1 2.3 1 2.3

6. Majority Malay less English 3 7.0 - -

7. Majority English less Malay 6 14.0 11 25.6

8. Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.3 1 2.3

9. Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3 1 2.3

10. Majority Mandarin less English 2 4.7 1 2.3

11. Majority Mandarin less Malay 1 2.3 1 2.3

12. Majority English less Mandarin 5 11.6 1 2.3

13. Majority Cantonese less English 18 41.9 11 25.6

14. Majority Cantonese less Malay 11 25.6 7 16.3

15. Majority English less Cantonese 11 25.6 20 46.5

16. English, Japanese, Mandarin mixed - - 1 2.3

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others.

In nos. 6 to 16, the set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20%

and below.

One of them used mainly stand alone English and majority English less Malay

code-mix. Although English is not his mother tongue, it has become his first language.

This linguistic behaviour is an emerging phenomenon in Malaysia where English is

widely used in urban areas (see Asmah, 2003:100). The other, whose mother is an

Indian, uses mainly stand alone English and majority English less Tamil code-mix (see

Table 4.2).

Using mixed-codes appears to be a popular practice even as children for this

ethnic group. 41.9 % used majority Cantonese less English combination or mixed-code

57

as children but 25.6% used majority Cantonese less Malay. 25.6% used majority

English less Cantonese and 11.6% used majority English less Mandarin combination.

There are also those in this ethnic group who use majority English less Malay

mixed-code (14.0%), majority Malay less English (7.0%), majority Mandarin less

English (4.7%) and majority Mandarin less Malay (2.3%) combination. There is one

respondent who uses majority Tamil less Malay and majority English less Tamil mixed

code. This means that the ethnolinguistic vitality (see Ramachandran, 2000) of this

ethnic group is not as high as the Malay group.

As a group, the Chinese are more diverse in their verbal repertoire, a common

effect of a less dominant group living in a multilingual and multi-ethnic society. There

is also a decline in the use of other Chinese dialects such as Hokkien or Teochew in

favour of Cantonese, a local dialect in Ipoh. English and Cantonese appear to be the

preferred languages among the Chinese families but Cantonese is the more dominant

childhood language of the Chinese respondents.

When a comparison is made between the language used as children and the

languages used as adolescents, the data shows a marked increase (from 4.7% to 20.9%)

in the use of stand alone Malay. There is also an increase (from 53.5% to 65.1%) in the

use of stand alone English. This is obviously the outcome of the Malaysian school

system where Malay, the National Language is the medium of instruction, and English,

an important second language in Malaysian schools. There is a decrease in the use of

Mandarin from 14% to 7% and a drop in the use of the major dialect Cantonese from

72.1% to 65.1%.

58

There are some major changes in the use of the mixed-codes too. The data

shows a clear increase in the use of the majority English less Cantonese mixed-code

from 25.6% to 46.5% and a decrease in the use of the majority Cantonese less English

mixed-code from 41.9% to 25.6%. This means that there is an increase in the use of

English and a decline in the use of the mother tongue, Cantonese, amongst the Chinese

youth in this setting. The rise in the use of English for this ethnic group can also be seen

in other mixed-code combinations. There is an increase in the use of the majority

English less Malay combination from 14.0% to 25.6% and a drop in the use of majority

Malay less English combination (from 7.0% to 0%).

What is evident in this adolescent group is that the majority are multilingual,

having three or more languages in their verbal repertoire. They are equally proficient in

Cantonese and English. The National Language is not their preferred language. These

adolescents seem to place higher value on Cantonese, their ethnic language and English,

the International Language than Malay.

4.2.1.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth Then and Now

The majority of the Indian adolescents (75.0%) used stand alone Tamil as

children, 63.6% used stand alone English and 11.4% used Malay (see Table 4.3). 9

respondents (20.1%) did not use stand alone Tamil as children. 2 respondents (4.5%)

used no other languages except English as children and continue to do so even today.

These adolescents are examples of individuals in Malaysia who use English as their

mother tongue instead of the parents’ language (see Asmah, 2003:100).

Like the other ethnic groups, code-mixing is a common practice amongst these

adolescents. The majority (54.5%) used majority Tamil less English as children, 22.7%

59

used majority English less Tamil, 22.7% used majority English less Malay, 20.5% used

majority Tamil less Malay but only 6.8% used majority Malay less English in their

childhood. This means that Tamil is more widely used as children than English by the

Indian respondents.

Table 4.3

Languages Choices of the Indian Youth Then and Now

No.

Then and Now

Language choices

As children

(Then)

Currently

(Now)

No. % No %

1. Malay 5 11.4 17 38.7

2. English 28 63.6 34 77.3

3. Tamil 33 75.0 27 61.4

4. Cantonese - - 1 2.3

5. Telugu dialect 1 2.3 1 2.3

6. Malayalam dialect 1 2.3 - -

7. Majority Malay less English 3 6.8 3 6.8

8. Majority English less Malay 10 22.7 13 29.5

9. Majority Tamil less English 24 54.5 20 45.5

10. Majority Tamil less Malay 9 20.5 6 13.6

11. Majority English less Tamil 10 22.7 13 29.5

12. Majority English less Punjabi - - 1 2.3

13. Majority English less Cantonese - - 1 2.3

14. Majority Telugu less English 1 2.3 1 2.3

15. Majority English less Telugu - - 1 2.3

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others.

The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

There is a clear decline in the use of stand alone Tamil from 75.0% as children

to 61.4% as adolescents. One of the youth in this group has acquired Cantonese, a

positive result of interracial mixing in his neighbourhood and in school. English appears

to be the preferred language of these adolescents. This is indicated in the increase in the

use of stand alone English from 63.6% to 77.3%, highest amongst the three major ethnic

groups. There is also an increase in the use of Malay from 11.4% to 38.6%, another

evidence of the impact of Malay being the medium of instruction.

The use of the mixed-code of majority Malay less English remained unchanged

but there is a slight increase in the majority English less Malay combination from 22.7%

to 29.5%. The majority Tamil less English code-mixing has dropped from 54.5% to

60

45.5%, and so has the majority Tamil less Malay combination from 20.5% to 13.6%. In

contrast, the use of majority English less Tamil combination has increased from 22.7%

to 29.5%. This again suggests that English has gained popularity amongst the Indian

youth. The data shows a healthy attitude towards English and Malay as well as their

mother tongue (Tamil) in this ethnic group. The respondent who uses Cantonese also

uses a mixed-code of majority English less Cantonese combination. Another respondent

claims he uses majority English less Punjabi combination. This is a rare occurrence but

not unusual in a multilingual society like Malaysia (see David, Naji, and Kaur, 2003 on

the Punjabi community in the Klang Valley and the Language choices). The lone

respondent who uses majority Telugu less English has changed to the use of majority

English less Telugu combination. Here again we see yet another evidence of English as

the preferred language amongst the Indian youth. The data shows that the Indian youth

are using more English and Malay now in addition to Tamil.

4.2.2 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth in the Family

Domain (Q18-23)

As we have seen earlier in the literature review, the theoretical construct of

domain is useful for capturing broad general pictures about a speech community

because it draws upon three important social factors in language choices – participants,

setting and topic (see Holmes 2001: 23). By using this theoretical framework, it is now

possible to summarise the norms of language use or language choices of Malaysian

youth from the raw data. Explicit models will be used to provide a clear basis for

comparing patterns of language choices in different ethnic groups in this speech

community.

61

For this case study, the variables that are used in analysing the language choices

of these adolescents are domains, respondents, ethnicity and settings. In this study,

topics will be taken as general conversation of the youth with members of the family in

the family domain, transactional exchanges with the shopkeepers in their

neighbourhood, and friendly exchanges with their peers.

4.2.2.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth in the Family Domain

91.2% use Malay with their parents. In addition to Malay, 88.2% also use

majority Malay less English code-switch, and 14.7% use stand alone English with their

parents. Only 5.9% of the respondents use majority English less Malay combination

with their parents.

The data shows that 94.1% of the respondents use Malay when they speak to

their older brothers and sisters at home (see Appendix C: Q 18, page 207) and 91.2% of

the respondents use Malay with their younger siblings. In addition to Malay, 82.4% also

use majority Malay less English code-mix with both their older and younger siblings.

Only 2.9% use English and another 2.9% use majority English less Malay combination

with their elder siblings but with their younger siblings, 26.5% use stand alone English.

The data seems to suggest that more of the respondents use English with their younger

siblings than with their older ones.

Table 4.4

Language Choices of the Malay Youth in the Family Domain

Setting At Home

Language

Choices

Addressee

Father Mother Older

Siblings

Younger

Siblings

Grand-

father

Grand-

mother

Malay 91.2% 91.2% 94.1% 91.2% 94.1% 97.1%

Mal>Eng 88.2% 88.2% 82.4% 82.4% 82.4% 79.4%

English 14.7% 14.7% 2.9% 26.5% 2.9% 2.9%

Eng>Mal 5.9% 5.9% 2.9% 2.9% - -

Tamil>Mal - - - - - 2.9%

62

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others.

94.1% use stand alone Malay with their grandfathers and 97.1% use stand alone

Malay with their grandmothers. In addition, 82.4% use majority Malay less English

combination with their grandfather and 79.4% use majority Malay less English code-

switch with their grandmothers. 2.9% use stand alone English with their grandparents.

One respondent (2.9%) uses majority Tamil less Malay code with his maternal

grandmother who is of Indian descent. He, however, sees himself as a Malay.

From this table, we can see that the ethnolinguistic vitality of the Malay youth in

the family domain is very strong. The mother tongue is the dominant language choice

with all the addressee or interlocutors in their family. The highest is with grandmothers,

followed by grandfathers and older siblings, and finally with parents and younger

siblings.

Malay (91.2%)

Father

Majority Malay less English (88.2%)

English (14.7%)

Malay (91.2%)

Mother

Majority Malay less English (88.2%)

English (14.7%)

Malay (94.1%)

Older Siblings

Majority Malay less English (82.4%)

English (2.9%)

Malay youth

Malay (91.2%)

Younger Siblings

Majority Malay less English (82.4%)

English (26.5%)

Malay (94.1%)

Grandfather

Majority Malay less English (82.4%)

English (2.9%)

Malay (97.1%)

Grandmother

Majority Malay less English (79.4%)

English (2.9%)

Figure 4.1

Deployment of Language Choices of Malay Youth with Family Members in the Home Domain

63

Figure 4.1 shows that stand alone Malay and majority Malay less English

mixed-code are the main language choices of the Malay youth in the home domain with

members of the family. Malay is the medium of communication for these adolescents in

the family domain.

Code-switching is practiced by this ethnic group even in the home domain.

According to the analysis, majority Malay less English code-switch is the second most

dominant language choice used in their home domain in addition to stand alone Malay.

Stand alone English is a poor third and is used with their younger siblings and parents.

It is not a major language choice with their older siblings and grandparents.

4.2.2.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth in the Family Domain

51.2% chose to use Cantonese, 44.2% chose English, 37.2% chose majority

Cantonese less English, and 25.6% chose majority English less Cantonese combination

with their fathers. Although there are other choices, they are less significant. Only

11.6% chose to use majority Cantonese less Malay, 9.3% chose majority Mandarin less

English combination, another 9.3% chose other dialects (one Hokkien, two Hakka, and

one Teochew) with their fathers.

The majority (62.8%) chose Cantonese as the language to converse with their

mothers. 44.2% chose to use English, another 44.2% use majority Cantonese less

English, and 23.3% use majority English less Cantonese combination. The less

significant choices are majority Cantonese less Malay code-mix (14.0%), majority

64

English less Malay (11.6%), majority Mandarin less English combination (9.3%),

Mandarin (9.3%), majority English less Mandarin (7.0%) and other dialects (6.9%).

Table 4.5

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth in the Family Domain

Setting At Home

Language

Choices

Addressee

Father Mother Older Siblings

Younger Siblings

Grand- father

Grand- mother

Cantonese 51.2 62.8 62.8 55.8 41.9 65.1

English 44.2 44.2 53.5 48.8 6.9 14.0

Mandarin 7.0 9.3 10.7 6.9 - 4.7

Malay 2.3 4.7 9.3 2.3 - -

Cantonese> Eng 37.2 44.2 44.2 39.5 23.3 30.2

Eng>Cantonese 25.6 23.3 23.0 23.2 4.7 4.7

English>Malay 7.0 11.6 18.6 9.3 - 2.3

Cantonese>Malay 11.6 14.0 18.6 13.9 4.7 11.6

Eng>Mandarin 4.7 7.0 11.6 9.3 - -

Mandarin>Eng 9.3 9.3 4.6 4.7 2.3 -

Mandarin>Malay 2.3 2.3 4.6 2.3 - -

English>Tamil - - 2.3 2.3 - -

Teochew dialect 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 4.7

Hakka dialect 4.7 2.3 - 2.3 6.9 6.9

Hokkien dialect 2.3 2.3 - - 2.3 2.3

Hockchew dialect - - - - - 2.3

English>Hokkien - 2.3 - - - - Mandarin>Teochew - 2.3 - - - -

Not available 2.3 - 4.7 6.9 37.2 11.6

Note: One of the respondents (2.3%) no longer has his father (deceased), 4.7% do not have older sibling,

6.9% do not have younger sibling, 37.2% no longer have their grandfathers (deceased), and 11.6% no longer have their grandmothers (deceased). The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

A number of dialects are used with mothers in this group, 2.3% for each of the

following dialects: Teochew, Hakka, Hokkien, majority English less Hokkien and

majority Mandarin less Teochew combination. Cantonese remains the dominant dialect

in this setting.

The languages that the adolescents in this ethnic group chose to use with their

older siblings are diverse. 62.8% of the respondents chose Cantonese as the main

language when they interact with their older siblings at home. In addition to Cantonese,

53.5% chose to use English, 44.2% chose majority Cantonese less English combination

and 23.3% chose to use majority English less Cantonese code-switch when they speak

65

to their older siblings. Only 18.6% chose to use majority English less Malay

combination, another 18.6% chose majority Cantonese less Malay, 11.6% chose to use

majority English less Mandarin combination, 9.3% chose stand alone Mandarin and

another 9.3% chose to use stand alone Malay with their older siblings. 4.7% chose

majority English less Mandarin and majority Mandarin less English combinations. Only

one respondent chose to speak in Teochew with his older siblings. However, one of the

respondents (2.3%) used majority English less Tamil combination. This respondent is

able to use some Tamil because he interacts with many Indians both in school and in his

neighbourhood.

With the younger siblings, the language choice is just as diverse but the majority

(55.8%) chose to use Cantonese. 48.8% chose to use stand alone English, 39.5% chose

the majority Cantonese less English combination and 23.3% chose to use majority

English less Cantonese combination. In contrast, the language choices for other

languages and mixed-code are significantly lower. Only 14.0% use majority Cantonese

less Malay combination, 9.3% use majority English less Mandarin mixed-code, another

9.3% use majority English less Malay mixed-code, 7.0% use stand alone Mandarin,

4.7% use majority Mandarin less English combination, and 4.7% (one Teochew and the

other Hakka) use other dialects with their younger siblings.

The Chinese youth rarely chose to speak Malay, Tamil, majority English less

Tamil and majority Mandarin less Malay with the younger siblings. The analysis shows

only 2.3% (i.e. one respondent) for each of these choices. Hence, the dominant

languages the Chinese youth chose to speak to their younger siblings are Cantonese,

English, majority Cantonese less English code-switch and majority English less

Cantonese combination.

66

41.9% of the Chinese youth use Cantonese when they speak to their

grandfathers. Only 7.0% use English but 23.3% use majority Cantonese less English

combination. 4.7% claim that they use majority Cantonese less English code-mix and

another 4.7% say that they use majority Cantonese less Malay code-mix. This suggests

that some of the youth may not be very competent in Cantonese and rely on the use of

some English or Malay words to convey meanings to their grandfathers (see David

2001; 124).

Verbal interactions with the grandmothers are mainly in Cantonese, the

dominant local Chinese dialect. It constitutes 65.1%. However, only 14.0% use stand

alone English with their grandmothers. 30.2% use majority Cantonese less English

code-mix, 11.6% use majority English less Malay code-mix, 4.7% majority English less

Cantonese code-mix and 2.3% the majority English less Malay code mix. Only 4.7%

use stand alone Mandarin with their grandmothers. However, the use of dialects is

higher with the grandmothers than all the other addressees in the family domain. It has a

total of 16.2% out of which 6.9% is Hakka, 4.7% Teochew, 2.3% each for Hokkien and

Hockchew respectively. The following is a diagram of the language choices of the

Chinese adolescents with family members at home.

The data clearly shows that the linguistic repertoire of this speech community is

more diverse than the Malay youth in terms of the number of languages and dialects

used. However, Cantonese, English, and majority Cantonese less English combination

appears to be most frequently used in the family domain by the youth of Chinese

descent.

67

Cantonese (51.1%)

Father

English (44.2%)

Majority Cantonese less English (37.2%)

Cantonese (62.8%)

Mother

English (44.2%)

Majority Cantonese less English (44.2%)

Cantonese (62.8%)

Older Siblings

English (53.5%)

Majority Cantonese less English (44.3%)

Chinese youth

Cantonese (55.8%)

Younger Siblings

English (48.8%)

Majority Cantonese less English (39.3%)

Cantonese (41.9%)

Grandfather

Majority Cantonese less English (23.3%)

English (6.9%) Hakka (6.9%)

Cantonese (65.1%)

Grandmother

Majority Cantonese less English (30.2%)

English (14.0%)

Figure 4.2

Deployment of Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with Family Members in the Home Domain

From the data, we can see that the ethnolinguistic vitality of the Chinese youth

in the family domain is not as strong as their Malay counterparts. The mother tongue

(Cantonese) and an international language, English, are almost equally dominant

language choices with siblings and parents. Other dialects besides Cantonese are used in

the family domain but only by a small number of the respondents. The use of dialects is

highest with grandmothers, followed by grandfathers, older siblings, and finally with

parents and younger siblings. Among them, Hakka is more widely used followed by

Teochew, Hokkien and Hockchew.

Code-switching is also practiced by this ethnic group in the home domain.

According to the analysis, majority Cantonese less English code-switch is one of the

dominant language choices used in their home domain followed by majority English

less Cantonese. The other code-switching language choices used by this ethnic group in

68

the home domain are majority English less Malay, majority Cantonese less Malay,

majority English less Mandarin, majority Mandarin less English, majority Mandarin less

Malay, majority English less Tamil and majority English less Hokkien code switch. It

must be noted that the use of mixed codes is more frequent with sibling and parents than

with their grandparents. Stand alone English is widely used with their younger siblings

and parents but it is not a major language choice with their grandparents.

The analysis show that stand alone Cantonese, stand alone English and majority

Cantonese less English mixed-code are the main language choices of the Chinese youth

in the home domain. It clearly shows that language choices vary according to their

interlocutors.

4.2.2.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth in the Family Domain

With their fathers, many of the Indian adolescents (68.2%) chose Tamil as the

language for interaction and 70.5% of them communicate with their mothers in Tamil.

65.9% chose English as the language to interact with their parents. Only two

respondents (4.5%) use Telegu to speak to their fathers but only one (2.3%) uses Telegu

with his mother. 9.1% use Malay with their mothers but only 4.5% use Malay with their

fathers.

Code-switching is used in this domain. 43.2% use the majority Tamil less

English combination to interact with their fathers and 50.0% use this combination with

their mothers. The data shows that 22.7% use majority English less Tamil combination

with their fathers and 27.3% use this code-mix with their mothers. 15.9% use the

majority Tamil less Malay combination with their parents. 9.1% use the majority

English less Malay combination with their fathers while 13.6% use this combination

69

with their mothers. Only one respondent (2.3%) uses the majority Malay less English

code-switch with his father but two respondents (4.5%) use this type of code-switch

with their mothers. Only one respondent uses majority English less Punjabi with his

father and older siblings. Another respondent (2.3%) uses majority English less Telegu

mixed-code with his father and older siblings. One respondent (2.3%) uses Majority

Cantonese less Malay combination with his mother. The analysis shows that code-

switching is used by these respondents at home.

Table 4.6

Language Choices of the Indian Youth in the Family Domain

Setting At Home

Language

Choices

Addressee

Father Mother Older

Siblings

Younger

Siblings

Grand-

father

Grand-

mother

Tamil 68.2 70.5 70.5 65.9 65.9 79.5

English 65.9 65.9 65.9 65.9 27.3 25.0

Malay 4.5 9.1 11.4 9.1 6.8 9.1

Telegu dialect 4.5 2.3 2.3 4.5 4.5 4.5 Malayalam dialect - - 2.3 - - -

Tamil>English 43.2 50.0 45.5 45.5 47.7 50.0

English>Tamil 22.7 27.3 22.7 25.0 9.1 11.4

Tamil>Malay 15.9 15.9 20.5 15.9 15.9 20.5

English>Malay 9.1 13.6 13.6 9.1 4.5 -

Malay>English 2.3 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 6.8

English>Punjabi 2.3 - 2.3 - - - English>Cantonese - - - 2.3 - -

English>Telegu 2.3 - 2.3 - - -

Telegu>English - - - 2.3 2.3 2.3 Malayalam>Tamil - - 2.3 - - -

Cantonese>Malay - 2.3 - - - - Not Available - - - 4.5 18.2 6.8

Note: 4.5% of the respondents do not have younger siblings, 18.2% no longer have their grandfathers (deceased) and 6.8% no longer have their grandmothers (deceased). The set

range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

70.5% of the Indian youth chose Tamil as the language to communicate with

their older siblings. In addition to Tamil, 65.9% chose English and 11.4% chose Malay

to communicate with older siblings. The analysis shows that besides Tamil, Telegu

(2.3%) and Malayam (2.3%) are used by Indian youth to speak with older siblings. Only

one respondent uses Telegu and only one respondent uses Malayalam. A fairly large

number of Indian adolescents in this setting use majority Tamil less English (45.5%)

70

code-switching when they converse with their older siblings. 22.7% use majority

English less Tamil code-switch, 20.5% use majority Tamil less Malay, 13.6% use

majority English less Malay, but only 4.5% use majority Malay less English code-

switch. One of the respondents (2.3%) uses the majority English less Punjabi

combination. Only one respondent (2.3%) uses the majority English less Telegu code-

mix and only one respondent uses the majority Malayalam less Tamil code-mix.

The linguistic choices of the Indian adolescents are equally complex when they

interact with their younger siblings. Tamil and English are very dominant languages in

the home domain. 65.9% of the Indian youth use these two languages with their younger

siblings in the home domain. Only 9.1% use Malay and only 4.5% use Telegu with

these interlocutors. 45.5% use the majority Tamil less English code-switch, 25.0% the

reverse, that is, the majority English less Tamil variety. 15.9% use the majority Tamil

less Malay combination while 9.1% use majority English less Malay. Only 4.5% (two

respondents) use the majority Malay less English code-switch with their younger

siblings. Only one respondent (2.3%) uses the majority English less Cantonese code-

mix with his younger siblings.

Tamil is the main language choice of the respondents when they communicate

with their grandparents. 65.9% uses Tamil with their grandfathers but more respondents

(79.5%) use their mother-tongue with their grandmothers. 27.3% use English with their

grandfathers while 25.0% of these adolescents use English with their grandmothers. A

small number of the respondents use Malay with their grandparents. 6.8% use Malay

with their grandfathers and 9.1% use this language with their grandmothers. Only two

respondents (4.5%) use Telegu with their grandparents.

71

Code-switching is also used by these adolescents with their grandparents. 47.7%

use majority Tamil less English combination with their grandfathers while 50.0% use

this mixed-code with their grandmothers. 9.1% of the respondents use majority English

less Tamil code-switch with their grandfathers while 11.4% use it with their

grandmothers. 15.9% said they use majority Tamil less Malay with their grandfathers

and 20.5% said they use this code-switch with their grandmothers. Two respondents

(4.5%) use majority English less Malay with their grandfathers. Two respondents

(4.5%) said they use majority Malay less English combination with their grandfathers

while 6.8% use this combination with their grandmothers. Only one respondent (2.3%)

use majority Telegu less English with his grandparents.

Tamil (68.2%)

Father

English (65.9%)

Majority Tamil less English (43.2%)

Tamil (70.5%)

Mother

English (65.9%)

Majority Tamil less English (50.0%)

Tamil (70.5%)

Older Siblings

English (65.9%)

Majority Tamil less English (45.5%)

Indian youth

Tamil (65.9%)

Younger Siblings

English (65.9%)

Majority Tamil less English (45.5%)

Tamil (65.9%)

Grandfather

Majority Tamil less English (47.7%)

English (27.4%)

Tamil (79.5%)

Grandmother

Majority Tamil less English (50.0%)

English (25.0%)

Figure 4.3

Deployment of Language Choices of Indian Youth with Family Members in the Home Domain

Like the Chinese, the Indian adolescents have a more diverse linguistic

repertoire than the Malay youth in terms of the number of languages and code switching

combinations. However, stand alone Tamil, English and Majority Tamil less English

72

combination appears to be the most frequently used languages by the Indian adolescents

in the family domain. Although Tamil and English and various kinds of code-switching

combinations are used, the language for communication varies according to the

addressee. Figure 4.3 shows of the language choices of the Indian adolescents with

family members at home.

From the data, we can see that the ethnolinguistic vitality of the Indian youth in

the family domain (about 70.0%) is stronger than their Chinese counterparts (about

57%) but not as strong as their Malay counterparts (around 93.2%). Tamil and English

are almost equally dominant language choices with siblings and parents in their family.

Code-switching is also practiced by this ethnic group in the home domain.

According to the analysis, majority Tamil less English code-switch is the one of the

dominant language choices used in their home domain. The other code-switching

language choices used by this ethnic group in the home domain are majority Tamil less

Malay, majority English less Tamil and majority Malay less English code switch. Stand

alone English is widely used with their siblings and parents but it is not a major

language choice with their grandparents.

4.2.3 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth in the

Neighbourhood Domain (Q24-28)

This section will provide the analysis of the language choices of the three major

ethnic groups with different interlocutors in their neighbourhood. It will describe the

language choices these adolescents make with their neighbourhood peers and with

shopkeepers of different ethnicities in their neighbourhood.

73

4.2.3.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Neighbourhood Peers

According to the data, the majority (97.1%) of the Malay youth in this setting

use Malay with their Malay peers in their neighbourhood. 82.4% use majority Malay

less English code switch but only 5.9% use English and 2.9% use majority English less

Malay combination.

Table 4.7

Language Choices of the Malay youth with their Neighbourhood Peers

Setting Neighbourhood

Language Choices

Addressee: peers

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 97.1 58.8 64.7

Majority Malay less English 82.4 44.1 52.9

English 5.9 35.3 29.4

Majority English less Malay 2.9 29.4 23.5

Not Available - 17.6 17.6

Note: 17.6% of the respondents do not have Chinese or Indian peers in their neighbourhood because they live in areas where the residents are predominantly Malays. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and

above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With their Chinese peers, 58.8% use Malay to converse, 44.1% use majority

Malay less English combination, 35.3% use English and 29.4% use majority English

less Malay code switch. 17.6% of the respondents do not have Chinese peers in their

neighbourhood.

64.7% of the Malay youth use Malay with their Indian peers, 52.9% use majority

Malay less English code switch, 29.4% use English, 23.5% use majority English less

Malay combination. 17.6% do not have Indian peers in their neighbourhood.

The analysis shows that the dominant linguistic choice of the Malay adolescents

when they interact with their Malay peers in the neighbourhood domain is stand alone

Malay followed by majority Malay less English combination. For intra-group

communication, their dominant language choices are stand alone Malay (97.1%) and

74

majority Malay less English (82.4%) code mix. The ethnolinguistic vitality is very high

for intra-group communication. This signifies strong group membership and identity.

For inter-ethnic group communication however, the dominant linguistic choices

are more diverse. Malay, majority Malay less English, English and majority English

less Malay variety are used to communicate with Chinese and Indian peers. The use of

Malay, however, is higher with their Indian peers (64.7%) than with their Chinese peers

(58.8%). Figure 4.4 shows the language choices of the Malay youth with their peers in

the neighbourhood.

Malay (97.1%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (82.4%)

English (5.9%)

Malay (58.8%) Malay youth

Chinese

Majority Malay less English (44.1%)

English (35.3%)

Malay (64.7%)

Indian

Majority Malay less English (52.9%)

English (29.4%)

Figure 4.4

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Peers in the Neighbourhood.

The analysis shows that only two respondents (5.9%) use stand alone English

with their Malay peers. Twelve of the thirty-four respondents in this group (35.4%) use

stand alone English with their Chinese peers and ten of them (29.4%) use English with

their Indian peers. This signifies very limited use of English by the Malay respondents

for inter-group interactions with their Chinese and Indian peers. The choice of English

as a language of communication is even more limited for intra-group interactions

amongst the Malay adolescents. The main language choice for both intra and inter-

group communication is their mother-tongue. This may be an indication that these

adolescents are generally not proficient in English.

75

4.2.3.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Neighbourhood Peers

The analysis shows that Cantonese is the dominant language in intra-group

communication for the Chinese youth in their neighbourhood. With their Chinese peers,

88.4% of the Chinese adolescents say that they use Cantonese, 44.2% use majority

Cantonese less English combination and 37.2% use stand alone English. 16.3% use

Mandarin, another 16.3% majority English less Cantonese code switch and 14.0% use

majority Cantonese less Malay mix.

Table 4.8

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Neighbourhood Peers

Setting Neighbourhood

Language Choices

Addressee: peers

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 46.5 - 34.9

English 27.9 37.2 51.2

Tamil - - 2.3

Mandarin - 16.3 -

Cantonese 9.3 88.4 -

Majority Malay less English 37.2 - 16.3

Majority English less Malay 7.0 2.3 18.6

Majority Tamil less Malay - 2.3 -

Majority English less Tamil 2.3 2.3 7.0

Majority Mandarin less English - 2.3 -

Majority Mandarin less Malay - 4.7 -

Majority English less Mandarin - 4.7 -

Majority Cantonese less English 7.0 44.2 -

Majority Cantonese less Malay 2.3 14.0 -

Majority English less Cantonese 2.3 16.3 -

Not Available 34.9 - 27.9

Note: 34.9% of the respondents do not have Malay peers in their neighbourhood and 27.9% of them do not have Indian peers because they live in areas where the residents are predominantly Chinese. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

The analysis shows that 46.5% of the Chinese adolescents use Malay with their

Malay peers in their neighbourhood, 37.2% use a mixed code of majority Malay less

English, 27.9% use stand alone English, 9.3% use Cantonese, 7.0% use the majority

English less Malay combination and another 7.0% use majority Cantonese less English.

2.3% of the Chinese respondents use majority English less Malay code switch, 2.3%

majority Cantonese less Malay and 2.3% majority English less Cantonese combination.

76

A large number of the respondents (34.9%) do not have Malay peers in their

neighbourhood. The use of Cantonese with members of the Malay group is an

interesting finding. Although the number is relatively small it signifies that some of the

Malay peers in their neighbourhood understand and use Cantonese. This could be

evidence of language-crossing practices amongst the adolescents even though rare.

The data shows that 51.2% of the Chinese adolescents use English with their

Indian peers in the neighbourhood. 34.9% say they use Malay while 18.6% say they use

majority English less Malay code switch and 16.3% use majority Malay less English

combination. 7.0% of the Chinese adolescents use majority English less Tamil code mix

and 2.3% use stand alone Tamil with their Indian peers in their neighbourhood. 27.9%

of the Chinese respondents say that they do not have Indian peers in their

neighbourhood. The data shows that English is the dominant linguistic choice for

communication between these two ethnic groups followed by Malay. The use of

majority English less Tamil by a small number of the Chinese respondents signifies the

practice of accommodation and language crossing. However, the number is very small

and not much can be said of this feature with this limited sample.

For intra-group communication, 88.4% of the Chinese youth use Cantonese.

This is a very high figure. It signifies strong group membership and identity amongst

the Chinese youth in their neighbourhood. 44.2% use majority Cantonese less English

and 37.2% use English. This signifies that the use of stand alone English and code

switch between Cantonese and English is a fairly common linguistic behaviour of the

Chinese adolescents in this setting. This indicates linguistic accommodation of code

preferences of their addressee with members of their own ethnic group. Figure 4.5

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shows the main language choices of the Chinese youth with their peers in the

neighbourhood.

Malay (46.5%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (32.2%)

English (27.9%)

Cantonese (88.4%)

Chinese youth

Chinese

Majority Cantonese less English (44.2%)

English (37.2%)

English (51.2%)

Indian

Malay (34.9%)

Majority English less Malay (18.6%)

Figure 4.5

Main Language Choices of the Chinese youth with their Peers in the Neighbourhood.

For inter-group communication, Malay and majority Malay less English are the

language choice of the Chinese adolescents with their Malay peers in their

neighbourhood. Only eleven of the forty-three (27.9%) use English with their Malay

peers. This shows that English is not the language choice of these Chinese adolescents

in their interactions with their Malay peers. However, with their Indian counterparts,

twenty-two respondents (51.2%) use English. The data show a large difference in the

use of English by the Chinese adolescents with their Malay peers and their Indian peers.

Their linguistic choices may be an indication that the Indians are generally more

proficient in English than the Malay adolescents. The Chinese adolescents have learned

to switch codes to accommodate the linguistic preference of their addressee.

4.2.3.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Neighbourhood Peers

The major language choices of the Indian youth with their peers in their

neighbourhood from the same descent are Tamil and English. For intra-group

communication in this domain, a large majority (84.1%) of the Indian youth use Tamil,

61.4% use majority Tamil less English and 54.5% use English. Some (20.5%) use

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majority Tamil less Malay code switch and 15.9% use majority English less Tamil

combination. Only a few (6.8%) use Malay with their Indian peers in the neighbourhood

and another 6.8% use majority English less Malay combination. 4.5% of the Indian

youth in this study do not have Indian friends in their neighbourhood. This could mean

they stay in a predominantly Malay or predominantly Chinese neighbourhood.

Table 4.9

Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Neighbourhood Peers

Setting Neighbourhood

Language Choices Addressee: peers

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 81.8 43.2 6.8

English 29.5 79.5 52.3

Tamil 6.8 - 84.1

Cantonese 2.3 4.5 -

Punjabi - - -

Telegu - - -

Majority Malay less English 50.0 25.0 -

Majority English less Malay 15.9 40.9 6.8

Majority Tamil less English 9.1 4.5 61.4

Majority Tamil less Malay 6.8 2.3 20.5

Majority English less Tamil 4.5 11.4 15.9

Majority Punjabi less English - - -

Majority Punjabi less Malay - - -

Majority English less Punjabi - - -

Majority Cantonese less English - 2.3 -

Majority Cantonese less Malay 2.3 2.3 -

Majority English less Cantonese - 2.3 -

Not Available - 9.1 4.5

Note: 9.1% of the respondents do not have Chinese peers in their neighbourhood and 4.5% of them do not

have Indian peers in their neighbourhood. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

A large majority (81.8%) of the Indian youth use Malay as the language to

communicate with their Malay peers in their neighbourhood. 50.0% chose majority

Malay less English code switch, 29.5% use English, 15.9% majority English less Malay,

9.1% use majority Tamil less English, 6.8% Tamil, another 6.8% use majority Tamil

less Malay, 4.5% majority English less Tamil combination, 2.3% use Cantonese and

another 2.3% use majority Cantonese less Malay code switch. The extensive use of

Malay (81.8%) shows the Indian youth accommodating the linguistic preference of their

79

Malay peers whereas the small percentage using Tamil (6.8%) is an indicator of

accommodation by the Malay peers with them.

With their Chinese peers in the neighbourhood domain, a large majority (79.5%)

of the Indian adolescents use English, 43.2% use Malay, 40.9% use majority English

less Malay and 25.0% use majority Malay less English combination. A small minority

(11.4%) use majority English less Tamil code switch with their Chinese friends, 4.5%

use majority Tamil less English combination and another 4.5% use Cantonese. Very few

Indian youth (2.3%) use majority Cantonese less English code switch with their Chinese

peers in the neighbourhood. 9.1% do not have Chinese peers in their neighbourhood.

Malay (81.8%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (50.0%)

English (29.5%)

English (79.5%) Indian youth

Chinese

Malay (43.3%)

Majority English less Malay (40.9%)

Tamil (84.1%)

Indian

Majority Tamil less English (61.4%)

English (52.3%)

Figure 4.6

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Peers in the Neighbourhood.

The data indicates the strong influence of the Malaysian education system on the

Malaysian youth as far as the use of English and Malay is concerned. Both these

languages appear to be the language choice for inter-ethnic group communication

between the Indian and Chinese youth in this domain. It is not surprising to find Malay

and English as the language choice but quite another thing to find Tamil and Cantonese

being used by the Indian youth to communicate with their Malay peers in their

neighbourhood. This signifies that there are users of Tamil and Cantonese amongst the

Indian and Malay youth and Chinese users of Tamil even though the number is not

significant. This is the result of living in a multiracial and multilingual society (see

80

Table 4.9 above). It is therefore clear that most Indian youth use Malay with their Malay

peers, English with their Chinese friends and Tamil amongst themselves. Most of the

Chinese adolescents use Malay with their Malay peers, English with their Indian friends

and Cantonese amongst themselves while most of the Malay youth use Malay with their

Indian, Chinese and Malay peers.

Malay (97.1%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (82.4%)

English (5.9%)

Malay (58.8%)

Malays

Chinese

Majority Malay less English (44.1%)

English (35.3%)

Malay (64.7%)

Indian

Majority Malay less English (52.9%)

English (29.4%)

Malay (46.5%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (32.2%)

English (27.9%)

Malaysian

Youth

Cantonese (88.4%)

Chinese

Chinese

Majority Cantonese less English (44.2%)

English (37.2%)

English (51.2%)

Indian

Malay (34.9%)

Majority English less Malay (18.6%)

Malay (81.8%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (50.0%)

English (29.5%)

English (79.5%)

Indian

Chinese

Malay (43.3%)

Majority English less Malay (40.9%)

Tamil (84.1%)

Indian

Majority Tamil less English (61.4%)

English (52.3%)

Figure 4.7

Main Language Choices of the Malaysian Youth with their Peers in the Neighbourhood.

Figure 4.7 above shows the linguistic choices of the adolescents with their peers

in their neighbourhood. It suggests that language accommodation is used more by the

Indian and the Chinese adolescents than their Malay counterparts. It also indicates that

81

there is a difference in language choice amongst the ethnic groups for inter-group

communication. English is the language choice of the Indians and the Chinese

adolescents for inter-ethnic communication but Malay is the language choice of the

Malay youth.

4.2.3.4 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with Neighbourhood Shopkeepers

For intra-ethnic transactional exchanges with shopkeepers of Malay descent in

their neighbourhood, an overwhelming 97.1% of the Malay youth use Malay, 76.5% use

Majority Malay less English code switch, but only 2.9% use English. The data show

Malay is the dominant linguistic choice of the Malay youth in intra-ethnic trade or

shopping transactions. 2.9% of the respondents state that they do not have Malay

shopkeepers in their vicinity.

Table 4.10

Language Choices of the Malay Youth in the Neighbourhood Domain with Shopkeepers

Setting Neighbourhood

Language Choices Addressee: shopkeepers

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 97.1% 82.4% 73.5%

Majority Malay less English 76.5% 64.7% 67.6%

English 2.9% 20.6% 14.7%

Majority English less Malay - 11.8% 5.9%

Not Available 2.9% 11.8% 20.6%

Note: 2.9% of the respondents do not have Malay shopkeepers in their neighbourhood and 11.8% of

them do not have Chinese shopkeeper and 20.6% do not have Indian shopkeepers in their neighbourhood.

With shopkeepers of Chinese descent in their neighbourhood, 82.4% of the

Malay youth chose Malay and 64.7% use majority Malay less English code switch.

Only 20.6% of the Malay youth use English and 11.8% use majority Malay less English

code switch. 11.8% live in areas where there are no Chinese shops. In this setting, it is

the shopkeepers who are accommodating the adolescents (see David, 1999).

82

With Indian shopkeepers, 73.5% of the Malay youth chose Malay and 67.6%

chose majority Malay less English. Only 14.7% chose English and 5.9% chose majority

English less Malay. 20.6% of the respondents do not live in an area with Indian shops

nearby. Like the Chinese shopkeepers, it is the Indian shopkeepers who are

accommodating to the preferred language choices of the Malay adolescents.

From the analysis above, the main languages used by the Malay youth for intra-

ethnic transaction with shopkeepers are Malay and majority Malay less English code

switch. The use of English is very limited (see Figure 4.8). It is clear that Malay is the

dominant language choice of the Malay youth in this study regardless of the ethnicity of

their interlocutors.

Malay (97.1%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (76.5%)

shopkeeper English (2.9%)

Malay (82.4%) Malay youth

Chinese

Majority Malay less English (64.7%)

shopkeeper English (20.6%)

Malay (73.5%)

Indian

Majority Malay less English (67.6%)

shopkeeper English (14.7%)

Figure 4.8

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth with the Shopkeepers of Different Ethnicity in their

Neighbourhood.

4.2.3.5 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with Neighbourhood Shopkeepers

For intra-ethnic transactions with shopkeepers of Chinese descent, a vast

majority (88.4%) of the Chinese adolescents uses the Cantonese dialect. 39.5% use a

mixed code of majority Cantonese less English, 23.3% use stand alone English and

14.0% use majority Cantonese less Malay combination. Only 11.6% of the Chinese

youth in this case study use Mandarin, the official language for the Chinese community

used in the media and in education. Very few (4.7%) use majority English less

83

Cantonese and majority Mandarin less English (4.7%) combination. Only 2.3% use

Malay and majority Cantonese less Malay code switch.

Table 4.11

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth in the Neighbourhood Domain with Shopkeepers

Setting Neighbourhood

Language Choices

Addressee: shopkeepers

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 76.7% 2.3% 51.2%

English 9.3% 23.3% 51.2%

Tamil - - -

Mandarin - 11.6% -

Cantonese - 88.4% -

Majority Malay less English 44.2% - 27.9

Majority English less Malay - 2.3% 20.9

Majority Tamil less Malay - - -

Majority English less Tamil - - 2.3%

Majority Mandarin less English - 4.7% -

Majority Mandarin less Malay - 2.3% -

Majority English less Mandarin - - -

Majority Cantonese less English - 39.5% -

Majority Cantonese less Malay - 14.0% -

Majority English less Cantonese - 4.7% 2.3%

Not Available 18.6% - 18.6%

Note: 18.6% of the respondents do not have Malay and Indian shopkeepers in their neighbourhood

because they live in areas where the residents are predominantly Chinese. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

The figures indicate that the use of local dialect is still very strong for intra-

group communication in the Chinese community in this setting. The Chinese

shopkeepers are mainly Cantonese speakers. The Chinese respondents in this study are

mainly from former missionary schools where Mandarin is not taught as a subject. Most

of them come from Cantonese-speaking and English-speaking homes where Mandarin

is not used and therefore they do not understand Mandarin, the official language of the

Chinese. This is probably the reason why Cantonese is the language choice in this

setting. It also explains why English is used by more respondents in this ethnic group

that their Malay counterparts.

For inter-ethnic transactional exchanges with shopkeepers of Malay descent in

their neighbourhood, the majority of the Chinese youth (76.7%) in the study chose to

84

use Malay and 44.2% chose majority Malay less English code switch. Only 9.3% use

English. 18.6% say there are no shopkeepers of Malay descent in their neighbourhood.

The main language choices of the Chinese youth when they engage in inter-

ethnic transactional encounters with their Indian neighbourhood shopkeeper are Malay

and English. 51.2% used Malay and another 51.2% used English. 27.9% use majority

Malay less English mixed code and 20.9% use majority English less Malay. 18.6%

claim that there are no Indian shopkeepers in their area.

Malay (76.7%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (94.2%)

shopkeeper English (9.3%)

Cantonese (88.4%) Chinese youth

Chinese

Majority Cantonese less English (39.5%)

shopkeeper English (23.3%)

English (51.2%)

Indian

Malay (51.2%)

shopkeeper Majority English less Malay (27.9%)

Figure 4.9

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with the Shopkeepers of Different Ethnicity in their

Neighbourhood.

The data shows that the language choices of the Chinese youth vary according to

their addressee’s ethnicity (see Figure 4.9). For intra-ethnic exchanges with shopkeepers

of their own ethnicity, the preferred choice is Cantonese, the local dialect. For inter-

ethnic exchanges with shopkeepers of Indian descent, they use either Malay or English.

With shopkeepers of Malay descent, the Chinese adolescents use mainly Malay. In this

domain, code-switching is also a common choice. Being multilingual and having a

larger verbal repertoire, the Chinese adolescents are better able to accommodate the

linguistic preference of their addressee in the area of transactional discourse so they

switch and shift languages depending on who they are speaking to. What is interesting

85

is that English is being seen by the Chinese adolescents in this setting as the language to

be used with Indian interlocutors.

4.2.3.6 Language Choices of the Indian Youth Neighbourhood with Shopkeepers

For intra-ethnic encounters with shopkeepers of their own descent, 86.4% of the

Indian adolescents use their mother tongue Tamil, 54.5% use majority English less

Malay and 43.2% use English. 25.0% of the respondents use majority Tamil less

English variety, 18.2% use stand alone Malay, 15.9% use majority Malay less English,

9.1% opted for majority Tamil less Malay and 2.3% chose majority English less Tamil

combination. The analysis shows that in this setting, English is widely used by the

Indian youth in service encounters with shopkeepers but more Tamil is used with Indian

shopkeepers.

Table 4.12

Language Choices of the Indian Youth in the Neighbourhood Domain with Shopkeepers

Setting Neighbourhood

Language Choices Addressee: shopkeepers

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 72.7% 61.4% 18.2%

English 11.4% 68.2% 43.2%

Tamil - 2.3% 86.4%

Cantonese - 4.5% -

Majority Malay less English 47.7% 34.1% 15.9%

Majority English less Malay - 40.9% 54.5%

Majority Tamil less English 2.3% 2.3% 25.0%

Majority Tamil less Malay 2.3% 2.3% 9.1%

Majority English less Tamil 2.3% 9.1% 2.3%

Not Available - 9.1% 4.5%

Note: 9.1% of the respondents do not have Chinese shopkeepers and 4.5% do not have Indian shopkeepers in their neighbourhood. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set

range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

The main language choice for inter-ethnic transactional encounters between the

Indian youth and their neighbourhood shopkeepers of Malay descent is Malay. It

accounts for 72.7%, a high majority. 47.7% chose majority Malay less English. Only

11.4% use English for this encounter.

86

With shopkeepers of Chinese descent, two languages are highly favoured by the

Indian youth. 68.2% chose to use English and 61.4% chose to use Malay. 40.9%,

however, chose to use majority English less Malay code switch. Only four of them

(9.1%) chose to use majority English less Tamil. Two of them (4.5%) chose to use

Cantonese, one (2.3%) use Tamil, another use majority Tamil less English and another

one (2.3%) uses majority Tamil less Malay combination with Chinese shopkeepers.

Although the analysis shows only two of the Indian youth use Cantonese to

communicate with Chinese shopkeepers, it shows that they know the local Chinese

dialect. This is the result of close inter-ethnic interaction in a multiracial community. In

addition, the fact that some of the Indian youth use majority English less Tamil,

majority Tamil less English and majority Tamil less Malay with shopkeepers of Chinese

descent indicate that some of the shopkeepers of Chinese descent in their

neighbourhood know Tamil. There is an effort to accommodate one another. As David

(1999; 26) says, buyer and sellers in service encounter “are constantly accommodating

to each other.”

Malay (72.7%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (47.7%)

shopkeeper English (11.4%)

English (68.2%)

Indian youth

Chinese

Malay (61.4%)

shopkeeper Majority English less Malay (40.9%)

Tamil (86.4%)

Indian

Majority English less Malay (54.5%)

shopkeeper English (43.2%)

Figure 4.10

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth with the Shopkeepers of Different Ethnicity in the

Neighbourhood.

For this domain, the data shows that the language choices of the three major

ethnic groups with shopkeepers of different descent in their neighbourhood are not the

87

same. The findings clearly indicates that Malay adolescents use either exclusively

Malay or a majority Malay less English code switch variety with shopkeepers in their

neighbourhood (see Figure 4.10). The Chinese youth however, use different languages

with Malay, Chinese and Indian shopkeepers. With Malay shopkeepers, they use either

Malay or majority Malay less English variety; with Chinese shopkeepers, they use

mainly Cantonese and to a smaller extent majority Cantonese less English variety, and

with the Indian shopkeepers they tend to use either exclusively Malay or exclusively

English. The Indian youth on the other hand, use mainly stand alone Malay and to a

lesser extent majority Malay less English variety with Malay shopkeepers. They use

either English or Malay with Chinese shopkeepers and exclusively Tamil or to a lesser

extent majority English less Malay variety and stand alone English with Indian

shopkeepers.

In the next chapter, the language choices of the three major ethnic groups with

different interlocutors in the school domain will be analyzed.

88

CHAPTER 5

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS ON THE FINDINGS:

FOCUS ON THE SCHOOL DOMAIN

5.1 Introduction

This section will provide the analysis of the language choices of the three major

ethnic groups with different interlocutors in the school domain. It will present the

findings and describe the deployment of language choices these adolescents make with

different interlocutors from the three major ethnic groups in the school domain.

5.2 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth in the School Domain

with their Teachers (Q 30 to Q32)

This section will provide the analysis and description of the language choices of

the three major groups with their teachers from the three major ethnic groups.

5.2.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Teachers

An overwhelming majority (94.1%) of the Malay youth use Malay and 82.4%

use majority Malay less English when they interact with their Malay teachers. In

contrast, only 8.8% use majority English less Malay and 5.9% use stand alone English

with Malay teachers. The analysis shows that within this ethnic group, the language

choice for verbal interactions between students and teachers is Malay. English, an

important second language, is hardly being used by the Malay adolescents with Malay

teachers. Even when English is used it is in code-switches. The dominant language is

Malay (see Table 5.1).

89

Table 5.1

Language Choices of the Malay Youth in the School Domain with their Teachers

Setting School

Language Choices

Addressee: Teachers

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 94.1% 76.5% 73.5%

Majority Malay less English 82.4% 55.9% 52.9%

English 5.9% 35.3% 35.3%

Majority English less Malay 8.8% 29.4% 32.4%

Note: The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

Even with the Chinese teachers, a high majority (76.5%) of the Malay

adolescents use Malay. 55.9% use majority Malay less English combination. 35.3% use

stand alone English and 29.4% use majority English less Malay combination. The

analysis shows that stand alone Malay is widely used by the Malay adolescents with

their Chinese teachers. However, English is also used. The data indicates clearly that

more English is used with teachers of Chinese descent as compared with the language

used with Malay teachers. Code-switching is also a common practice.

Teachers Malay (94.1%)

of Malay

Majority Malay less English (82.4%)

descent Majority English less Malay (8.8%)

Teachers Malay (76.5%)

Malay youth

of Chinese

Majority Malay less English (55.9%)

descent English (35.3%)

Teachers Malay (73.5%)

of Indian

Majority Malay less English (52.9%)

descent English (35.3%)

Figure 5.1

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth when they interact with their Teachers of

Malay, Chinese and Indian descent.

With teachers of Indian descent, 73.5% of the Malay adolescents in this case

study chose to use Malay. 52.9% chose to use majority Malay less English code switch,

35.3% chose to use stand alone English and 32.4% chose to use majority English less

Malay combination. This indicates that with Indian teachers, Malay is the dominant

language choice of the Malay youth. However, English, especially the majority Malay

90

less English variety, is also quite widely used (see Figure 5.1). The analysis shows

clearly that most Malay respondents use Malay with all their teachers, be they Malay,

Chinese or Indian and a mixed-code of Malay and English.

5.2.2 Language choices of the Chinese Youth with their Teachers

For the Chinese youth, a large majority (79.1%) use stand Malay with Malay

teachers. 53.5% use majority Malay less English code switch, 41.9% use English and

18.6% use majority English less Malay. Malay is the main language choice of the

Chinese adolescents when they interact with Malay teachers followed by majority

Malay less English code switch. Besides these two linguistic choices, some of the

Chinese youth also use English followed by majority English less Malay mixed-code. It

is clear that code-switching is a common practice in this setting.

Table 5.2

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth in the School Domain with their Teachers

Setting School

Language Choices Addressee: Teachers

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 79.1% 14.0% 39.5%

English 41.9% 90.7% 81.4%

Mandarin - 2.3% -

Cantonese - 16.3% -

Majority Malay less English 53.5% 2.3% 7.0%

Majority English less Malay 18.6% 34.9% 51.2%

Majority English less Tamil - - 4.7%

Majority Mandarin less English - 2.3% -

Majority Mandarin less Malay - 4.7% -

Majority English less Cantonese - 23.3% 2.3%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With Chinese teachers, an overwhelming majority of the Chinese youth (90.7%)

chose to use English. 34.9% use majority English less Malay code switch, 23.3% use

Majority English less Cantonese and 16.3% use Cantonese. Only 4.7% use majority

Mandarin less Malay. It shows that the English is the dominant language choice when

91

the Chinese youth interact with their Chinese teachers. Although Cantonese is the

linguistic choice in the home and neighbourhood domains, in the school domain English

seems to be the main language choice.

With Indian teachers, the Chinese youth chose English as the main language;

81.4% use English and 51.5% use majority English less Malay code switch. 39.5% use

Malay but only 7.0% use majority Malay less English combination. Only 4.7% use

majority English less Tamil code mix and 2.3% use majority English less Cantonese

combination. It is clear then that English is widely used by the Chinese adolescents with

teachers of Indian descent. Code-switching is widely used in this setting too. More

respondents use Malay with Indian teachers (39.5%) than with teachers of their own

ethnic group (14.0%) but majority English less Malay combination is also a popular

choice (see Figure 5.2).

Teachers Malay (79.1%)

of Malay

Majority Malay less English (53.5%)

descent English (41.9%)

Teachers English (90.7%) Chinese youth

of Chinese

Majority English less Malay (34.9%)

descent Majority English less Cantonese (23.3%)

Teachers English (81.4%)

of Indian

Majority English less Malay (51.2%)

descent Malay (39.5%)

Figure 5.2

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth when they interact with their Teachers of Malay, Chinese

and Indian descent.

It is apparent then that in a more formal situation such as when talking to their

teachers in school, the use of Malay and English are clear choices. With Malay teachers,

Malay is the choice of the majority. With Chinese teachers, English is used much more

than any other languages even though Cantonese is the language choice of this ethnic

92

group in Ipoh. With Indian teachers, English is also used much more than any other

language.

5.2.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Teachers

An overwhelming majority (97.7%) of the Indian youth in this setting chose

Malay as the language to communicate with Malay teachers in the school. 70.5% chose

majority Malay less English code switch, 52.3% chose stand alone English and 15.9%

chose majority English less Malay. The analysis shows that Malay is the main language

choice although English is also used by the respondents.

Table 5.3

Language Choices of the Indian Youth in the School Domain with their Teachers

Setting School

Language Choices Addressee: Teachers

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 97.7% 47.7% 40.9%

English 52.3% 90.9% 90.9%

Tamil - - 27.3%

Cantonese - 2.3% -

Majority Malay less English 70.5% 25.0% 18.2%

Majority English less Malay 15.9% 63.6% 52.3%

Majority Tamil less English 2.3% 2.3% 4.5%

Majority Tamil less Malay - - 9.1%

Majority English less Tamil 2.3% 6.8% 25.0%

Majority English less Cantonese - 2.3% -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With Chinese teachers, 90.9% of the Indian adolescents chose English to

communicate. 63.6% chose majority English less Malay code switch but only 47.7%

chose to use stand alone Malay. 25.0% use majority Malay less English combination.

The results show that English is the undisputed language choice of the Indian youth

when they communicate with their Chinese teachers followed by majority English less

Malay combination.

93

With Indian teachers, an overwhelming majority (90.9%) of the Indian youth

chose English as the language to communicate. 52.3% chose majority English less

Malay and 40.9% chose stand alone Malay. Only 27.3% chose Tamil, 25.0% chose

majority English less Tamil, 18.2% chose majority Malay less English, 9.1% chose

majority Tamil less Malay and 4.5% chose majority Tamil less English combination.

English is therefore also the undisputed language choice of the Indian youth when they

communicate with their Indian teachers (see Figure 5.3). The findings show that the

Indian respondents use Malay to accommodate their Malay teachers and English with

their Chinese and Indian teachers.

Teachers Malay (97.7%)

of Malay

Majority Malay less English (70.5%)

descent English (52.3%)

Teachers English (90.9%)

Indian youth

of Chinese

Majority English less Malay (63.6%)

descent Malay (47.7%)

Teachers English (90.9%)

of Indian

Majority English less Malay (52.3%)

descent Malay (40.9%)

Figure 5.3

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth when they interact with their Teachers of Malay, Chinese

and Indian descent.

5.3 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth in the School Domain

with their Classmates in the classroom (Q 33 to Q35)

This section will provide the analysis and description of the language choices of

the three major groups with their classmates in the classroom.

94

5.3.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Classmates in the Classroom

With their Malay classmates in the classroom, an overwhelming majority of the

Malay youth (94.1%) chose to use Malay. 88.2% chose a mixed code of majority Malay

less English with their Malay classmates. 11.8% use other dialects such as the

Terengganu and Perak dialect with their Malay friends and only 5.9% chose to use

English with their Malay classmates in the classroom. 2.9% claim they do not have

Malay classmates in their class.

Table 5.4

Language Choices of the Malay Youth in the School Domain with their Classmates in the classroom

Setting In the classroom

Language Choices Addressee: Classmates

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 94.1% 73.5% 85.3%

Majority Malay less English 88.2% 64.7% 73.5%

English 5.9% 38.2% 29.4%

Majority English less Malay - 29.4% 23.5%

Other languages/dialects 11.8% - -

Not Available 2.9% 2.9% -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With Chinese classmates, a large majority (73.5%) of the Malay youth use

Malay. 64.7% use majority Malay less English code switch, 38.2% use stand alone

English while 29.4% use majority English less Malay. 2.9% do not have Chinese

classmates. The analysis shows that stand alone Malay is the dominant language choice

followed by majority Malay less English variety used by the Malay youth with their

Chinese classmates in the classroom (see Table 5.4).

85.3% of the Malay youth use Malay with their Indian classmates and 73.5% use

majority Malay less English code-switch. 29.4% use English and 23.5% use majority

English less Malay code-switch. The results show that Malay is also the dominant

95

language which the Malay youth use with their Indian classmates in the classroom.

However, majority Malay less English is also a popular choice. This indicates some

accommodation on the part of the Malay youth. However, English is not a dominant

choice of the Malay adolescents with their Chinese (38.3%) and Indian (29.4%)

classmates. Thus, accommodation on the part of the Malay youth is generally low (see

Figure 5.4 below).

Malay (94.1%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (88.2%)

Terengganu/Perak dialects (11.8%)

Malay (73.5%)

Malay youth

Chinese

Majority Malay less English (64.7%)

English (38.2%)

Malay (85.3%)

Indian

Majority Malay less English (73.5%)

English (29.4%)

Figure 5.4

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Classmates in the Classroom.

5.3.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Classmates in the Classroom

For the Chinese youth in this setting, 88.4% use Malay to communicate with

their Malay peers in the classroom. 60.5% use majority Malay less English and 44.2%

use stand alone English. Other language choices are less significant. Malay is therefore

the main language choice of the Chinese youth with their Malay classmates followed by

majority Malay less English code-switch. It must be mentioned that in this setting stand

alone English is also one of the more common choices used by the Chinese adolescents

with the Malay classmates.

The language choice of the Chinese youth with Chinese classmates is quite

different. A large majority (74.4%) use Cantonese while 44.2% use majority Cantonese

less English. 55.8% use stand alone English. 27.9% use majority English less Cantonese

96

and 14.0% use majority Cantonese less Malay with their Chinese classmates in the

classroom (see Table 5.5).

Table 5.5

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth in the School Domain with their Classmates in he Classroom

Setting In the classroom

Language Choices Addressee: Classmates

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 88.4% 14.0% 51.2%

English 44.2% 55.8% 79.2%

Tamil 2.3% - 2.3%

Mandarin 2.3% 2.3% -

Cantonese 2.3% 74.4% -

Majority Malay less English 60.5% - 20.9%

Majority English less Malay 4.7% 14.0% 51.2%

Majority English less Tamil - - 4.7%

Majority English less Mandarin 2.3% 4.7% -

Majority Cantonese less English - 44.2% -

Majority Cantonese less Malay - 14.0% -

Majority English less Cantonese 4.7% 27.9% 2.3%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

The analysis clearly shows that although Malay and English are the main

languages taught in school, the Chinese adolescents chose to use Cantonese as the main

language to communicate with their Chinese peers. Even though Cantonese is the main

language choice, English is also widely used by the Chinese youth in intra-ethnic

communication. The results show that the use of stand alone English for intra-group

communication amongst the Chinese youth is much higher (55.8%) as compared to the

use of stand alone English in intra-group interactions amongst the Malays (5.9%) [see

Table 5.4 on page 91].

With their Indian friends in the classroom, 79.2% of the Chinese adolescents

chose to use English. 51.2% use majority English less Malay variety and 51.2% use

stand alone Malay. 20.9% use majority Malay less English (see Figure 5.5).

97

Malay (88.4%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (60.5%)

English (44.2%)

Cantonese (74.4%)

Chinese youth

Chinese

English (55.8%)

Majority Cantonese less English (44.2%)

English (79.2%)

Indian

Majority English less Malay (51.2%)

Malay (51.2%)

Figure 5.5

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Classmates in the Classroom.

The results show that the Chinese respondents accommodate their Malay peers

by using Malay and they accommodate their Indian peers by using English. Unlike the

more formal situation such as talking to their teachers where the use of Malay and

English is very evident among the Chinese respondents, the data seems to indicate that

in informal situations with their peers, the Chinese youth tend to use Cantonese, the

local dialect in Ipoh. This seems to signify that language choice is used by these

adolescents to achieve group identity. Bonding and a sense of community and solidarity

is achieved through the use of Cantonese.

5.3.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Classmates in he Classroom

The language choice of the Indian youth when they interact with their Malay

classmates in the classroom is mainly Malay. 88.6% of the Indian respondents use

Malay with their Malay classmates. 75.0% use majority Malay less English but only

38.6% use English with their Malay peers. 15.9% chose to use majority English less

Malay combination. Hence, the main language choice of the Indian youth when they

interact with their Malay classmates in the classroom is mainly Malay and majority

Malay less English code-switch.

98

Table 5.6

Language Choices of the Indian Youth in the School Domain with their Classmates

Setting In the classroom

Language Choices Addressee: Classmates

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 88.6% 43.2% 27.3%

English 38.6% 93.2% 61.4%

Tamil 4.5% 2.3% 77.3%

Cantonese - 6.8% -

Majority Malay less English 75.0% 22.7% 15.9%

Majority English less Malay 15.9% 56.8% 20.5%

Majority Tamil less Malay 4.5% 2.3% 47.7%

Majority Tamil less English - 15.9%

Majority English less Tamil - 9.1% 20.5%

Majority Mandarin less English - - -

Majority English less Cantonese - 6.8% -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range

for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

In sharp contrast, with their Chinese classmates, the language choice of the

Indian youth is undoubtedly English. An overwhelming 93.2% of them use English and

56.8% use majority English less Malay with their Chinese peers. Only 43.2% use Malay

and 22.7% majority Malay less English. The analysis shows 9.1% of them use majority

English less Tamil combination, 6.8% use Cantonese and another 6.8% use majority

English less Cantonese. This shows that the Indian youth are multilingual and some are

able to speak Cantonese. It appears that some of the Chinese youth, although not

significant, are able to use Tamil. This may be an indicator of crossing.

With Indian classmates, the Indian youth chose their mother tongue Tamil.

77.3% of the Indian respondents chose Tamil when they interact with their Indian

classmates. 61.4% use English and 47.7% use majority Tamil less Malay combination.

Only 27.3% use Malay, 20.5% use majority English less Malay and another 20.5% use

majority English less Tamil. A small number (15.9%) of the Indian youth use majority

Malay less English and majority Tamil less English (see Figure 5.5).

99

Malay (88.6%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (75.0%)

English (38.6%)

English (93.2%)

Indian youth

Chinese

Majority English less Malay (56.8%)

Malay (43.2%)

Tamil (77.3%)

Indian

English (61.4%)

Majority Tamil less English (47.7%)

Figure 5.6

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Classmates in the Classroom.

The results show that the National Language is used with the Malays by the

Indian respondents but with the Chinese, it is English and with their own ethnic group

the majority of the Indian respondents used Tamil.

Another interesting result of the analysis is the use of the National Language and

English for intra-group interactions amongst Malaysian adolescents. 94.1% of the

Malays respondents use the National Language for intra-group interactions (see Table

5.4, pg 91). Malay is used by 27.3% for the Indian respondents (see Table 5.6 pg 95) but

only 14.0% of the Chinese use Malay (see Table 5.5, pg 92). It appears that the Indians

more than the Chinese are shifting to Malay in intra-group interactions. As for the use of

English in intra-group interactions, only 5.9% of the Malay youth use this language but

55.8% of the Chinese and 61.4%. the Indian respondents use English for intra-group

interactions. English is obviously not the language choice for intra-group interactions

for the Malay adolescents. The Indians more than the Chinese are shifting to English in

intra-group interactions in the classroom.

100

5.4 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth with their Friends

during Recess (Q 36 to Q38)

The aim of this section is to find out the language choices of Malaysian youth

with friends during recess.

5.4.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Friends during Recess.

The results of the findings show that the Malay youth use mainly their mother

tongue with their Malay friends during recess. 94.1% use Malay and 91.2% use majority

Malay less English code-switch. Only 2.9% use stand alone English. 5.9% say they do

not mix with or have Malay friends in their friendship groups during recess.

With Chinese friends, 76.5% of the Malay respondents use stand alone Malay

and 70.6% use majority Malay less English. 20.6% use majority English less Malay

combination and only 3.4% use exclusively English with their Chinese friends during

recess. 2.9% of he Malay respondents say they do not have friends of Chinese descent

in their friendship group during recess. Linguistic accommodation is not a common

practice.

Table 5.7

Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Friends during Recess

Setting During recess

Language Choices Addressee: Friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 94.1% 76.5% 91.2%

Majority Malay less English 91.2% 70.6% 76.5%

English 2.9% 3.4% 17.6%

Majority English less Malay - 20.6% 11.8%

Not Available 5.9% 2.9% -

Note: 5.9% of the respondents say they do not have Malay friends in their friendship group during recess and 2.9% do not have Chinese in their friendship group during recess. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

101

With Indian friends, 91.2% of the Malay respondents claimed they use Malay

and 76.5% say they use the majority Malay less English variety. 11.8% use majority

English less Malay variety but only 17.6% use exclusively English (see Figure 5.7).

Malay (94.1%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (91.2%)

English (2.9%)

Malay (76.5%)

Malay youth

Chinese

Majority Malay less English (70.6%)

Majority English less Malay (20.6%)

Malay (91.2 %%)

Indian

Majority Malay less English (76.5%)

English (17.8%)

Figure 5.7

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Friends during Recess.

The results show that the Malay respondents use more Malay with Malay and

Indian friends but less Malay with their Chinese friends. More code-switching is used

with the Chinese than with the Malay and Indian friends. Perhaps the Malay youth

perceived the Chinese adolescents as not so proficient in Malay as compared to the

Indian youth.

5.4.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Friends during Recess.

For the Chinese youth, 86.0% of the respondents use Malay with their Malay

friends during recess, 58.1% use majority Malay less English and 37.2% use English.

7.0% of the Chinese adolescent use their mother tongue Cantonese with their Malay

friends during recess, 4.7% use majority English less Malay variety and 2.3% use

majority English less Cantonese code-switch.

102

With their Chinese friends, 69.8% of the Chinese respondents use Cantonese

during recess. In addition to Cantonese, 62.8% use English and 48.8% use majority

Cantonese less English. 18.6% use majority English less Cantonese variety and 9.3%

use majority English less Malay. 7.0% of the respondents use majority Cantonese less

Malay, another 7.0% majority English less Mandarin variety and 7.0% use exclusively

Malay (see Table 5.8).

Table 5.8

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Friends during Recess

Setting During recess

Language Choices Addressee: Friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 86.0% 7.0% 48.8%

English 37.2% 62.8% 83.7%

Mandarin - 4.7% -

Cantonese 7.0% 69.8% 2.3%

Majority Malay less English 58.1% - 20.9%

Majority English less Malay 4.7% 9.3% 34.9%

Majority Tamil less English - - 2.3%

Majority English less Tamil - - 4.7%

Majority English less Mandarin - 7.0% -

Majority Cantonese less English - 48.8% -

Majority Cantonese less Malay - 7.0% -

Majority English less Cantonese 2.3% 18.6% 2.3%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

Unlike the Malay respondents who use Malay with their Indian friends, the

Chinese youth use mainly English with their Indian friends. 83.7% of the Chinese

respondents use exclusively English with their Indian friends, 48.8% use exclusively

Malay, 34.9% use majority English less Malay and 20.9% use majority Malay less

English variety.

Figure 5.8 below shows that the Chinese respondents use the National Language

with the Malays, their vernacular language (Cantonese) with the Chinese and English

with the Indians. No Malay is used in intra-group interactions amongst the Chinese

youth. Although most of the language choices remain the same for the Chinese

103

adolescents when they interact with their classmates in the classroom and their friends

during recess, there is a slight difference when they interact with Indian friends during

recess. Malay is more widely used by the Chinese youth during recess with their Indian

friends than with their Indian classmates in the classroom. Perhaps it is to accommodate

those who are not so proficient in English.

Malay (86.0%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (58.1%)

English (37.2%)

Cantonese (69.8%)

Chinese youth

Chinese

English (62.8%)

Majority Cantonese less English (48.8%)

English (83.7%)

Indian

Malay (48.8%)

Majority English less Malay (34.9%)

Figure 5.8

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Friends during Recess.

5.4.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Friends during Recess.

An overwhelming majority (88.6%) of the Indian adolescents in this case study

chose stand alone Malay as the language to communicate with their Malay friends they

meet during recess. 70.5% say they also use majority Malay less English. Only 29.5%

chose to use English and 11.4% chose to use majority English less Malay variety. 6.8%

use Tamil and 4.5% use majority Tamil less Malay. 2.3% indicated that they do not

have Malays in their friendship group during recess (see Table 5.9).

With the Chinese youth, 93.2% of the respondents chose English. This is similar

to what the Chinese respondents do when they interact with their Indian friends. 61.4%

chose majority English less Malay and 45.5% chose exclusively Malay with their

104

Chinese friends during recess. 11.4% chose majority Malay less English combination

and 9.1% chose majority English less Tamil code-switch.

Table 5.9

Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Friends during Recess

Setting During recess

Language Choices Addressee: Friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 88.6% 45.5% 20.5%

English 29.5% 93.2% 50.0%

Tamil 6.8% - 72.7%

Majority Malay less English 70.5% 11.4% 13.6%

Majority English less Malay 11.4% 61.4% 18.2%

Majority Tamil less English 2.3% - 45.5%

Majority Tamil less Malay 4.5% - 22.7%

Majority English less Tamil - 9.1% 13.6%

Majority Punjabi less English - 2.3% -

Majority Punjabi less Malay - 2.3% -

Majority English less Cantonese - 2.3% -

Not Available 2.3% - -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With other Indians, a large majority (72.7%) say Tamil is their main choice. In

addition to Tamil, 50.0% chose English, 45.5% chose majority Tamil less English

variety, 22.7% use majority Tamil less Malay and 20.5% use exclusively Malay. 18.2%

use majority English less Malay, 13.6% says they use majority English less Tamil and

another 13.6% use majority Malay less English combination (see Table 5.9). We can

conclude that the main language choice of the Indian youth when they interact with their

friends during recess is Tamil. Language accommodation with their addressees is very

evident. Their proficiency in both Malay and English enables them to exercise

accommodation. This in turn enables them to mingle freely in intra and inter-group

interactions.

The analysis of the language choices of the three major ethnic groups with

different interlocutors in the school domain shows that each ethnic group is clearly

105

marked linguistically. For intra-group communication, the Malays use Malay with their

Malay friends, the Chinese use Cantonese with their Chinese friends and the Indians use

Tamil with their Indian friends. It is clear that Malaysian youth are aware of their ethnic

differences. Language is a salient dimension of their group’s culture and identity and

there are marked differences amongst Malaysian youth in linguistic choices for inter-

ethnic communication. These differences can only be bridged by using languages that

are mutually comprehensible such as Malay, the National Language and English, an

important second language in the country. Hence, to socialize and integrate well with

one another, Malaysian youth need to be proficient in both these languages. A lack of

proficiency in any of the two languages could mean separation or isolation from the

others.

Malay (88.6%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (70.5 %)

English (29.5%)

English (93.2%)

Indian youth

Chinese

Majority English less Malay (61.4 %)

Malay (45.5%)

Tamil (72.7%)

Indian

English (50.0%)

Majority Tamil less English (45.5%)

Figure 5.9

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Friends during Recess

There appears to be a separation between the Malays and the “Non-Malay”

groups (Chinese and Indians). The analysis shows that the National Language is used

when the Chinese and the Indians communicate with their Malay friends but English is

used when the Chinese and the Indians communicate with each other. Although both

English and Malay are used by the youths of this school for inter-ethnic interaction, the

adolescents seem to be divided and separated into two linguistic groups – one group (the

106

Malays) using the National Language and the other (the Chinese and Indians) using

English.

The use of Malay and English is very evident in a more formal situation such as

talking to their teachers. The National Language is used by the Malay adolescents with

all their teachers irrespective of their ethnicity. It is also the language choice of the

Chinese and Indian adolescents with their teachers of Malay descent but with their

Chinese and Indian teachers, the Chinese and Indian adolescents use English. In

general, the National Language is the language choice of the Malays adolescents but

English is the language choice of the Chinese and the Indian adolescents in this domain.

Having discussed the language choices of the respondents in the different

domains, the next chapter will present the language choices of these respondents for

different functions such as joking, expressing anger, bonding and distancing with

friends of different ethnicity in their school.

107

CHAPTER 6

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS ON THE FINDINGS:

FOCUS ON FUNCTIONS

6.1 Introduction

This section is an analysis of Questions 39 to 50 of Section B. The objective of

this section is to determine the language choices of Malaysian youth for different

functions such as joking, expressing anger, bonding and distancing with friends of

different ethnicity in the school domain.

6.2 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth for Joking with their

Friends in the School Domain.

6.2.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the

School Domain.

The analysis shows that an overwhelming majority (97.1%) of the Malay youth

use Malay to joke with Malay friends. In addition to using exclusively Malay, 88.2% of

these adolescents also use majority Malay less English variety for this purpose. Only

8.8% use English.

With Chinese friends, a large majority (82.4%) of the Malay youth use their

mother tongue Malay to make jocular remarks. 73.5% use majority Malay less English

code-switch. Only 29.4% use English and 17.6% use majority English less Malay

variety. Thus, with the Chinese friends, slightly more English is used for joking

although Malay is still the main language choice (see Table 6.1).

108

Table 6.1

Language Choices of the Malay Youth when they Joke with their Friends

Setting In school

Function Cracking jokes

Language Choices

Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 97.1% 82.4% 88.2%

English 8.8% 29.4% 23.5%

Tamil - - 5.9%

Hand sign language 5.9% - -

Majority Malay less English 88.2% 73.5% 73.5%

Majority English less Malay - 17.6% 14.7%

Majority English less Tamil - - 5.9%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With their Indian friends, jocular remarks are mainly made in Malay by the

Malay adolescents (88.2%). However, majority Malay less English variety (73.5%) is

also being used quite extensively. Only 23.5% use stand alone English to joke with their

Indian friends while 14.7% use majority English less Malay variety to crack jokes.

Hence, the language choices of the Malay youth for this function with their Indian

friends are mainly Malay and majority Malay less English variety (see Figure 6.1).

Malay (97.1%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (88.2 %)

English (8.8%)

Malay (82.4%)

Malay youth

Chinese

Majority English less Malay (73.5 %)

English (29.4%)

Malay (88.2%)

Indian

Majority Tamil less English (73.5%)

English (23.5%)

Figure 6.1

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the School

Domain.

The Malay adolescents in this study use mainly Malay and majority Malay less

English variety to joke with their friends. However, the use of Malay is higher with their

Malay friends than with their Chinese and Indian friends. The use of English is less but

109

they do make some effort to accommodate the preferred language choices of the

Chinese and the Indians for this function.

6.2.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth when they Joke with their Friends in

the School Domain.

An overwhelming majority (90.7%) of the Chinese youth use Malay when they

engage in jocular exchanges with their Malay friends in school and 60.5% use the

majority Malay less English variety. It is interesting to note that more Chinese youth use

English with their Malay friends than the Malay youth with their Chinese friends.

46.5% of the Chinese youth use English to make jocular remarks with their Malay

friends compared to only 29.4% of the Malay youth’s use of English with their Chinese

friends (see Table 6.2).

Table 6.2

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth when they Joke with their Friends

Setting In school

Function Cracking jokes

Language Choices Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 90.7% 9.3% 53.5%

English 46.5% 65.1% 83.7%

Tamil - 2.3% 4.7%

Mandarin 2.3% 2.3% -

Cantonese - 79.1% 4.7%

Majority Malay less English 60.5% - 18.6%

Majority English less Malay 7.0% 7.0% 37.2%

Majority Tamil less Malay - - 2.3%

Majority Cantonese less English 2.3% 58.1% -

Majority Cantonese less Malay - 9.3% -

Majority English less Cantonese 2.3% 11.6% 2.3%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With members of their own ethnic group, a large majority (79.1%) use

Cantonese to make jocular remarks, 65.1% use English and 58.1% use majority

Cantonese less English. The analysis shows that there is lot of Cantonese and English

110

being used in intra-group exchanges for jocular purposes with Cantonese being

dominant. The other less prominent choices for the Chinese youth in this setting are

majority English less Cantonese (11.6%), majority Cantonese less Malay (9.3%),

majority English less Malay (7.0%), Mandarin (2.3%) and Tamil (2.3%).

With Indian friends, an overwhelming majority (83.7%) of the Chinese youth

use English for jocular intent, 53.5% use Malay, 37.2% use majority English less Malay

and 18.6% use majority Malay less English combination. This shows that for inter-

group jocular exchanges with Indian friends, the language choice of the Chinese youth

is mainly English (see Table 6.2).

It is clear that the main language choice of the Chinese youth for jocular

purposes with Malay and Indian friends is not the same. With the Malays, the Chinese

adolescents use mainly Malay. With the Indian friends, they use more English than any

other linguistic code (see Figure 6.2 below). They appear to accommodate the language

preference of the Malay friends by using Malay. With Chinese friends, they use the

local dialect (Cantonese) and English in almost equal proportion.

Malay (81.4%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (55.8%)

English (51.2%)

Cantonese (67.4%)

Chinese youth

Chinese

English (65.1%)

Majority Cantonese less English (44.2%)

English (86.0%)

Indian

Majority English less Malay (48.8%)

Malay (46.5%)

Figure 6.2

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the School

Domain.

111

6.2.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the

School Domain.

For jocular exchanges with Malay friends in the school domain, an

overwhelming (86.0%) the Indian youth use Malay, 58.1% use majority Malay less

English, 46.5% use English and 20.9% use majority English less Malay variety. Other

less prominent choices are Tamil (11.6%), majority Tamil less Malay (9.3%), majority

Tamil less English (4.7%), majority English less Tamil (4.7%) and majority Punjabi less

English combination (2.3%). Jocular remarks are mainly made in Malay by the Indian

youth when they interact with their Malay friends. Although English is also being used

it is not used as extensively as Malay for this function.

Table 6.3

Language Choices of the Indian Youth when they Joke with their Friends

Setting In school

Function Cracking jokes

Language Choices Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 86.0% 48.8% 27.9%

English 46.5% 86.0% 55.8%

Tamil 11.6% 7.0% 81.4%

Punjabi - - 4.7%

Cantonese - 2.3% -

Majority Malay less English 58.1% 23.3% 14.0%

Majority English less Malay 20.9% 48.8% 27.9%

Majority Tamil less English 4.7% 2.3% 48.8%

Majority Tamil less Malay 9.3% 2.3% 18.6%

Majority English less Tamil 4.7% 11.6% 16.3%

Majority Punjabi less English 2.3% - -

Majority English less Cantonese - 2.3% -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range

for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With Chinese friends, the language choice is rather different. An overwhelming

majority (86.0%) of the Indian youth use English to joke with their Chinese friends in

school, 48.8% use majority English less Malay, another 48.8% use Malay and 23.3%

use majority Malay less English variety. The less prominent choices in this setting are

112

majority English less Tamil (11.6%), Tamil (7.9%), Cantonese (2.3%), majority Tamil

less English (2.3%), majority Tamil less English (2.3%) and majority English less

Cantonese (2.3%) (see Table 6.3).

With other Indians, an overwhelming majority (81.4%) use Tamil, 55.8% use

English and 48.8% use majority Tamil less English variety. This indicates that Tamil

and English are major language choices of the Indian youth for jocular verbal

expressions with other Indians with Tamil taking a huge lead (see Figure 6.3 below).

The Indian youth appear to make an effort to accommodate their friends in terms

of their linguistic preferences. With the Malays, they use Malay and with the Chinese,

they use English. With Tamil friends, they use mainly Tamil for this function.

Malay (86.4%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (65.9 %)

English (50.0%)

English (88.4%)

Indian youth

Chinese

Majority English less Malay (53.5 %)

Malay (48.8%)

Tamil (76.7%)

Indian

English (67.4%)

Majority Tamil less English (44.2%)

Figure 6.3

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the School

Domain.

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6.3 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth for Expressing Anger

with their Friends in the School Domain.

6.3.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in

the School Domain.

For expressing anger with their Malay friends, the languages choices of the

Malay youth are as follows. 94.1% use Malay, 76.5% use majority Malay less English

code-switch, 14.7% us English and 8.8% use majority English less Malay variety. Only

2.9% use Tamil and Mandarin each. Therefore, the main language choice of the Malay

youth for expressing anger at the members of their own ethnic group is Malay and

majority Malay less English code-switch.

When expressing anger at Chinese friends, the language choice of the Malay

youth are as follows. 79.4% express their anger in Malay, 67.7% in majority Malay less

English code-mix, 26.5% in English and 11.8% in majority English less Malay variety.

Table 6.4

Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends

Setting In school

Function Expressing anger

Language Choices Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 94.1% 79.4% 79.4%

English 14.7% 26.5% 20.6%

Tamil 2.9% - 11.8%

Mandarin 2.9% 2.9% 2.9%

Majority Malay less English 76.5% 67.7% 61.8%

Majority English less Malay 8.8% 11.8% 8.8%

Majority Tamil less Malay - 2.9% -

Majority English less Tamil - - 2.9%

Majority Cantonese less Malay - - 2.9%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range

for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

When expressing anger at Indian friends, the language choice of the Malay

youth are as follows. 79.4% use Malay, 61.8% use majority Malay less English, but

114

only 20.6% use English. 11.8% use Tamil to express anger at their Indian peers and

8.8% use majority English less Malay variety (see Figure 6.4).

Malay (94.1%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (76.5 %)

English (14.7%)

Malay (79.4%)

Malay youth

Chinese

Majority English less Malay (67.7 %)

English (26.5%)

Malay (79.4%)

Indian

Majority Malay less English (61.8%)

English (20.6%)

Figure 6.4

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in the School Domain.

The analysis shows that the choice of using English for different function by the

Malay youth is not similar. For jocular purpose with Malay friends, only 8.8% chose to

use English but when the Malay youth express anger at their Malay friends, 14.7% of

the respondent said they would use English. Thus, it is possible that in this setting,

English is used by some of the Malay respondent as a distancing device with other

Malays. Language choice has therefore become a communicative strategy for

divergence (see section 2.2.1: David, 1999; Jariah, 2003).

6.3.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends

in the School Domain.

The language choices of the Chinese youth when expressing anger with their

Malay friends are as follows. 69.8% use Malay, 60.5% use English and 30.2% use

majority Malay less English. Besides Malay and English, other languages are also used.

25.6% use Cantonese (a language which most of their Malay friends cannot

comprehend), 18.6% use majority English less Malay and 11.6% majority Cantonese

115

less English. 7.0% use Tamil, 4.7% use majority Cantonese, 2.3% use majority English

less Cantonese and 2.3% use Punjabi.

With other Chinese, 81.4% of the Chinese youth use Cantonese, the local dialect

for the Chinese in Ipoh, when expressing anger. 58.1% use English and 53.5% use

majority Cantonese less English. Only 16.3% use Malay, 14.0% use majority Cantonese

less Malay and 9.3% use majority English less Malay variety. 4.7% use Tamil and

another 4.7% use Mandarin. Cantonese is the preferred language choice of the

respondents when expressing anger with other Chinese for this function (see Table 6.5).

Table 6.5

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends

Setting In school

Function Expressing anger

Language Choices Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 69.8% 16.3% 37.2%

English 60.5% 58.1% 74.4%

Tamil 7.0% 4.7% 9.3%

Punjabi 2.3% - 2.3%

Mandarin - 4.7% -

Cantonese 25.6% 81.4% 16.3%

Majority Malay less English 30.2% - 11.6%

Majority English less Malay 18.6% 9.3% 32.6%

Majority Tamil less Malay - - 2.3%

Majority Punjabi less Malay - - 2.3%

Majority Cantonese less English 11.6% 53.5% 9.3%

Majority Cantonese less Malay 4.7% 14.0% -

Majority English less Cantonese 2.3% 2.3% 2.3%

Not Available - - 2.3%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With their Indian friends, 74.4% use English, 37.2% use English and 32.6% use

majority English less Malay variety. 16.3% use Majority Malay less English, 11.6% use

majority English less Malay and 9.3% use majority Cantonese less English. 9.3% of the

Chinese youth use Tamil for expressing anger at their Indian friends, 2.3% use Punjabi,

another 2.3% use majority Tamil less Malay variety (see Table 6.5).

116

Malay (69.8%)

Malay

English (60.5%)

Majority Malay less English (30.2 %)

Cantonese (81.4%)

Chinese youth

Chinese

English (58.1%)

Majority Cantonese less English (53.5%)

English (74.4%)

Indian

Malay (37.2 %%)

Majority English less Malay (32.6%)

Figure 6.5

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in the

School Domain.

It is interesting to note that the Chinese youth use Malay to accommodate the

Malays. To the other Chinese, they use Cantonese and to the Indians they use English.

The results show that language choices depend on the ethnicity of the respondents.

The analysis shows some differences between the language choices for jocular

purposes and the language choices for expressing anger by the Chinese adolescents in

this study with their friends. Table 6.6 shows the contrast in language use for these two

functions with their Malay friends. Language choice is used as a communicative

strategy for reducing or increasing social distance in inter-ethnic relationship (see

David, 1999; Jariah 2003 in 2.2.1 above).

There is a decrease in the use of Malay (from 90.7% for joking to 69.8% for

expressing anger) and majority Malay less English code switch (from 60.5% for joking

to 30.2% for expessing anger) which their Malay friends understand well and an

increase in the use of languages which their Malay friends are not so familiar with. For

example, there is a marked increase in the use of stand alone English (from 46.5% for

joking to 60.5% for expressing anger) and majority Cantonese less English variety

(from 2.3% for joking to 11.6% for expressing anger). There is also an increase in the

use of languages which they do not normally use with their Malay friends such as the

117

use of Cantonese (from 0% for joking to 25.6%for expressing anger), Tamil (from 0%

for joking to 7.0% for expressing anger) and even Punjabi (from 0% for joking to 2.3%)

when they express anger at their Malay friends.

Table 6.6

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Jocular Purpose and Expressing Anger with Malay Friends

Setting In school

Addressee Malay friends

Language Choices Function

Joke Express anger

Malay 90.7% 69.8%

English 46.5% 60.5%

Tamil - 7.0%

Punjabi - 2.3%

Mandarin 2.3% -

Cantonese - 25.6%

Majority Malay less English 60.5% 30.2%

Majority English less Malay 7.0% 18.6%

Majority Cantonese less English 2.3% 11.6%

Majority Cantonese less Malay - 4.7%

Majority English less Cantonese 2.3% 2.3%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for

‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With other Chinese, the pattern of language choices also changes according to

the function to a certain extent. There is an increase in the use of Cantonese when the

Chinese youth express anger at their Chinese friends as compared to when they joke

with their Chinese friends (see Table 6.7).

Table 6.7

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Jocular Purpose and Expressing Anger with Chinese

friends

Setting In school

Addressee Chinese friends

Language Choices Function

Joke Express anger

Malay 9.3% 16.3%

English 65.1% 58.1%

Tamil 2.3% 4.7%

Mandarin 2.3% 4.7%

Cantonese 79.1% 81.4%

Majority English less Malay 7.0% 9.3%

Majority Cantonese less English 58.1% 53.5%

Majority Cantonese less Malay 9.3% 14.0%

Majority English less Cantonese 11.6% 2.3%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

118

There is a decrease in the use of Malay and English and an increase in the use of

other language choices when a comparison is made between the language choices of the

Chinese youth for jocular purposes and for expressing anger at their Indian friends.

With their Indian friends, there is a slight decrease in the use of Malay (from 53.5% for

jocular purposes to 37.2% when expressing anger), English (from 83.7% for jokes to

74.4% for expressing anger), majority Malay less English variety (from 18.6% to

11.6%) and majority English less Malay code-switch (from 37.3% to 32.6%). However,

there is an increase in the use of Cantonese (from 4.7% to 16.3%), Tamil (from 4.7% to

9.3%) as shown in Table 6.8.

Table 6.8

Main language choices of the Chinese youth for jocular purpose and expressing anger with

Indian friends

Setting In school

Addressee Indian friends

Language Choices Function

Joke Express anger

Malay 53.5% 37.2%

English 83.7% 74.4%

Tamil 4.7% 9.3%

Punjabi - 2.3%

Cantonese 4.7% 16.3%

Majority Malay less English 18.6% 11.6%

Majority English less Malay 37.2% 32.6%

Majority Tamil less Malay 2.3% 2.3%

Majority Punjabi less Malay - 2.3%

Majority Cantonese less English - 9.3%

Majority English less Cantonese 2.3% 2.3%

Not Available - 2.3%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

The changes in language choices for jocular purposes and for expressing anger

show that language choices are triggered to achieve a range of strategies and objectives

of the interlocutors (see David, 2003). This can best be explained by the

Communicative Accommodation Theory (Giles et al, 1987) of language convergence

and language divergence. For jocular purposes, the objective and strategies of the

speaker is to associate with the addressee and to create rapport with them. Therefore, for

the jokes to be effective, the language choices of the speaker must function as an

119

accommodative strategy to identify with the addressees’ ethnicity and language

preferences. This research shows that adolescents tend to use the languages preferences

of their addressee for jocular purpose. In contrast, for expressing anger, the objective of

the speaker is to dissociate with the addressee and the strategy is to create a distance

between them. Hence, to identify with the addressees’ ethnicity and language preference

is no longer a priority. The analysis shows the decrease in the use of the preferred

languages of their addressees and an increase in the use of languages unfamiliar to their

addressees when the Chinese youth express anger with their Malay and Indian friends as

compared to the language choices when making jocular remarks.

6.3.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends

in the School Domain.

When expressing anger at their Malay friends, 74.4% of the Indian youth use

Malay, 44.2% use majority Malay less English and 41.9% use English. 32.6% use Tamil

to express anger at their Malay friends, 23.3% use majority Tamil less English, 9.3%

use majority Tamil less Malay and another 9.3% use majority English less Malay

variety (see Table 6.9).

With their Chinese friends, 79.1% of the Indian youth use English to express

anger, 39.5% use Malay, 30.2% use majority English less Malay, 25.6% use majority

Malay less English, and 20.9% use Tamil, a language which many of their Chinese

peers do not comprehend. A surprising 14.0% use Cantonese, and another 14.0% use

majority English less Tamil variety. 7.0% use Mandarin, another 7.0% use majority

Tamil less Malay and 4.7% use majority Cantonese less English code mix.

120

Table 6.9

Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends

Setting In school

Function Expressing anger

Language Choices

Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 74.4% 39.5% 20.9%

English 41.9% 79.1% 51.2%

Tamil 32.6% 20.9% 88.4%

Punjabi 4.7% 2.3% 4.7%

Mandarin - 7.0% 2.3%

Cantonese 4.7% 14.0% 2.3%

Majority Malay less English 44.2% 25.6% 9.3%

Majority English less Malay 9.3% 30.2% 14.0%

Majority Tamil less English 23.3% 18.6% 53.5%

Majority Tamil less Malay 9.3% 7.0% 25.6%

Majority English less Tamil 4.7% 14.0% 9.3%

Majority Punjabi less English - 2.3% 2.3%

Majority Punjabi less Malay - 2.3% 2.3%

Majority English less Punjabi - - 2.3%

Majority Mandarin less English - 2.3% -

Majority Cantonese less English - 4.7% -

Majority Cantonese less Malay - 2.3% -

Majority English less Cantonese - 2.3% -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range

for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With Indian friends, a huge majority (88.4%) of the Indian youth use Tamil to

express their anger. 53.5% use majority Tamil less English code mix and 51.2% use

stand alone English. 25.6% use majority Tamil less Malay code-switch, 14.0% use

majority English less Malay code-switch, 9.3% use majority English less Tamil code-

switch and another 9.3% use majority Malay less English code-switch (see Table 6.9).

The analysis shows that all Malaysian youth use more than one language and a

variety of code-switches. Such diverse language choices show that Malaysian

adolescents have a wide range of languages at their disposal which they can deploy

when they interact with others. They use different language codes when they

communicate with different people in different situations for different purposes in

different domains. This kind of discourse practices can be seen frequently in a

multilingual and multiracial country like Malaysia (see Morais, 1997; Jamaliah Mohd.

121

Ali, 1995; Le Vasan, 1996; David, 1999). For the Indian adolescents, anger is expressed

not just in Malay with their Malay friends. In addition to Malay and other codes such as

English, Tamil, Punjabi and Cantonese, code-mixing of majority Malay less English,

majority English less Malay, majority Tamil less English, majority Tamil less Malay

and majority English less Tamil are also used. With their Malay friends, the Indian

youth accommodate them by using Malay when expressing anger. With the Chinese

peers, they use English and with their Indian peers they use Tamil. Thus, language

choices depend upon ethnicity of the respondents (see Figure 6.6).

Malay (74.4%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (44.2 %)

English (41.9%)

English (79.1%) Indian youth

Chinese

Malay (39.5%)

Majority English less Malay (30.2%)

Tamil (88.4%)

Indian

Majority Tamil less English (53.5%)

English (51.2%)

Figure 6.6

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in the

School Domain.

Language choice appears to depend on functions too. The analysis shows that

there is a decrease in the use of Malay and English when the Indian adolescents express

anger with their Malay friends as compared to when they joke with their Malay peers

(see Table 6.10). More Malay and English are used for jocular activities. This may

signify that Malay and English are used to a certain extent for creating rapport with their

Malay friends whereas languages like Cantonese, Punjabi and Tamil are used as

distancing strategies in this setting. Of the three languages, Tamil may be the language

used by the Indian youth to disassociate from the Malay friends. This can be seen by the

122

increase in the use of Tamil and majority Tamil less English variety when they express

anger with their Malay peers (see Table 6.10).

Table 6.10

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Jocular Purpose and Expressing Anger with

their Friends

Setting In School

Addressee Malay Chinese Indian

Language Choices

Functions Functions Functions

Joke Anger Joke Anger Joke Anger

Malay 86.0% 74.4% 48.8% 39.5% 27.9% 20.9%

English 46.5% 41.9% 86.0% 79.1% 55.8% 51.2%

Tamil 11.6% 32.6% 7.0% 20.9% 81.4% 88.4%

Punjabi - 4.7% - 2.3% 4.7% 4.7%

Mandarin - - - 7.0% - 2.3%

Cantonese - 4.7% 2.3% 14.0% - 2.3%

Majority Malay less English 58.1% 44.2% 23.3% 25.6% 14.0% 9.3%

Majority English less Malay 20.9% 9.3% 48.8% 30.2% 27.9% 14.0%

Majority Tamil less English 4.7% 23.3% 2.3% 18.6% 48.8% 53.5%

Majority Tamil less Malay 9.3% 9.3% 2.3% 7.0% 18.6% 25.6%

Majority English less Tamil 4.7% 4.7% 11.6% 14.0% 16.3% 9.3%

Majority Punjabi less English 2.3% - - 2.3% - 2.3%

Majority Punjabi less Malay - - - 2.3% - 2.3%

Majority English less Punjabi - - - - - 2.3%

Majority Mandarin less English - - - 2.3% - -

Majority Cantonese less English - - - 4.7% - -

Majority Cantonese less Malay - - - 2.3% - -

Majority English less Cantonese - - 2.3% 2.3% - -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

The pattern of language choices also changes to a certain extent. Unlike jocular

activities, there is a decline in the use of Malay and English for expressing anger but an

increase in the use of languages such as Tamil, Punjabi, Mandarin, and Cantonese.

There is a notable increase in the number of languages and the variety of code-switching

used. This comparison shows that language choice and code-switching are

communicative strategies used by Malaysian adolescents to accomplish a certain

objective (see Table 6.10).

123

With other Indians, the Indian youth use more Tamil but less Malay and English.

The difference, however, is only marginal but there is an increase in the number of other

languages and code-mix used (see Table 6.10).

6.4 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth for Bonding with

their Friends in the School Domain.

6.4.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the

School Domain.

The language choice for bonding with members of their own ethnicity is

overwhelmingly Malay (97.1%) and majority Malay less English variety. However, few

Malay youth (8.8%) uses English. Thus, for in-group solidarity and membership in the

community, Malay is the language choice followed by majority Malay less English

variety.

Table 6.11

Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Bonding with their Friends

Setting In school

Function For bonding

Language Choices Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 97.1% 94.1% 94.1%

English 8.8% 20.6% 17.6%

Majority Malay less English 88.2% 82.4% 79.4%

Majority English less Malay - 8.8% 11.8%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

The main language choices for bonding with Chinese friends are Malay (94.1%)

followed closely by the majority Malay less English code-mix (82.4%). Although

English and majority English less Malay variety are used for bonding with their Chinese

peers, they account for only 20.6% and 8.8% respectively.

124

For bonding with Indian peers, the language choices of the Malay youth is

overwhelmingly Malay (94.1%) followed by majority Malay less English code mix

(74.9%). 17.6% use English and 11.8% use majority Tamil less Malay variety.

The data show that the main language for in-group and out group bonding is

Malay and majority Malay less English. Although English is taught in school, the use of

this language is rather limited. This signifies that English is not the preferred language

of the Malay youth. Figure 6.7 shows that Malay youth use mainly Malay for bonding

with their Malay, Chinese and Indian peers.

Malay (97.1%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (88.2%)

English (8.8%)

Malay (94.1%)

Malay youth

Chinese

Majority Malay less English (82.4%)

English (20.6%)

Malay (94.1%)

Indian

Majority Tamil less English (79.4%)

English (17.6%)

Figure 6.7 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the School

Domain.

6.4.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the

School Domain.

For the Chinese adolescents, the main language choice for bonding with their

Malay friends is Malay (83.7%). However, 53.5% use majority Malay less English

code-switch. 37.2% use English to bond with their Malay friends in school.

Surprisingly, 7.0% of the Chinese youth said they use Cantonese to bond with their

Malay friends in school, 4.7% said the use majority Cantonese less English and 2.3%

125

said they use majority Cantonese less Malay mix. This indicates that there are Malay

adolescents in this school who can converse in the local Chinese dialect. This is a

positive development for a multiracial society because language is a powerful tool for

social integration and group solidarity. Social groups are usually identified by the use of

a particular language or dialect. Unfortunately this linguistic practice is not widespread

and is only confined to a few individuals (see Table 6.12).

Table 6.12

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Bonding with their Friends

Setting In school

Function For bonding

Language Choices Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 83.7% 11.6% 39.5%

English 37.2% 58.1% 81.4%

Mandarin - 2.3% -

Cantonese 7.0% 81.4% 2.3

Majority Malay less English 53.5% 2.3 16.3%

Majority English less Malay 14.0% 4.7% 41.9%

Majority Tamil less English - - 2.3%

Majority Cantonese less English 4.7% 53.5% -

Majority Cantonese less Malay 2.3% 14.0% -

Majority English less Cantonese - 14.0% -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With other Chinese, an overwhelming majority (81.4%) of the Chinese

adolescents use the local dialect, Cantonese. 58.1% use English for bonding with their

Chinese friends in school and 53.5% use majority Cantonese less English variety. The

analysis shows that Cantonese is the language used for in-group identity and solidarity

amongst the Chinese youth. Even though Mandarin is the official language of the

Chinese which is used in the media and is taught in all Chinese schools, only 2.3% of

the Chinese respondents use it as a language for bonding. 14.0% use majority Cantonese

less Malay and another 14.0% use majority English less Cantonese code switch. 11.6%

use the National Language, Malay, to bond with their Chinese friends.

126

The main language choice of the Chinese youth for bonding with Indian friends

in school is English. An overwhelming majority (81.4%) of the Chinese adolescents in

this study use English for this particular purpose. 41.9% chose to use majority English

less Malay variety while 39.5% preferred Malay (see Table 6.12).

Figure 6.8 shows that the Chinese youth use Malay with their Malay peers,

Cantonese with their Chinese peers and English with the Indian peers for bonding

purpose. Thus language choice is for the large part ethnic dependent.

Malay (83.7%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (53.5%)

English (37.2%)

Cantonese (81.4%)

Chinese youth

Chinese

English (58.1%)

Majority Cantonese less English (53.5%)

English (81.4%)

Indian

Majority English less Malay (41.9%)

Malay (39.5%)

Figure 6.8

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the School Domain.

6.4.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the

School Domain.

For bonding with their Malay friends, an overwhelming majority of the Indian

youth (95.3%) use Malay. 76.7% use majority Malay less English code-switch, 44.2%

use stand alone English and 11.6% use majority English less Malay variety. Malay is

the main language used by the Indian youth for building rapport with their Malay peers

in school. In addition to Malay, Malaysian Indian youth also use stand alone English

and code-switches for bonding with Malay adolescents. Besides that, a small percentage

127

of these adolescents also use other languages and code-switches for this purpose (see

Table 6.13).

The main language choice of the Indian youth for bonding with their Chinese

friends is not Malay but English. An overwhelming majority (90.7%) of the Indian

youth in this study use English, 55.8% use majority English less Malay but only 41.9%

use Malay. The Indian adolescents also use other languages and code-switch for this

purpose. 23.3% use majority Malay less English and 9.3% use the local dialect of the

Chinese youth, Cantonese. Another 9.3% use majority Malay less English variety, 4.7%

use majority English less Cantonese code-switch. 2.3% use Tamil, 2.3% Mandarin, and

another 2.3% use majority Cantonese less English. The analysis again shows that

language choice between these youth is not merely of using one language but a

kaleidoscope of languages and mixed-codes.

Table 6.13

Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Bonding with their Friends

Setting In school

Function For bonding

Language Choices Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 95.3% 41.9% 20.9%

English 44.2% 90.7% 60.5%

Tamil 4.7% 2.3% 79.1%

Mandarin - 2.3% -

Cantonese 2.3% 9.3% -

Majority Malay less English 76.7% 23.3% 11.6%

Majority English less Malay 11.6% 55.8% 25.6%

Majority Tamil less English 4.7% - 51.2%

Majority Tamil less Malay 2.3% - 23.3%

Majority English less Tamil 2.3% 9.3% 7.0%

Majority Cantonese less English 2.3% 2.3% -

Majority Cantonese less Malay 2.3% - -

Majority English less Cantonese - 4.7% -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range

for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With Indian friends, the Indian youth use mainly Tamil (79.1%). 60.5% chose to

use English, 51.2% use majority Tamil less English and 25.6% chose to use majority

128

English less Malay. 23.3% of the Indian youth chose majority English less Tamil,

20.9% use Malay, 11.6% majority Malay less English and 7.0% majority English less

Tamil. The analysis shows that although Tamil is the main language choice of the

Indian youth for bonding with other Indians, English is a close second and majority

Tamil less English a close third. This pattern of language choice is rather different from

their language choice with their Malay and Chinese friends. With the Malays, the main

language choice for bonding is Malay and with the Chinese, the main language choice is

mainly English (see Figure 6.9).

Malay (74.4%)

Malay

Majority Malay less English (44.2 %)

English (41.9%)

English (79.1%)

Indian youth

Chinese

Malay (39.5%)

Majority English less Malay (30.2%)

Tamil (88.4%)

Indian

Majority Tamil less English (53.5%)

English (51.2%)

Figure 6.9

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the School

Domain.

6.5 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth for Distancing and

Withholding Information from their Peers in the School Domain.

6.5.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Distancing and Withholding

Information from their Peers in the School Domain.

In their attempt to exclude or withhold information from their friends in a

discourse, the language choices of the Malay youth with their Malay peers are not so

overwhelmingly centred on one particular language or code. 41.2% use majority Malay

less English code mix, 38.2% use Malay, 32.4% use English and 23.5% use majority

129

English less Malay for distancing. Unlike the language choices for the other purposes,

an unusually large number of the Malay youth (20.6%) use Tamil to withhold

information from other Malays. 11.0% use majority Tamil less Malay, 5.9% use other

Malay dialects, 2.9% use Mandarin, 2.9% use Cantonese, 2.9% use majority English

less Tamil and 2.9% use majority Cantonese less Malay. 17.6% said they do not use

language for distancing (see Table 6.14).

Table 6.14

Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Distancing and Withholding Information Purposes

Setting In school

Function For distancing purposes

Language Choices Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 38.2% 76.5% 61.8%

English 32.4% 8.8% 20.6%

Tamil 20.6% 11.8% 2.9%

Mandarin 2.9% 2.9% 2.9%

Cantonese 2.9% - 2.9%

Other languages/ dialects 5.9% 5.9% 11.8%

Majority Malay less English 41.2% 64.7% 52.9%

Majority English less Malay 23.5% - 17.6%

Majority Tamil less English - 8.8% -

Majority Tamil less Malay 11.0% - -

Majority English less Tamil 2.9% - -

Majority Cantonese less Malay 2.9% - -

No Available 17.6% 8.8% 8.8%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

With the Chinese, the Malay adolescents use mainly Malay (76.5%) or majority

Malay less English (64.7%) for distancing purposes and to withhold information. 11.8%

use Tamil, 8.8% use majority Tamil less English and another 8.8% use stand alone

English. 5.9% use other Malay dialects. Only 8.8% abstained from distancing. The

Malay youth use mainly Malay and majority Malay less English code when they

interact with the Chinese. This may be an indication that some of Chinese boys in this

school are not highly competent in the Malay language. It explains why more Malay

youth chose to use Malay to exclude or withhold information from their Chinese peers.

130

With their Indian peers, the analysis shows that for distancing and withholding

information, 61.8% of the Malay youth use Malay, 52.9% say they would chose

majority Malay less English, 20.6% use English and 17.6% chose majority English less

Malay variety. 11.8% chose to use other dialects. Only 2.9% chose to use Tamil,

Mandarin or Cantonese. However, 8.8% chose to abstain from such an act (see Table

6.14).

Table 6.15 shows the percentage of language choices of the Malay youth with

other Malays for all the four functions of joking, bonding, expressing anger, and

distancing. Language choices change drastically for distancing purpose. In an effort to

exclude their Malay friends and to withhold information, a variety of other languages

are chosen. There is an increase in the use of English instead. These adolescents are

rather resourceful and creative in using languages at their disposal to meet this objective

(see Table 6.15).

Table 6.15

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger

and Distancing with their Malay Friends.

Setting In school

Addressee Malay friends

Language Choices Functions

Joking Bonding Anger Distancing

Malay 97.1% 97.1% 94.1% 38.2%

English 8.8% 8.8% 14.7% 32.4%

Tamil - - 2.9% 20.6%

Mandarin - - 2.9% 2.9%

Cantonese - - - 2.9%

Other languages/ dialects/codes 5.9% - - 5.9%

Majority Malay less English 88.2% 88.2% 76.5% 41.2%

Majority English less Malay - - 8.8% 23.5%

Majority Tamil less English - - - -

Majority Tamil less Malay - - - 11.0%

Majority English less Tamil - - - 2.9%

Majority Cantonese less Malay - - - 2.9%

No Available - - - 17.6%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

131

Table 6.16 shows the percentage of language choices of the Malay youth with

Chinese peers for all the four functions of joking, bonding, expressing anger, and

distancing. The main language choices of the Malay youth for joking and bonding are

Malay and majority Malay less English variety. These two codes are also the main

language choices for expressing anger but the percentage is much lower. For distancing,

however, the choices of languages include more code types than for the other functions.

There is a deliberate attempt to use languages which are not in their addressee’s verbal

repertoire for distancing purposes and to withhold information.

Table 6.16

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and

Distancing with their Chinese Friends.

Setting In school

Addressee Chinese friends

Language Choices Functions

Joking Bonding Anger Distancing

Malay 82.4% 94.1% 79.4% 76.5%

English 29.4% 20.6% 26.5% 8.8%

Tamil - - - 11.8%

Mandarin - - 2.9% 2.9%

Cantonese - - - -

Other languages/ dialects/codes - - - 5.9%

Majority Malay less English 73.5% 82.4% 67.7% 64.7%

Majority English less Malay 17.6% 8.8% 11.8% -

Majority Tamil less English - - - 8.8%

Majority Tamil less Malay - - 2.9% -

Majority English less Tamil - - - -

Majority Cantonese less Malay - - - -

No Available - - - 8.8%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

Table 6.17 below shows that the main language choice for all the four functions

is Malay followed by majority Malay less English. In their attempt to distance

themselves from the Indian adolescents, to exclude this ethnic group from participating

in their discourse, or to withhold information; many other codes are used in addition to

Malay and majority Malay less English variety.

132

Table 6.17

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger

and Distancing with their Indian Friends.

Setting In school

Addressee Indian friends

Language Choices Functions

Joking Bonding Anger Distancing

Malay 88.2% 94.1% 79.4% 61.8%

English 23.5% 17.6% 20.6% 20.6%

Tamil 5.9% - 11.8% 2.9%

Mandarin - - 2.9% 2.9%

Cantonese - - - 2.9%

Other languages/ dialects/codes - - - 11.8%

Majority Malay less English 73.5% 79.4% 61.8% 52.9%

Majority English less Malay 14.7% 11.8% 8.8% 17.6%

Majority Tamil less English - - - -

Majority Tamil less Malay - - - -

Majority English less Tamil 5.9% - 2.9% -

Majority Cantonese less Malay - - 2.9% -

No Available - - - 8.8%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range

for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

Figure 6.10 shows the main language choices of the Malay respondents for the

four functions with their friends from different ethnicities in the school domain. The

figure shows clearly that although the Malay youth are bilingual, their use of English is

limited (see Figure 6.10 below).

133

Malay (97.1%)

Joking

Majority Malay less English (88.2%)

English (8.8%)

Malay (97.1%)

Bonding

Majority Malay less English (88.2%)

Malay

English (8.8%)

Malay (94.1%)

Anger

Majority Malay less English (76.5%)

English (14.7%)

Majority Malay less English (41.2%)

Distancing

Malay (38.2%)

English (32.4%)

Malay (82.4%)

Joking

Majority Malay less English (73.5%)

English (29.4%)

Malay (94.1%)

Bonding

Majority Malay less English (82.4%)

MALAY

Chinese English (20.6%)

Malay (79.4%)

Anger

Majority Malay less English (67.7%)

English (26.5%)

Malay (76.5%)

Distancing

Majority Malay less English (64.7%)

Tamil (11.8%)

Malay (88.2%)

Joking

Majority Malay less English (73.5%)

English (23.5%)

Malay (94.1%)

Bonding

Majority Malay less English (79.4%)

Indian

English (17.6%)

Malay (79.4%)

Anger

Majority Malay less English (61.8%)

English (20.6%)

Malay (61.8%)

Distancing Majority Malay less English (52.9%)

English (20.6%)

Figure 6.10

Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger

and Distancing with their Friends from Different Ethnicities.

134

6.5.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Distancing and Withholding

Information from their Peers in the school domain

For the Chinese youth, the main language choice for distancing and withholding

information from the Malays is Cantonese (86.0%), a local Chinese dialect which is not

understood by most Malays. This is followed by the use of majority Cantonese less

English code-switch (25.6%) and English (20.9%). 11.6% use Mandarin, 7.0% use

Tamil and 7.0% use Malay (see Table 6.18).

Table 6.18

Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Distancing and Withholding Information Purposes

Setting In school

Function For distancing purposes

Language Choices Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 7.0% 14.0% 4.7%

English 20.9% 39.5% 27.9%

Tamil 7.0% 20.9% -

Mandarin 11.6% 7.0% 14.0%

Cantonese 86.0% 14.0% 86.0%

Other languages/ dialects 2.3% 25.6% 2.3%

Majority Malay less English - 4.7% -

Majority English less Malay 4.7% 7.0% 2.3%

Majority Tamil less English - 2.3% -

Majority Tamil less Malay - 9.3% -

Majority English less Tamil - 4.7% -

Majority Mandarin less English 2.3% 2.3% 2.3%

Majority Cantonese less English 25.6% 4.7% 30.2%

Majority Cantonese less Malay 4.7% - 7.0%

Majority English less Cantonese 2.3% 4.7% -

Other combination 9.3% - 9.3%

Not available - 11.6% -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range

for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

Language can be used for a variety of functions or purposes. It can be used for

convergence as well as for divergence depending on situational variables and the

relationship between participants and settings as well as the objective of the

interlocutors. The desire of the speaker to increase or reduce social distance between

him and his listeners can determine the language used. It is clear that Cantonese is used

135

to increase social distance from the Malay youth. Hence, language choices are strategies

employed by the youth for a purpose.

Table 6.19 shows the percentage of language choices of the Chinese youth with

the Malays for all the four functions of joking, bonding, expressing anger, and

distancing.

Table 6.19

Main language choices of the Chinese youth for jocular purpose, bonding, expressing anger and

distancing with their Malay friends.

Setting In school

Addressee Malay friends

Language Choices Functions

Joking Bonding Anger Distancing

Malay 90.7% 83.7% 69.8% 7.0%

English 46.5% 37.2% 60.5% 20.9%

Tamil - - 7.0% 7.0%

Punjabi - - 2.3% -

Mandarin 2.3% - - 11.6%

Cantonese - 7.0% 25.6% 86.0%

Other languages/ dialects - - 2.3%

Majority Malay less English 60.5% 53.5% 30.2% -

Majority English less Malay - 14.0% 18.6% 4.7%

Majority Mandarin less English - - - 2.3%

Majority Cantonese less English - 4.7% 11.6% 25.6%

Majority Cantonese less Malay - 2.3% 4.7% 4.7%

Majority English less Cantonese - - 2.3% 2.3%

Other combination - - - 9.3%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

To exclude or withhold information from their Chinese friends in a discourse,

the Chinese respondents use a wide range of codes; 39.5% use English, 20.9% use

Tamil, 14.0% use Malay and another 14.0% use Cantonese. 9.3% use majority Tamil

less Malay, 7.0% use Mandarin and another 7.0% use majority English less Malay. To

exclude members of their own ethnicity, 25.6% of the Chinese respondents use other

Chinese dialects such as Hakka, Teochew and Hokkien (see table 6.19). One respondent

uses Har Por dialect which is rarely heard in Ipoh. This may be an indication that many

of the Chinese adolescents do not know their parents’ dialect. In this situation, those

136

who know their dialect have an added advantage to withhold information or to exclude

those who have ‘lost’ their dialect. Those who cannot speak their dialect get excluded

from the group. Language has always been one of the factors for the formation of peer

or friendship groups in society (see Rampton, 1995).

Table 6.20 below shows the language choices of the Chinese youth with other

Chinese for all the four functions of joking, bonding, expressing anger, and distancing.

Table 6.20

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger

and Distancing with their Chinese Friends.

Setting In school

Addressee Chinese friends

Language Choices Functions

Joking Bonding Anger Distancing

Malay 9.3% 11.6% 16.3% 14.0%

English 65.1% 58.1% 58.1% 39.5%

Tamil 2.3% - 4.7% 20.9%

Mandarin 2.3% 2.3% 4.7% 7.0%

Cantonese 79.1% 81.4% 81.4% 14.0%

Other languages/ dialects/codes - - - 25.6%

Majority Malay less English - 2.3% - 4.7%

Majority English less Malay 7.0% 4.7% 9.3% 7.0%

Majority Tamil less English - - - 2.3%

Majority Tamil less Malay - - - 9.3%

Majority English less Tamil - - - 4.7%

Majority Mandarin less English - - - 2.3%

Majority Cantonese less English 58.1% 53.5% 53.5% 4.7%

Majority Cantonese less Malay 9.3% 14.0% 4.7% -

Majority English less Cantonese - 14.0% - 4.7%

Other combination - - - -

No Available - - 2.3% 11.6%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

To increase social distance and to withhold information from the Indian youth,

86.0% of the Chinese use Cantonese, 30.2% use majority Cantonese less English for

this purpose, 27.9% use English and 14% use Mandarin. 9.3% use other combinations

such as majority Mandarin less Cantonese, 7.0% use majority Cantonese less Malay,

4.0% use Malay, 2.3% use other dialects (Hakka) and 2.3% use majority English less

Malay (see Table 6.21).

137

Table 6.21

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger

and Distancing with their Indian Friends.

Setting In school

Addressee Indian friends

Language Choices Functions

Joking Bonding Anger Distancing

Malay 53.5% 39.5% 37.2% 4.7%

English 83.7% 81.4% 74.4% 27.9%

Tamil 4.7% - 9.3% -

Punjabi - - 2.3% -

Mandarin - - - 14.0%

Cantonese 4.7% 2.3% 16.3% 86.0%

Other languages/ dialects/codes - - - 2.3%

Majority Malay less English 18.6% 41.9% 11.6% -

Majority English less Malay 37.2% - 32.6% 2.3%

Majority Tamil less English - 2.3% 2.3% -

Majority English less Tamil 2.3% - - -

Majority Punjabi less Malay - 2.3% -

Majority Mandarin less English - - - 2.3%

Majority Cantonese less English - - 9.3% 30.2%

Majority Cantonese less Malay - - - 7.0%

Majority English less Cantonese 2.3% - 2.3% -

Other combination - - - 9.3%

No Available - - 2.3% -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range

for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

It is clear that Chinese adolescents in this study also use Cantonese as a

linguistic devise to increase social distance not only from the Malay adolescents but

also from the Indians. Cantonese, a local Chinese dialect is not understood by most of

their Malay and Indian peers. This dialect has become an effective device to exclude

other linguistic groups from participating in their discourse. Although it can help to

promote in-group solidarity amongst the Chinese, it can also create segregation amongst

the races if it is constantly used in this manner because it excludes those who do not

know the dialect from the interaction.

138

Malay (90.7 %%)

Joking

Majority Malay less English (60.5%)

English (46.5%)

Malay (83.7%)

Bonding

Majority Malay less English (53.5%)

Malay

English (37.2%)

Malay (69.8%)

Anger

English (60.5%)

Majority Malay less English (30.2%)

Cantonese (86.0%)

Distancing

Majority Cantonese less English (25.6%)

English (20.9%)

Cantonese (79.1%)

Joking

English (65.1%)

Majority Cantonese less English (58.1%)

Cantonese (81.4%)

Bonding

English (58.1%)

CHINESE

Chinese Majority Cantonese less English (53.5%)

Cantonese (81.4%)

Anger

English (58.1%)

Majority Cantonese less English (53.5%)

English (39.5%)

Distancing

Other dialect e.g. Teochew (25.6%)

Tamil (20.9%)

English (83.7%)

Joking

Malay (53.5%)

Majority English less Malay (37.2%)

English (81.4%)

Bonding

Majority Malay less English (41.9%)

Indian

Malay (39.5%)

English (74.4%)

Anger

Malay (37.4%)

Majority English less Malay (32.6%)

Cantonese (86.0%)

Distancing Majority Cantonese less English (30.2%)

English (27.9%)

Figure 6.11

Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and

Distancing with their Friends from Different Ethnicity.

139

Figure 6.11 shows the main language choices of the Chinese youth for the four

functions with their Malay, Chinese and Indian friends in the school domain. It is clear

that the Chinese youth are bilingual, trilingual or multilingual. They speak Malay and

English which they learn in school, Cantonese and other Chinese dialects which they

learn at home and a small number are able to use some Tamil. They are fond of using

code-switches. The language choices they make vary according to the situation, the

addressee, and the intention (see Holmes, 2001).

6.5.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Distancing and Withholding

Information Purposes from their Peers in the School Domain.

Table 6.22 shows the language choices of the Indian respondents for distancing

and withholding information from their Malay, Chinese and Indian peers in school.

Table 6.22

Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Distancing Purposes and Withholding Information from their

Friends

Setting In school

Function For distancing purposes

Language Choices Addressee: friends

Malay Chinese Indian

Malay 14.0% 11.6% 23.3%

English 30.2% 14.0% 44.2%

Tamil 81.4% 88.4% 27.9%

Punjabi 2.3% 2.3% 7.0%

Mandarin 2.3% - 2.3%

Cantonese 7.0% - 18.6%

Other languages/ dialects - 2.3% 9.3%

Majority Malay less English 9.3% 7.0% 11.6%

Majority English less Malay 11.6% 7.0% 16.3%

Majority Tamil less English 44.2% 41.9% 14.0%

Majority Tamil less Malay 20.9% 18.6% 9.3%

Majority English less Tamil 7.0% 4.7% 7.0%

Majority Punjabi less English 2.3% 2.3% 7.0%

Majority Punjabi less Malay 2.3% - 2.3%

Majority Mandarin less English - - 2.3%

Majority Mandarin less Malay - - 4.7%

Majority Cantonese less English 2.3% - 9.3%

Majority Cantonese less Malay - - 9.3%

Other combination - - 2.3%

No Available - - 4.7%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few

languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is

80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

140

For the Indian youth, the main language choice for excluding Malay peers from

their discourse is Tamil. An overwhelming majority (81.4%) use Tamil and 44.2% use

majority Tamil less English. 30.2% use English, 20.9% use majority Tamil less Malay

variety while 14.0% use Malay. 9.3% use majority Malay less English, 7.0% use

Cantonese and 7.0% use majority English less Tamil code-switch. The use of other

languages such as Punjabi, Mandarin, majority Punjabi less English, majority Punjabi

less Malay and majority Cantonese less English is at 2.3% each.

Table 6.23

Main language choices of the Indian youth for jocular purpose, bonding, expressing anger and distancing

with their Malay friends.

Setting In school

Addressee Malay friends

Language Choices

Functions

Joking Bonding Anger Distancing

Malay 86.0% 95.3% 74.4% 14.0%

English 46.5% 44.2% 41.9% 30.2%

Tamil 11.6% 4.7% 32.6% 81.4%

Punjabi - - 4.7% 2.3%

Mandarin - - - 2.3%

Cantonese - 2.3% 4.7% 7.0%

Majority Malay less English 58.1% 76.7% 44.2% 9.3%

Majority English less Malay 20.9% 11.6% 9.3% 11.6%

Majority Tamil less English 4.7% 4.7% 23.3% 44.2%

Majority Tamil less Malay 9.3% 2.3% 9.3% 20.9%

Majority English less Tamil 4.7% 2.3% 4.7% 7.0%

Majority Punjabi less English 2.3% - - 2.3%

Majority Punjabi less Malay - - - 2.3%

Majority Cantonese less English - 2.3% - 2.3%

Majority Cantonese less Malay - 2.3% - -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is

80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

Table 6.25 shows that for joking, bonding and expressing anger with their Malay

peers, the Indian adolescents use mainly Malay. However, they also use majority Malay

less English and English. In contrast, Tamil is used for excluding their Malay peers

from participating in their discourse. It shows that ethnic languages and dialects are

used as strategies to achieve a certain purpose. Besides being used to show group

identity and membership, languages can be used as a strategy for divergence or

distancing.

141

With their Chinese peers, the Indian adolescents use mainly English (for joking

86.0%, bonding 90.7% and expressing anger 79.1%) except for excluding their Chinese

friends from participating in their discourse where Tamil (88.4%) is the main language

choice. Other choices are also recorded. 41.9% use majority Tamil less English, 18.6%

use majority Tamil less Malay, 14.0% use English and 11.6% use Malay. 7.0% use

majority Malay less English and another 7.0% use majority English less Malay.

Table 6.24

Main language choices of the Indian youth for jocular purpose, bonding, expressing anger and

distancing with their Chinese friends.

Setting In school

Addressee Chinese friends

Language Choices Functions

Joking Bonding Anger Distancing

Malay 48.8% 41.9% 39.5% 11.6%

English 86.0% 90.7% 79.1% 14.0%

Tamil 7.0% 2.3% 20.9% 88.4%

Punjabi - 2.3% 2.3%

Mandarin - 2.3% 7.0% -

Cantonese 2.3% 9.3% 14.0% -

Other languages/ dialects - - - 2.3%

Majority Malay less English 23.3% 23.3% 25.6% 7.0%

Majority English less Malay 48.8% 55.8% 30.2% 7.0%

Majority Tamil less English 2.3% - 18.6% 41.9%

Majority Tamil less Malay 2.3% - 7.0% 18.6%

Majority English less Tamil 11.6% 9.3% 14.0% 4.7%

Majority Punjabi less English - - 2.3% 2.3%

Majority Punjabi less Malay - - 2.3% -

Majority Mandarin less English - - 2.3% -

Majority Cantonese less English - 2.3% 4.7% -

Majority Cantonese less Malay - - 2.3% -

Majority English less Cantonese 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% -

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is

80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

The analysis shows that language choice and code-switching are used as a

strategy to exclude others from their discourse by Malaysian youth in inter-ethnic

interactions. This is practised by the Indian and Chinese youth who have the advantage

of having a wider number of languages in their verbal repertoire.

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With members of their own ethnic group, the most frequent language choice for

distancing and withholding information is English (44.2%). This is followed by Tamil

(27.9%), Malay (23.3%), Cantonese (18.6%), majority English less Malay (16.3%),

majority Malay less English (11.6%), majority Cantonese less English (9.3%), majority

Cantonese less Malay, majority Tamil less Malay (9.3%), other dialects such as Telugu

and Malayalam (9.3%), majority English less Tamil (7.0%), majority Punjabi less

English (7.0%), Punjabi (7.0%), Mandarin (2.3%), majority Punjabi less Malay (2.3%),

and majority Mandarin less English (2.3%). 2.3% claim they use other combinations but

4.7% say they do not practice such exclusionary linguistic behaviour with members of

their own ethnic group.

Table 6.25

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger

and Distancing with their Indian Friends.

Setting In school

Addressee Indian friends

Language Choices Functions

Joking Bonding Anger Distancing

Malay 27.9% 20.9% 20.9% 23.3%

English 55.8% 60.5% 51.2% 44.2%

Tamil 81.4% 79.1% 88.4% 27.9%

Punjabi 4.7% - 4.7% 7.0%

Mandarin - - 2.3% 2.3%

Cantonese - - 2.3% 18.6%

Other languages/ dialects - - - 9.3%

Majority Malay less English 14.0% 11.6% 9.3% 11.6%

Majority English less Malay 27.9% 25.6% 14.0% 16.3%

Majority Tamil less English 48.8% 51.2% 53.5% 14.0%

Majority Tamil less Malay 18.6% 23.3% 25.6% 9.3%

Majority English less Tamil 16.3% 7.0% 9.3% 7.0%

Majority Punjabi less English - - 2.3% 7.0%

Majority Punjabi less Malay - - 2.3% 2.3%

Majority English less Punjabi - - 2.3% -

Majority Mandarin less English - - - 2.3%

Majority Mandarin less Malay - - - 4.7%

Majority Cantonese less English - - - 9.3%

Majority Cantonese less Malay - - - 9.3%

Other combination - - - 2.3%

No Available - - - 4.7%

* Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range

for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below.

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Distancing and withholding information seem to bring out the most creative use

of code mixing in Malaysian youth. Among the three major groups in this study, the

Indian adolescents use the most number of verbal varieties. The number of variation and

combination is rather amazing.

Figure 6.12 below is a simple model to show the language choices of the Indian

youth in relation to intra and inter-racial interaction amongst the youth in this case

study. It is clear that different languages are used with different listeners. Different

languages are also used for different functions with different listeners. For example with

the Malays, the Indian youth use mainly Malay for joking, bonding and expressing

anger but for distancing and to exclude them from their discourse, the Indian youth use

Tamil. With the Chinese, the Indian youth use mainly English for functions like joking,

bonding and expressing anger but for distancing and to exclude the Chinese, they use

Tamil. However, with other Indians, the Indian youth use Tamil for joking, bonding and

expressing anger but they use English for distancing and to exclude other Indians.

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Malay (86.0%)

Joking

Majority Malay less English (58.1%)

English (46.5%)

Malay (95.3%)

Bonding

Majority Malay less English (76.7%)

Malay

English (44.2%)

Malay (74.4%)

Anger

Majority Malay less English (44.2%)

English (41.9%)

Tamil (81.4%)

Distancing

Majority Tamil less English (44.2%)

English (30.2%)

English (86.0%)

Joking

Majority English less Malay (48.8%)

Malay (48.8%)

English (90.7%)

Bonding

Majority English less Malay (55.8%)

INDIAN

Chinese Malay (41.9%)

English (79.1%)

Anger

Malay (39.5%)

Majority English less Malay (30.2%)

Tamil (88.4%)

Distancing

Majority Tamil less English (41.9%)

Majority Tamil less Malay (18.6%)

Tamil (81.4%)

Joking

English (55.8%)

Majority Tamil less English (48.8%)

Tamil (79.1%)

Bonding

English (60.5%)

Indian

Majority Tamil less English (51.2%)

Tamil (88.4%)

Anger

Majority Tamil less English (53.5%)

English (51.2%)

English (44.2%)

Distancing Tamil (27.9%)

Malay (23.3%)

Figure 6.12

Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger

and Distancing with their Friends from Different Ethnicity.

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6.6 Discussions of Findings from the Questionnaire

Language constitutes a core form of social organization and agencies like the

family, the neighbourhood and school are important agencies of socialization (Giddens,

1989). Amongst the three forms of agencies, the school provides the best ground for

inter-ethnic socialization. In Malaysia where the association of ethnicity and language is

so ingrained and enduring, deployment of language choices is an important issue.

The data shows that each of the ethnic groups in this case study has its own

dominant language, language preference and range of verbal repertoire. The findings

show that although many Malaysian youth are multilingual, most of them are bilingual

with different levels of proficiency in different languages. This ‘unbalanced

bilingualism’ is shown by the frequent use of a mixed linguistic code like majority

Malay less English variety, popular amongst the Malay youth. The data reveals the

popularity of code-switching amongst these adolescents. This is hardly surprising since

Malaysia is multi-lingual country where hundreds of languages are spoken daily by its

people. The need to code-switch is inevitable since code-switching is a very convenient

way to accommodate others, to bridge linguistic differences, to show affiliation, to

exercise “budi bahasa” or good manners in Asian cultures, to reduce social distance, to

establish rapport, to withhold information, to mitigate a face threatening act, or even to

create certain communicative effect (see Asmah, 1992; Morais, 1997; Jamaliah Mohd.

Ali, 1995; Le Vasan, 1996; David 1999; Jariah Mohd Jan, 1999; Kow, 2003; David,

2003). In this country code-switching is a socio-linguistic tool and it provides many

socio-linguistic advantages.

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The findings show that language choices of these adolescents are influenced by

many factors. Among the factors that are likely to influence language choices are the

verbal repertoire and language proficiency of the interlocutors, their ethnicity and

attitude towards a language and speakers of the language. The deployment of language

choices by the adolescents with their grandparents in the home domain is influenced by

linguistic repertoire and language proficiency of these adolescents. Ethnic languages

and dialects are often used with grandparents who do not speak languages like English

and Malay which the adolescents learn in school. In the school domain, the findings

show that the adolescents in this school will speak in English to those who are proficient

in English and will speak in Malay to those who are not proficient in English. It also

shows the tendency of the Chinese and Indian adolescents to use Malay when they

interact with the Malays in school. With members of their own ethnicity, the Chinese

adolescents use mainly Cantonese and English while the Indians use mainly English and

Tamil. This pattern of linguistic deployment indicates that language accommodation

(Giles and Smith, 1979) is widely used by the Chinese and the Indian adolescents in this

study.

In this case study, the most dominant language for the Malay youth is Malay

(100%) followed by majority Malay less English mix (85.3%) and English (26.9%).

Malay is used in all the three domains (family, neighbourhood and school) by this

ethnic group with all their addressees. In the Family domain, Malay is used by all the

respondents with family members. The use of English is very low with all the members

of the family and is highest with younger siblings (26.5%) followed by the parents

(14.7%). One of the factors for the limited use of English is the different levels of

proficiency in English of family members. The data shows that the Malay adolescents

come from a predominantly Malay speaking background. In the neighbourhood domain,

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Malay is also the main language choice with members of their own ethnicity as well as

those from other ethnic groups. The Malay adolescents are bilingual but Malay is very

dominant and English is used sparingly, mainly in the majority Malay less English code

switch. The ethnolinguistic vitality of the Malay group is very high but language

accommodation is low in intergroup interactions. The empirical evidence show that the

Malays see themselves as bilingual in Malay and English, but are mainly perceived by

the Chinese and Indians adolescents as a monolingual group. This is seen in the

consistent use of Malay by the Chinese and Indian adolescents with members of the

Malay group.

For the Chinese youth, the most dominant languages are Cantonese (65.1%) and

English (65.1%) followed by Majority English less Cantonese mix (46.5%). They use

mainly Cantonese and English with family members. The percentage of Cantonese and

English used in the home domain varies according to the addressees. The data shows

that the Chinese adolescents come from a Cantonese and English speaking background.

Both these languages are used in the home domain and in their neighbourhood with

shopkeepers and their peers and with friends in informal situations in school. However,

the deployment of language choices varies according to their addressee. These

adolescents generally use Cantonese and English with Chinese addressees, Malay with

the Malays and English with the Indians. Most of them are trilinguals but many are

multilinguals.

The most dominant language for the Indian youth is surprisingly not their

mother tongue but English (77.3%) followed by Tamil (61.4%) and subsequently by

Majority Tamil less English mix (45.5%). Like some of the Chinese adolescents,

English is the first language of a number of the Indian adolescents. Tamil and English as

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well as various mixed codes are used in the home domain. In the neighbourhood, the

Indians use mainly Malay with their Malay peers, English with their Chinese peers and

Tamil with their Indian peers. The data shows the Indian adolescents in this study come

from mainly Tamil and English speaking background but Malay is also widely used.

The following is an analysis of the dominant language for each of the ethnic groups in

this case study:

Table 6.26

Dominant Languages of the Respondents in Relation to their Ethnicity

Ethnicity Position Language choices %

Malay

1

2

3

Malay

Majority Malay less English

English

100

91.2

26.9

Chinese

1

2

3

Cantonese

English

Majority English less Cantonese

65.1

65.1

46.5

Indian

1

2

3

English

Tamil

Majority Tamil less English

77.3

61.4

45.5

The findings reveal that the verbal repertoire of Malaysian youth varies from

group to group and from individual to individual. It shows that Malaysian youth have to

constantly decide which language to deploy when they speak to different interlocutors

for intra-group and inter-group interactions. The decisions they make regarding

language choices will depend on their own verbal repertoire and the verbal repertoire of

the interlocutors they interact with. This is especially so in inter-ethnic interaction

among the youth. For example, a Chinese youth may not able to use Cantonese when he

speaks to an Indian boy because Cantonese is not in the latter’s verbal repertoire. The

likely meaningful language choices would be to use either English or majority English

less Malay combination or Malay since these languages are common in the verbal

repertoire of both the interlocutors. Each time the youth interacts with another person,

he has to make a number of decisions and one of which is the verbal repertoire of his

listener because not all his listeners understand his preferred language choices. He may

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choose a language to accommodate his peers if his intention is to reduce social distance

or to show ‘goodwill’. In contrast, he will most likely use a language which his intended

audience does not understand or prefer if his intention is to show distancing. He is only

able to do this if he has a wide range of languages to choose from. It would not be

possible for those with limited verbal repertoire. Thus, having a large verbal repertoire

may be an advantage to the user. Those with limited verbal repertoire may resort to

confining themselves within their linguistic boundary where they are most comfortable

with. This may be a hindrance to mingling and social integration amongst the youth of

different ethnic groups. We can conclude that besides sociocultural differences,

differences in language preferences and levels of proficiency in common languages are

stumbling blocks to social integration amongst Malaysian youth. While the youth will

use the national language and English as and when the need arises, they tend to separate

naturally into the various linguistic groups where they share the same code. The data

show that Malaysian youth tend to form friendship groups along ethnic and linguistic

lines.

While the use of the mother tongue is extremely strong amongst the Malay

adolescents, the same cannot be said of the other ethnic groups in this setting. Some

individuals do not even use the language of the parents at all. A few Indian respondents

in this case study do not know Tamil at all and a number of Chinese respondents cannot

speak Cantonese. The role of the mother tongue has been replaced by the use of

English. Unlike the Malay adolescents, English appears to be the dominant language

choice amongst the Chinese and the Indians. The use of mother tongue is very strong

amongst the Malay but only moderately high amongst the Chinese and the Indian youth.

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English and Malay are used by the youths of this school for inter-ethnic

interaction. It is not surprising that Malaysian youth use both English and Malay in

school because both these languages are taught in all Malaysian schools. This confirms

that Malaysian youth are bilinguals but it must be mentioned that many are trilinguals

and multilinguals. The impact of education on the verbal repertoire of Malaysian youth

is very obvious. Without exception, all the respondents in the survey are able to use

Malay and English. Malay is the lingua franca. It is understood by all the adolescents

and used in inter-group communications but observations of the adolescents in the

assembly ground, playing field, the basketball courts, along the corridor, the canteen

and the school library where they congregate reveal that many friendship groups are

formed along linguistic and ethnic lines. The English speaking groups are usually all

Chinese, all Indian, a mix of Chinese and Indians and occasionally a mix of Chinese,

Indians and Malays. The Malay speaking groups are mostly all Malay groups and

occasionally a mix of Malay and Indian. When there are Malay, Indian and Chinese

adolescents playing together in the football field an interesting development occurs. The

adolescents will be shouting to each other in Malay but will switch to their respective

ethnic languages when they address teammates from their own ethnic group. The Indian

adolescents switch to Tamil and the Chinese adolescents switch to Cantonese but Malay

is used with teammates who are not from their own ethnicity at the football field.

This form of linguistic behaviour was consistently observed throughout the

duration of the fieldwork. At the basketball courts where all the respondents are Chinese

adolescents, Cantonese is the medium of communications. Along the corridor,

adolescents of different ethnic groups greet the researcher in English. English is also

generally used along the corridor except where the adolescents in the group are all

Malays. In such cases, Malay is used. At the assembly ground before school in the

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morning, all kinds of language varieties can be heard. English, Malay, Cantonese, Tamil

and varieties of mixed-codes are spoken. During assembly, announcements are made in

Malay and English. In the canteen during recess, all varieties of languages and mixed-

codes can be heard but English is the most widely spoken language. Cantonese is

widely spoken by the Chinese and Tamil by the Indians. There are more single ethnic

friendship groups than multi-ethnic friendship groups at the canteen. Friendship groups

comprising of Chinese and Indian adolescents far outnumbered Chinese and Malay or

Indian and Malay friendship groups. In the school library, English and Malay are used.

The librarians at the counter generally use Malay with Malay students and English with

the Chinese and Indian students. No Malay librarians were on duty throughout the

duration of the fieldwork.

The data from the questionnaire shows that code-switching and code mixing is a

very popular practice in this speech community. Every ethnic group uses a mixed code

but in different combinations. For example, the Malays use majority Malay less English

combination, the Chinese use majority English less Cantonese combination and the

Indians use the majority Tamil less English combination. In short, the language choices

of Malaysian youth in this study are varied. Each ethnic group has its own dominant

languages, language preferences and range of verbal repertoire. Code switching and

code mixing is practiced by all and is very popular in this speech community for both

intra and inter-group interactions. The Malaysian education system has ensured that all

the Malaysian youth in this study are able to use Malay and English (see Table 6.27

below).

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Table 6.27

Primary Languages of the Adolescents

No. Primary languages Malay Chinese Indian

1. Malay 100% 20.9% 38.7%

2. English 26.9% 65.1% 77.3%

3. Cantonese - 65.1% 2.3%

4. Tamil 2.9% - 61.4%

5. Majority Malay less English 85.3% - 6.8%

6. Majority English less Malay 11.8% 25.6% 29.5%

7. Majority English less Cantonese - 46.5% 2.3%

8. Majority Cantonese less English - 25.6% -

9. Majority English less Tamil 2.9% 2.3% 29.5%

10. Majority Tamil less English - - 45.5% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use

a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others.

Although Malay is the national language and a compulsory language to be

learned in all Malaysian schools, it is not used extensively by the Chinese and Indian

youth in this setting. Their preference seems to be English, an international language

taught in all Malaysian schools, and their respective mother tongue - Tamil for the

Indians and Cantonese for the Chinese.

In their daily interaction, Malaysian youth are constantly faced with speakers

and listeners with different linguistic repertoire and levels of proficiency in the

languages they use. The people they interact with daily have a wide range of languages

to choose from and a variety of code mix to use. Every speaker or listener has their own

views towards a language and speakers of the language. It is therefore not surprising

that Malaysian youth are constantly faced with the options of making meaningful

language choices when they interact with others in their daily lives. There is a need to

reexamine how to help students to use the target language, especially English, not just in

the simulated setting in the classroom but also in authentic real life settings in schools

and to encourage them to use the target language for mingling and interaction.

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The findings show that a study of language choices on a speech community can

reveal unspoken attitude, social and linguistic behaviour of a particular group that

cannot be seen explicitly by other forms of analysis. The patterns of languages choices

reveal more than what the eyes can see. In this study, there seems to be a clearly defined

ethnic boundary amongst Malaysian youth as far as language choices and ethnicity is

concerned with the Malays using their mother tongue, the Chinese adolescents using

Cantonese and the Indian youth using Tamil. It shows that are marked differences

amongst Malaysian youth not only in ethnicity and socio-cultural difference but also in

linguistic choices for intra-ethnic communication. These differences can only be

bridged by using languages that are mutually comprehensible by all of them such as

Malay, the National Language and English, an important second language in the

country. Hence, to socialize well and integrate with one another, Malaysian youth need

to be proficient in both these languages in order to understand others and be understood

by others as well as to be part of peer or friendship groups in school. A lack of

proficiency in any of the two languages could mean separation or isolation from the

others.

Separating into small friendship groups amongst adolescents is a natural thing in

society. There are many controlling factors why friendship groups are formed. Amongst

the youth, the more common ones are personality type, socio-cultural background, racial

and linguistic differences. For the youth, even the love for Hip Hop music and football

can be a driving force for the formation of separate peer or friendship groups. In a

multiracial and multilingual country like Malaysia, however, the most common

controlling factors are ethnic and linguistic differences which has the most direct impact

on youth group formation. Thus, incompetence in Malay and English or inability to use

any of these two languages has great ramifications in a multiethnic and multilingual

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society. It may deny these adolescents access to various friendship groups and in the

worst case scenario, result in polarization in schools. This in-turn would undermine the

government’s objective of national integration amongst the races. Thus, proficiency in

these two languages and positive attitudes towards these two languages are vital for

both racial integration and national unity in the Malaysian context. Knowledge of other

local languages and dialect is an added boon for social interaction and racial integration

in a multilingual society. This should be encouraged amongst our youth. Inability to use

a language is a great stumbling block to participation in and affiliation to a speech

community. It will cause these adolescents to shy away from mingling with one another.

Such a phenomenon should not be taken lightly in a multiethnic and multicultural

society as it has direct ramifications on government efforts to integrate and unite the

different peoples in the nation.

The analysis signifies that there is a connection between language preference

and formation of peer groups amongst these adolescents. Although this school is not a

vernacular school where the student population is predominantly one race, there is still

evidence of polarization. Unlike vernacular schools where there is usually a dominant

ethnic group, the adolescents in this “mission” school have ample opportunity to mingle

freely and interact with their peers from other races in the school domain. It shows that

even in this setting, where there is a good mix of the three major ethnic groups, the

association of ethnicity and language is still very strong amongst the youth. Language

appears to constitute a core form of social organization and group dynamics. Although

Malay is accepted and used by all races as the “national and official language” of the

country, it is still seen as belonging to the dominant group, the Malays (Omar, 1987).

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Although English is used widely, Malay remains the language where all

Malaysian youth are able to comprehend and use for inter-group interactions. The

language empowers them to mix freely with their peers irrespective of their ethnicity.

The results are an indication that Malay, a language institutionally introduced to provide

its citizens a common language for national integration, is accepted and used by all the

adolescents (Omar, 1987). It is the common tongue of Malaysian youth (Jariah Mohd.

Jan, 2003).

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CHAPTER 7

FURTHER INSIGHTS FROM RECORDINGS AND OBSERVATION

7.1 Introduction

It must be mentioned here that the finer aspects of language choices can only be

seen by the use of other approaches, namely the transcripts from recorded conversations

and observations of these adolescents. This will be dealt with in this chapter.

7.2 Discussions of findings from the recordings and observations

The data from the observation shows that there is a great tendency for the Malay

students to use Malay with their Malay friends. Code-switching between Malay and

English is minimal and is confined to single word switches, for example:

Example 1

A : Fazril handsome tak hari ini?

B : Handsome sangat

C : Siapa? Fazril?

Code-switching here is used as a strategy for emphasis. The students are

bilinguals. Good looks are often associated by adolescents with the movie stars,

especially Hollywood, where good looks are highly valued. By using the English word

in place of the Malay word, the meaning of the utterance carries the weight and quality

of international stardom. Although the students in this study are from a “mission”

school, where English is widely used, the Malay students chose to use their own ethnic

language. From the recording data, we can say that the discourse practice of this speech

community in a natural setting is predominantly Malay.

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Another observation made during this study is the tendency of the members of

the other races, namely the Chinese and the Indians, to use Malay with Malay students.

It could be to establish rapport or just showing goodwill towards members of the

dominant group in the country. The data from the recording also shows this occurrence.

A Chinese student who joins the conversation uses Malay with the informant and his

Malay friends. It is used as a gesture of goodwill and accommodation in recognition of

its status as a National Language and the native language of his friends. The data show

that Malay is the lingua franca in in-group as well as inter-ethnic interaction in the

Malay youth speech community. English is hardly used by them (see Appendix A: Tape

Scripts (Extracts); Transcription 3 (Malay), page 182).

Observations on the Chinese students show that they use mainly English or

Cantonese with their Chinese friends. This is supported by the data recorded by a

Chinese informant whose main language is English. In this recording, the use of

Cantonese, the ethnic language of the Chinese in Ipoh, is minimal mainly because the

informant in not very competent in the dialect. The predominant language throughout

the recording is English. Cantonese is used sparingly in short phrases. For example:

Example 2

A : You cry or not? That part?

B : You got cry or not?

A : You cry ah?

B : Sure or not…. I lau hau suai (I salivate) eh I couldn’t get……

A : Me, Natalie, Kai Juen all never B : They cry ah

Code-switching here is used for effect to describe the state the speaker was in

that point of time. Using Chinese words help to intensify the description of the emotion

the speaker is experiencing. It is an example of a metaphorical code-switch for the

benefit of the Cantonese speaking audience. This data also shows that the English

Language used by the interlocutors is not the same as the English Language taught in

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the classroom. It shows that the students are not using the standard variety taught in

Malaysian schools. They are using the local non-standard variety of English, also

known as Malaysian English. Although the words are in English, the sentence structure

is Chinese. This form of non-formal Malaysian English which does not follow the

standard grammatical rules is used throughout the recording by the Chinese informant

and his Chinese peers.

Besides the use of Malaysian variety of English, this speech community also

uses Malay words in their speech. The interlocutors are the informant and a school

prefect who asked the informant why he was not wearing school shoes to which he

answered angrily.

Example 3

A : What kind of question, it’s because I’m injured la.

Why I’m wearing slippers?

B : Where Injured?

A : You see here bengkak.(swollen)

The code-switch used here is mainly for emphasis, to indicate the severity of the

injury and the use of the particle “la” is to justify the infringement of school rules of not

wearing school shoes. It shows that the student’s vocabulary is enriched by the

knowledge of another language. Malaysians being bilingual have more choices. Code-

switching to Malay is also used by the informant, a class monitor, to instruct other

students and to show distancing as well as asserting power and control. For example:

Example 4

A : You, duduk belakang, duduk belakang. (You, sit at the back, sit at the back )

Using Malay words is also a strategy to make the narration more realistic or to

quote something spoken by a character in the narration. It is also used to add humour in

the narration that can be appreciated by his friends. The example below is a narration by

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the informant describing how his friend was caught climbing out of a window of the

girls’ dormitory by the security guard at a motivation camp.

Example 5

A : Then, then the guard saw him climbing out, you know, the

other side.

“Yeah, Apa lu buat?” (Yes, what are you doing?)

Know what the Kai Juen said, “shhhhhhhhhhhh. Main game,

main game.” (shhhhhh playing a game, playing a game)

This is another evidence that code-switching is used creatively by Malaysian

adolescents. The recorded data show that code-switching is used by the informant for

different functions. With the teacher, the informant uses the Malaysian variety of

English, commonly used by Malaysians at home, with friends, at school and at the

workplace. (see Morais, 1998; Baskaran, 2005). For instance:

Example 6

A : Teacher, my desk got some brown coloured watery stuff.

The next moment, when he addresses his peers, he reverts back to using the basilect

variety used by his peers (see Morais, 1998; 89).

Example 7

A : Eh, I went super camp ah I learn one new game call ‘Bingo’.

Wow! Wah! I super shok already I play for seven hours wow.

Never sleep.

I play, play, play only woh

The findings here show that the informant is more than capable of using both

varieties of English. For formal situation like talking to a teacher concerning class

matters, the Malaysian variety is used. This is to signal to the teacher that he is making a

formal complaint about the unfavourable conditions of his desk. The informant switches

to the basilect variety with his peers. It is also a creative convergent strategy to signal

group membership and solidarity with his peers who are listening to his boasting. It is

used to draw the attention of his listeners to what he has to say. The use of the hybrid

word ‘shok’, which has the meaning of ‘wonderful’ or ‘fantastic’ and the use of the

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adjective ‘super’ as an amplifier before the Malay word. This shows the creativity of

young Malaysian in using words from both languages in creating new meaning.

The most striking feature in this recorded data is the use of the ‘la’ and ‘ah’

particles. In Example 3 above, the use of ‘la’ in ‘What kind of question, it’s because I’m

injured la’ accentuate the seriousness of the injury that the speaker sustained. It is used

for emphasis and to draw the attention to the reason for not following school regulation.

In another recording another speaker was heard using ‘meh’ for a similar purpose. For

instance:

Example 8

A : What competition?

B : Science.

A : Huh?

B : Science Competition lah.

A : Got meh?

These particles are commonly used by Malaysians in the informal settings. It is

one of their communicative strategies. From the data, we can say that the predominant

language of this particular Chinese youth group is English although they do use their

ethnic language at times. They use code-switching for a number of purposes such as for

emphasis, to quote someone else, for distancing or making a formal complaint and to

signal solidarity or camaraderie with members of the in-group.

The findings on the Indian youth speech community in this school show that

English is also a predominant language in this group, especially in their interactions

with the Chinese. Observations reveal that they tend to use Malay with their Malay

friends and mostly English with their Chinese friends. However, it depends on the topic

where school work is concerned. For example:

161

Example 9

A : Hey where’s your lab science

B : You punya sains sudah bagi ah

(Have you handed in your science?)

The use of Malay word is hardly surprising as Malay is the National Language

and lingua franca in the country. It is used in official settings especially for school work.

For example:

Example 10

A : Not give lah.

Just borak borak (just say some nonsense) and give back to him B : Why? For fun ah?

Here the Malay word ‘borak borak’ is used to soften the issue and to avoid

revealing the truth when the informant was asked to reveal the reason why he was

required to wear an MP3 player in school. To avoid answering, he said, “borak, borak”

(just say some nonsense) requesting the listener to say something so that it could be

recorded. His aim was not to draw attention to the recordings so he down plays the issue

creatively with this mixed code.

The findings show that students are not using the language they are taught in the

classroom when they are outside the classroom. They keep switching and mixing codes.

This signifies that the language taught and used in the classroom is not the same as the

language used in real life social interaction with their peers. One of the reasons for this

linguistic behaviour is that these adolescents are compelled to use the preferred

language of their listeners and to signal group membership in real life social interaction

with their peers.

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Besides showing solidarity and camaraderie, the findings also reveal that the

adolescents are ‘unbalanced bilinguals’ who are more proficient in one language than

the other in their verbal repertoire. For example, the Malays are considered bilingual but

the findings show that the use of English is minimal and is confined to single word

switches whereas the Chinese use more English and Cantonese but the use of Malay is

limited and is often confined to single word switches and short phrases. As for the

Indians, Tamil is only used with members of their own ethnicity in school and the main

language in their discourse is English. The use of Malay is restricted to short phrases.

For the Malaysian youth, code-switching is spontaneous and is used as a

communicative tool for a variety of functions. Code-switching has become an effective

linguistic option to perform many functions in Malaysia (see David, 1999; David, 2003)

. It is part of their everyday language use. For Malaysian youth, code-switching aids in

meaning making and to get meaning across efficiently and effectively (Kow, 2003). It

has become ‘normative linguistic behaviour’ (Duran 1994) and ‘an integral part of

Malaysian speech styles’ (see David 2003: 1).

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CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

8.1 Conclusion

The findings in the questionnaire provide a clear picture of the language choices

of Malaysian youth from the three major ethnic groups in the family domain with

different family members, in the neighbourhood with peers and shopkeepers, and in the

school domain with teachers and peers from different ethnic groups.

The findings show that the verbal repertoire and language preferences of these

adolescents are not similar. Based on the patterns of the deployment of language

choices, each ethnic group has their own range of verbal repertoire and language

preferences which is not similar with that of the other ethnic groups. Although there are

some common codes used by all the three groups especially languages like Malay and

English which they learn in school, mixed-codes such majority Malay less English and

majority English less Malay variety are more commonly used.

The results show that the main language choice for intra and intergroup

interaction amongst the Malay adolescents in this setting is Malay and majority Malay

less English variety. For the Chinese adolescents, Cantonese, English, majority

Cantonese less English and majority English less Cantonese code-switch are their main

language choices while the main language choices for the Indian adolescents are Tamil,

English, majority Tamil less English and majority English less Tamil.

Their deployment of language choices varies with different addressees and is

often influenced by their own verbal repertoire and language preference and that of their

164

addressees. Malaysian adolescents have many languages and code-switching varieties to

choose from. Because of the wide range in their verbal repertoire these adolescents can

choose to converge or diverge with the language preference of their interlocutors and

vice-versa. However, there is a natural tendency for them to frequently use the

languages they are most proficient and comfortable in but in certain situations when this

is not possible, a common language which both the speaker and the addressee can

comprehend is used. This phenomenon leads to one of the most prominent linguistic

behaviour of Malaysian youth that is, the practice of language accommodation and non-

accommodation in their in-group and out-group interactions (see David, 1999 who talks

of a similar feature in the Malaysian service encounters). Another prominent linguistic

behaviour of these adolescents is the use of a variety of code-switching (see David,

2003 who states that code-switching has become normative behaviour in Malaysian

discourse both in formal and informal settings).

The patterns of language choices in this case study reveal where, with whom,

when, how and why these adolescents choose to accommodate or not to accommodate

the people they interact with in their daily lives through their deployment of language

choices. In the home domain, where grandparents are not very proficient in Malay or

English which the adolescents learn in school, ethnic languages of the grandparents are

used as the medium of communication. In situations where the adolescents are

themselves not competent in the ethnic languages of their grandparents, Malay or

English or a variety of mixed-code is used (see David, 1996 on the Sindhi Community;

David & Kaur, 2003 on Malaysian Sindhi and Punjabi Families). Communication is

only possible by the use of a language common to both the speaker and the listener. At

times these adolescents accommodate others and at other times others accommodate

them. The use of the ethnic language is very high in the home domain for the Malay

165

adolescents. For the Chinese adolescents, languages like Cantonese, English, majority

Cantonese less English and majority English less Cantonese code-switch are most

frequently used at home. As for the Indian adolescents, Tamil, English, majority Tamil

less English and majority English less Tamil are the languages of the home domain.

In the neighbourhood, linguistic differences are bridged by the use of languages

and code-switches understood by both the speaker and the addressee. Different ethnic

groups use different languages and code-switches as a medium of communication with

different interlocutors (see 4.23, page 70-84).

In school, the adolescents use different languages as medium of communication

with different addressee. With teachers in formal and informal situations, the language

deployed by Malaysian youth is more formal and of a higher variety but the Malaysian

variety is most common with their teachers. The results show a number of things.

Firstly, the main language in formal setting in the school domain is Malay and English

with their teachers. However, there is a difference in the language preferences amongst

the students depending on their ethnicity. For instance, Malay is the main language used

by the Malay adolescents with their teachers but English is highly favoured by the

Chinese and Indian adolescents. What is significant is that even in formal situations a

mixed-code is used by the adolescents and their teachers. It is also significant that more

Malay adolescents use English with their classmates and teachers than with all the other

addressees they come into contact with (38.2% used English with their classmates and

35.3% used English with their teachers of Chinese and Indian descent).

The deployment of language choices in school also shows that code-switching is

a common linguistic behaviour amongst these adolescents. It shows that Malay is the

166

language mutually comprehensible to all the adolescents. Based on the pattern of

language choices, the same thing cannot be said of English. The Malay adolescents in

this study use Malay extensively in all the three domains. It is clear that the Malays

prefer using Malay. In sharp contrast the non-Malays (Chinese and Indians) preferred

using the Malaysian variety of English. The pattern of language choices indicates that

English is the preferred language of the Chinese and Indian adolescents and is widely

used in their intra and intergroup interactions with each other. However, they

accommodate when speaking to Malays and Malay is the main language choice in their

interactions with their Malay peers in their neighbourhood and in school.

The recordings reveal the various ways language is used by these adolescents to

convey meaning. It shows how code-switching is used creatively for specific purposes.

The tape scripts show that living in such a diverse linguistic society requires creative

and innovative deployment of language choices and the ingenious use of code-switching

and code-mixing by Malaysian youth. They need to make decisions about which

language to use all the time. It requires them to use different codes with different

interlocutors on different occasions. This is the result of living in a multilingual and

multi-ethnic society. In a society where regular contact with different ethnic and

linguistic groups is a normal requirement of daily living, an individual who is perceived

as a monolingual may be regarded as a misfit, lacking an important social skill, the skill

to interact freely with the speakers of other languages. Knowing another language or

many other languages is therefore, an added advantage and this is clearly seen in the

way code-switching is used for a variety of functions.

Collectively as a group, the Malay youth do not just use stand alone Malay.

Code mix of majority Malay less English is also part of their verbal repertoire. The

167

majority, however, do not use much English at home, in the neighbourhood or in school

even though this is an urban setting. There are several probable reasons why the Malay

adolescents in this setting do not use as much English as would be expected of urban

Malays studying in an English speaking environment. According to literature reviews,

studies have shown that socio-cultural factors may be one of the many factors which can

influence linguistic choices.

According to Asmah Hj. Omar (1992:17), due to the fact that their own language

is the official medium of communication and instruction, some of the Malays in

Malaysia do not find it a necessity to acquire another language. Although English is

officially second language, to most it just means that it is compulsory as a school

subject, and it is not something that one should acquire as an added asset. In addition,

they do not find it a necessity or an added advantage to acquire other languages since

members of the other ethnicity are able to accommodate them quite comfortably. This

negative perception towards English and the lack of motivation to use the language may

be the cause of their limited usage of English.

These socio-psychological factors could hinder these adolescents from mixing

and mingling freely with those whose language preference is English, thus denying

them the opportunity to be proficient in the language. This development may cause

them to be isolated from the others and may lead to polarization amongst Malaysians

making ethnic integration and national unity difficult to achieve.

In Malaysia, everyone, irrespective of their ethnicity, is institutionally compelled

to know and use Malay. Thus, knowing Malay alone is sufficient for the Malay

adolescents to get by in formal and informal situations because outsiders can

168

accommodate them in their own language. This could explain why they do not

accommodate or converge with the others who speak English or other languages.

Malay, as the national language of the country is part of the verbal repertoire of all its

citizens.

Studies have shown that amongst adolescents, language choice and preference

can be one of the factors in the formation of peer and friendship groups (see Rampton,

1995). There is a tendency for adolescents who share a common language or language

preference to form their own respective friendship groups. They develop their own

distinctive attitudes, values and self-referents. The transcripts in this study show that

language choice and preference is one of the factors in the formation of friendship

groups amongst Malaysian adolescents (see Appendix A, page 178).

This case study has shown that Malaysian youth is made up of a medley of

adolescents who co-exist but do not mix extensively. Each group holds by its own

language, cultural traits, values, religion and ethnic distinctiveness. As individuals they

meet but only in school and for school-sponsored activities. Language is used by

Malaysian adolescents as a tool to reduce, create and maintain ethnic boundaries (see

Giles, 1977; Wardhaugh, 1992; Rampton, 1995). For example Malay is deployed by the

Chinese and Indian adolescents in this study to bridge inter-ethnic, socio-cultural and

linguistic differences with the Malays and vice-versa while English is used by the

Chinese and Indians as the medium of communications for intra-group and intergroup

interactions. Ethnic languages, on the other hand, are used as markers to signal group

membership and shared ethnicity. They are used to create and maintain intergroup

boundaries. Most of the time, it is used to exclude others in the vicinity from their

discussion. This concurs with the observations made during the study.

169

Observations of these adolescents show that Malay is used for intergroup

exchanges when a mixed group consisting of youth from the three major ethnic groups

gets together for activities in the school field but the Chinese adolescents in this group

will address their Chinese friends in Cantonese and the Indians will address their Indian

friends in Tamil during the activities. When the group consists of only one race, the

ethnic language is deployed as the medium of communication. From the observation

made during the field study, when there is an all-Chinese group playing in the

basketball court, Cantonese is used. When there is an all-Indian group playing in the

school field, Tamil is used.

Studies have shown that threats to cultural identity can hinder second language

learning (Taylor, Meynard and Rheault, 1977). From the sociopsychological

perspective, as the dominant group in the country, but a subordinate group in this

setting, the use of their own ethnic code may provide a feeling of cultural solidarity and

ethnic differentiation for the members of the Malay group. For the Malay adolescents

ingroup membership is salient and language is an important aspect of their cultural and

racial identity. They make themselves positively distinct from outgroup members via

language. Language is used as a marker of their status as the dominant group in the

country. By maintaining the use of Malay, they are (knowingly or unknowingly)

emphasising their group membership, ethnic identity and distinctiveness from others.

Although group membership and ethnic solidarity are important and good, consistent

non-accommodation in intergroup interaction can also be seen as attempts by the

individuals and group to maintain strong intergroup boundaries or segregation from

others.

170

In terms of linguistic choices, this case study has shown that there seems to be a

linguistic chasm between the Malay adolescents and the non-Malay adolescents

(Chinese and Indian) in this setting. While the Malay youth prefer to use their ethnic

language which is also the National Language of the country, the Chinese and Indian

adolescents in this case study prefer to use English, the international language in their

daily interaction for in-group and out-group discourse.

We often think of polarization along racial lines. Our understanding of

polarization is often confined to the division and separation of people into distinct racial

groups. In fact racial polarization is often defined as the process whereby a population,

the individuals of which have varying degrees of diversity in their ancestry, is divided

into separate and distinct racial groups. However, this case study has shown that

polarization can also occur along linguistic lines.

In a multilingual society, people can be divided and separated into distinct

linguistic groups. Polarization can occur when an individual or a group isolates itself

from others or are separated via language choices or when an individual or a group

practices non-accommodation in a multilingual setting. When there is a chasm in

linguistic choices within a speech community, polarization has taken root. This can

occur in both intra and inter-group relations in a multilingual and multi-ethnic society.

For example amongst the Chinese adolescents in this setting, there are a number of them

who do not understand Cantonese. They are being polarized if their Cantonese speaking

classmates deliberately use Cantonese and make not attempt to converge with them

linguistically.

171

Schools are still regarded as the best place for inter-racial mixing but

deployment of restrictive language choices can create a chasm in terms of interethnic

mixing. Language choices can result in alienation, isolation and segregation. A group

can also be perceived as misfits, lack social skills or are unwilling to interact freely with

others if they practice non-accommodation or are not able to use the common language

of that community. This is seen as undesirable in a multiethnic society.

Interestingly, the findings reveal that the Chinese youth in this setting chose to

use Cantonese, a local dialect, instead of Mandarin the official language used in the

media and in vernacular Chinese schools. Cantonese is seen as a medium of

communication for ingroup interaction while Mandarin is seen as just an official

language used by those from Chinese schools. However, the findings reveal that not all

the Chinese youth in this setting use Cantonese (65.1%). In fact a vast majority use

English (65.1%) as a means of communication both for ingroup and outgroup

interactions. Only 7.0% use Mandarin. This signifies that, unlike the Malay adolescents,

language is important but it is not a salient aspect of their ethnic or cultural identity in

this setting. Although the Chinese are the dominant group in this setting, they are a

subordinate group in the country. The use of Malay is very limited in intra-group

interaction and is used mainly as an accommodation tool when speaking to Malay peers

and those who are not proficient in Cantonese or English. It is used more as the official

medium of communication and instruction and is thus a language that is expected of a

loyal citizen of the country. The findings in this study seems to concur with Asmah

(1987), who says that Malay is accepted and used by all races as the “national and

official language” of the country but is still seen as belonging to the dominant group, the

Malays.

172

Collectively as a group, the Indian adolescents are mainly bilingual or trilingual.

When they were children, their main language choices were Tamil (75.0%), English

(63.6%) and majority Tamil less English variety (54.4%) but currently their language

choices are English (77.3%) followed by Tamil (61.4%) and majority Tamil less

English variety (54.4%). This is an interesting development. The findings seem to

indicate that Indian adolescents in this setting “have an intrinsic desire to acquire”

English. It indicates that English is viewed positively by this group and signifies that for

these adolescents language, though an important aspect of their ethnicity, it is not the

most salient aspect of their ethnic and cultural identity.

The findings in this research give a clear picture of both the symmetrical and

asymmetrical social relations of Malaysian adolescents. The non-bumiputras are better

able at accommodating the linguistic needs of the Malays. Malay is often used by them

as a mark of goodwill and respect for the status of Malay as the official and National

Language of the country. Language choice displays the relational ties in terms of

language use amongst the respondents and gives indication of the strength of their

solidarity or deference and the close-knit or distancing relationship in intra-group and

inter-ethnic group relationship. Language choice also reveals the attitude of the

respondents in terms of how they perceive themselves and how others perceive them.

This case study shows that in a multilingual setting, language is a salient

dimension of group identity and is used to maintain intergroup boundaries. However,

one must be aware that a chasm amongst Malaysian youth can be created through

language choices. The reasons for this chasm can only be understood with an

understanding of the sociohistorical and sociopolitical profile of the country. This

research shows that without an understanding of the sociohistorical and sociopolitical

173

profile of the setting, it is quite impossible to interpret and provide a proper description

of the linguistic choices of these youth. It would be impossible to understand why these

young adolescents are motivated to use one language more than the other or to mixed

codes or why they chose to use different languages with different people in different

domains on different occasions.

8.1 Suggestions for Future Studies

For a more thorough study of the role of language in ethnic group relations or

racial integration in general, or Malaysian youth in this case, a survey of language

choices using only Giles’s accommodation theory (Giles and Smith, 1979) alone may

not be enough. Other theoretical framework such as Tajfel’s theory of intergroup

relations and social change and a structural analysis of the ethnolinguistic vitality of the

various ethnic groups need to be included in the study (see Giles, Bourhis and Taylor,

1977).

An understanding of sociohistorical, sociopolitical and sociopsychological

makeup of the community is very helpful for an accurate analysis and interpretation of

the findings. In terms of methodology and approach, an integrative framework may be

more useful.

The role of language in inter-ethnic relations and its implication to social

integration in a multi-lingual and multicultural society has received little empirical

attention. This is an important oversight since it has many ramifications in such a

society. An investigation into this area of study is thus a worthwhile pursuit.

174

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179

APPENDIX A: Tape Scripts (Extracts)

Transcription : 1 (Chinese) Extract : 1 Setting : At the school’s foyer Participants : Qi (Chinese Informant) and the researcher. Recorded on : 12.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances

0.00.01

0.00.21

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Lim Qi Lim Qi Lim Qi Lim

Ah it should be recording now lah huh, okay? Huh So, This is er Monday.You better go. Ok,ok,ok I’ll see you. Just put it in your pocket. Wear it around your neck and then recess I Recess I give you. Recess I’ll be at the library

Extract : 2 Setting : At the school’s assembly ground Participants : Qi (Informant) and his classmates during Monday morning assembly. Recorded on : 12.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances 0.00.40

0.00.45

0.00.50

0.00.55

0.00.60

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Qi Mun Qi Mun Boon Mun Dan Mun Dan Qi Dan Qi Dan Qi Mun Dan Mun Dan Mun Dan Mun

They all doing one research ah, I must wear this kit you know. You say any @#@# or any ah they all will record you know Eh really ah. @# @#(abusive language) Hoi don’t lah (soft laugh) Really (laugh) (laugh loudly) He, he, Recording away already Got recording woh Eh we shout on it, one Survey ah @#@#@#@#@#@#@#@#(laugh) You put in your bag lah He say must record we all talk Ya lah you put in your bag THEN WHO WANNA HEAR? MY MOTHER AH? NOW AH now ah now recording ah NOW YOU KNOW, @#@#@#@#@#@#@#@#@#@#@#@# (laugh) It’s recording Really ah you see Ten @#@#@#@#@#@# (laugh) Don’t lah (soft laugh) @#@#@#@#@# @#@#@Qi Vin@#@#@ You cannot hear You didn’t hear ah. One day ah I say all the bad words for you already. (Cantonese spoken in the background)

Extract : 3 Setting : Morning Assembly Participants : Qi (Chinese Informant) and his classmates during Monday morning assembly. Recorded on : 12.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances

0.01.23 0.01.30 0.01.35 0.01.40 0:02:23

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

Qi Mun Qi Mun Qi Mun Qi Boon Qi Qi Mun Qi Mun Ivan Qi Ivan Qi Ivan Qi Qi Mun

You cry or not? That part? You got cry or not? You cry ah? Sure or not…. I lau hau suai eh I couldn’t get……….. Me,Natalie,Kai Juen all never They cry ah Uh? They cry ah. They never cry Eeiah, hug mother one, this one? Chee Sing go where. Chee Siang You got hug or not? you see my leg. You near my hand also cannot see ah? Yeah. Who say cannot! Cannot find at all ah WOOHOO! I get total marks ha ha last time I get fail Last time I get 3 lah weh I get 6 eh… Ha, ha, I get C lah fucker Can get or not you? I think he told people I mad you know I sitting there I xxxx I come by. The person say you cry lah want or not, I cry

180

0:02:28 0:02:30 0:02:40 0:02:45 0:02:50

45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 5 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

Qi Ivan Qi Mun Qi Mun Mitchele Qi Dan Qi Dan Qi Dan Qi Mun Qi

We all went out, you know. Went to McDonalds. Got one 5-7, right? How I know? We all take car and go You all…. xxx Then we got caught in the girls’ room. Then we hide ah in the room then the trainer, @# you, right? the trainer knock on the door, the Mr. Sam. Then Then he come in. Then the Kai Juen get scared. He climb out the window you know He climb out the window the guard, the guard saw, then…. (cough), Why’re you wearing slippers? What kind of question, it’s because I’m injured la. Why I’m wearing slippers? Where Injured ? You see here bengkak. xxxxxxx Never, never mind both my legs also like that. Then, then the guard saw him climbing out, you know, the other side. “Yeah, Apa lu buat?” Know what the Kai Juen said, “shhhhhhhhhhhh. Main game, main game. Ha, ha, ha !! Then then, the Mr.Sam he come in ah, he knocked on the door and Natalie open the door ah, I hiding in the bed there, in her bed. He open, and “What are you doing in her bed? I said (laugh) I sleeping.(laugh) Then then the…… the Kai Juen said (clear throat) the sir ask why what, what’s happening to you all? Then Kai Juen said no nothing sir they are playing hide and seek. I climb out of the window (Teacher’s announcement)

Transcription : 2 (Indian) Extract : 1 Setting : At the school’s foyer Participants : D (Informant: Indian boy) and the researcher. Recorded on : 14.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances 0.00.01

0.00.10

0.00.18

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

L D L D L D L D L D

It’ll, it’ll move by itself one. So we’re not bothered lah. Okay So your name is Danesh ah. Ah.ah What, what class are you from? Science one Five Four Oh, Four Science one, ok Four science You just put it around your neck, okay … okay and just dump it inside here that’s all, okay I’ll see you Ah

Extract : 2 Setting : At the school assembly ground in the morning Participants : D (Informant: Indian boy) and his Chinese classmates Recorded on : 14.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances

0.00.21

0.00.40

0.00.47 0.00.56

0.01.01

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Q V D Q V Ed D Dav D Ed D Ed D Ed D Eddy to D Teacher

Hern chow Hey (caught by surprised and laugh) Yesterday also I do the same thing what. Doing for what ah? That fellow only ask.hey eh ( someone snatch the recorder) Ohwah That’s why lah he ask to put listen to He ask you why you bring ah He gave me how why should I tell him Give him Not give lah. Just borak borak (just say something) and give back to him Why? For fun ah Why He ask to record something Me yeh Keh (Cantonese: What’s that?) Pelajar di belakang di minta beratur dalam barisan masing-masing dan senap (Cantonese can be heard in the background)

181

Extract : 3 Setting : At the school assembly ground in the morning Participants : D (Informant: Indian boy) and his classmates Ed (class monitor: Chinese boy),

Sum (Indian Boy, Assistant monitor) Recorded on : 14.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances 0.01.20

0.01.50

0.02.10

0.02.30

0.02.45

0.03.03

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

D Ed D Ed D Ed D Ed D Ed D Sum D Ed Sum Eddy Sum Ed Sum Ed D Sum Ed Sum Ed Sum D Sum Sum D Ed Sum Dan Ed D Sum Ed Sum D Ed D Ed D

Hey, Foo Yan Choo going ah to the competition. Hong Kit and Victor only. Hong Kit and Victor What competition? Science. Huh? Science Competition lah. Got meh? (laugh softly) Eh, that one National Science quiz lah Competition still right? Only Form five can go. Huh? No lah Did you see Dennis? Eh, Dennis got, Dennis got, Dennis got Dennis got Jeevan Front gate. Jeevan Jeevan will be somewhere here I don’t know Maybe later you see loh. Uh Leroy not here eh Leroy? xx Leroy I saw him Saw him when? Bluff lah He’s always here one Didn’t see him one Tze Wei, Neemal, Hafis or tell Ben Leong Ah Neemal Neemal I saw. Neemal I saw Neemal I saw Ok Ok Ok Leroy, Tze Wei Tze Wei no Leroy and Tze Wei lah Xxxx even Tze Wei also Eh who take no Form Four also got ah Philip Boey, Hong Kit. Alim going Who says Science, science competition Here ah? Huh I want to go Philip Where’s Weng Kit? Alim Science Three Nar Nip err.. Nice you know to go It’s a written test lah. You read you circle answer. Last time Daniel all got tell before you know Hey where’s your lab science You punya sains sudah bagi ah (Malay: your science handed in?)

0.03.27

0.03.45

0.04.00

76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 99

Sum D Sum D Ed D Sum Ed D D Friend D Friend D Sum Ed D Ed Friend X Friend Y

Four absent first one ponteng Who ponteng? Mana Fif ah Hey mana Fif ah (laugh softly) Nar si nar inga pur nar (Tamil: Yong Hou came where Yoganathan Not yet Huh? Qi Vin the other class Where? Hi eh Yoganathan Ruben leh? Ruben never come again ah Yesterday he got come what. Why? He never come again ah He’s not here What? Leroy ah Leroy Tze Wei leh Hei ah Paul lost ah Uh yellow house (Teacher’s announcement)

182

Extract : 4 Setting : At the school assembly ground in the morning Participants : Dan (Informant) and his classmates Recorded on : 14.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances

0.04.19

0.07.00

0.08.40

0.09.00

0.09.08

Dan Ed Dan Yoga Friend Yoga Friend Teacher Dan Ed Dan Ed Dan Ed Dan

Yoganathan Lim Chee Chong. Lim Seng Yew Very nice eh. Very nice eh You got ah He gave me yesterday Huh? (Background: Teacher asking students to stop making noise. Hey, why are you walking up and down lah? Beg xxxx (Prefect making announcements) Hi the book pass up already ah. Literature book. Aey you see on the table there the file there got three more books ah Weng Fam, Kupu and the other guy one On which table? Put file the file put on that table I’m not going to the staff room. After finish I straight away Why do you want to put in the stuff room afterwards you’re not going. I put in the classroom yesterday You go and take back. You can walk freely what? Xxxxxxx

Extract : 5 Setting : After the school assembly in the morning. Walking back to the class. Participants : Danesh (Informant) and his classmates Recorded on : 14.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances

0.11.02

0.11:36

0.12:00

0.12.13

0.12.31

16.46

0.22.22

0.24.35

Prefect D Friend D Friend D Friend D Friend D Friend D Friend 2 D Friend 2 Friend D Friend D Friend D Friend D Friend 3 D K D Friend D Friend

(Background: Teacher’s announcements) No use hiding (Cough) My hair you know how long or not. Before I cut hair Ok, already Yesterday only I cut Sunday (clears throat) Hey what did you get for KT Eighty ah? (Background: Students in unison say “Thank you, sir”) Baron, Ben, Ben, Benjamin Wait for me lah, why so fast. Why going rushing to class (cough) Eh? (Apologies) Eh? Why? For oral Hei yah you go and talk rubbish with them again I don’t know where drama five, five twenty five mark ah I thought Bio xxx finish already you know Pencil box Flea market That fellow After that got maths You got how many only two Short story Poetry? Which one Hey quickly get up lah people want to sweep lah Kupu Not on On Eh my book lah. See my book running away Eh, don’t play I can come so

183

Transcription: 3 (Malay)

Extract : 1 Setting : At the school’s foyer Participants : F (Informant) and the researcher. Recorded on : 15.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances

0.00.01

0.00.10

0.00.18

0.00.30

0.00.35

0.00.40

0.00.50

0.01.00

0.01.10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Lim F Lim Lim F Lim F Lim F Lim F Lim F Lim F Lim F Lim F Lim F Lim

Aa now okay what’s your full name? M. F You don’t shout into it, you know. Once once you shout ah it’s so sensitive ah the the sound splits you know. So you hear only eeeee like that eeeee. You know ha ha (laugh). Some jokes were shouting away oh oh oh at the top of their voice. Because this thing is very sensitive it up pick up a lot of sounds. So your name is F Ha ya F bin? Haji Azan Basri Eh? Haji Azan Basri Haji Azman Basri ah Okay all right so which class are you from? Four Science Six Four Science Six as well eh. Ok you just put it on and then ah recess time ah I’ll come here and wait for you Huh After recess after you makan everything before you line up ah I’ll come here okay okay After that eh I’ll burn a disc for you lah then you go home and you can listen to yourself and see what their actually.. who you speak to is very important. Oh yah But but don’t go and tell your friend eh I’m recording I’m recording you know ah. You just put it quietly around your neck. If they don’t know even better still lah. You just put it inside here like that Okay If the prefects stop you and all that you just say that “I am doing recording for Mr. Lim” ah okay Thanks ah. Okay Thanks Qi. You have been very, very helpful.

Extract : 2 Setting : At the school’s foyer Participants : F (Informant) at the assembly ground with his friends Recorded on : 15.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances

0.01.30

0.02.00

0.02.30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Chinese 1 Chinese 2 F Faz Dan (prefect) F Faz Faz Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Dan (prefect) Faz F Fazl F Kh F Faz F Faz F Faz Faz F

Chow hai lah leh (obscenity in Cantonese) Ee kor meah leh kah (Cantonese: What is this?) Macam perempuan punya tengok ha,ha Ha cuci muka Hello ha ha babi (laugh) Belakang, belakang, belakang Belakang lagi Jangan mengada-ada man. Sepak hang baru tahu Jangan cakap lagi Nak buat apa binatang itu. Taram mulut buat apa (quiet laugh)Ha Tak apa Eh Memang Taram main namanya (soft laughter) Mmm geram (quiet laugh)ha, ha Aku siku engkau ini Nah xxxx Jangan rogol aku woi Tak nak oi Hang pun dapat ah alah Dapat apa itu. Dapat apa MP3 Huh MP3 Boleh bawa Tak tahu dia orang suruh Siapa punya ini? Huh? Tak tahu Siapa punya… Cakaplah Huh? Siapa punya? Kau punya Ialah

184

0.02.56

0.03.00

0.03.30

0.03.51

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

Faz F Faz Kh F Faz Faz F Faz F F Faz Faz F

Eh, kau punya bukan macam ini Siapa kata? Tak deh Takkan boleh bawa ke sini? xxx Boleh (Background: Teacher’s announcement) Kau ini nak pergi mana tak bawa buku? Mana beg awak beg warna purple itu? Aku basuh Alah Luqman,aku bengang betul Slow la sikit,kau ini Belakang sikit Sudah la Luqman (Laughter) Dada aku ini ada penyakit jantung Aduh sakit cibai (Background: Teacher’s announcement)

Extract : 3 Setting : At the school’s foyer Participants : Mohd Faza (Informant) at the assembly ground with his friends Recorded on : 15.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances

0.03.53

0.04.17

0.04.23

0.04.38

0.05.36

0.07.32

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Faz Faiz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz F Faz Faz Faz F Faz

Fazril handsome tak hari ini? Handsome sangat Siapa? Fazril? (Background: Teacher’s announcement) Eh, Sejarah kau dah buat dah? Aku hari jumaat hantar dah buat? Belum Apa yang kau buat? Tak tau Apa dia? Semalam aku tengok wayang. Cerita Cars Ha Kau ada keluar ke tak? Tak.Keluar malam Aku keluar dengan kakak aku la Kau keluar pergi mana? Kau? JJ (Jaya Jusco supermarket) Aku tak nampak kau pun Aku keluar pukul 11 Aku keluar dari situ,pukul.. Aku pukul 11:30 habis...Aku pergi teman diorang main boling Tak la kata dekat rumah Mula-mula aku kat rumah Lawak la cerita Cars Lawak ke? Best la (Teacher’s announcement about a boy being suspended from school) Ini pasal Zul itu Budak mana? Dia dulu budak A3 Entah,mak bapak dia datang. Engkau pun tahu (Teacher warning students about the consequences of sleeping in class for those who watch World cup Football live telecast) Season lepak dekat cyber cafe Tak tengok bola pun,memang kita ngantuk Kau memang macam itu pun Wei cuba kau dengar,sila berani perhatian?

Extract : 4 Setting : At the school’s assembly ground Participants : F (Informant) at the assembly ground with his friends Recorded on : 15.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances

0.08.50

0.09.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

J J Faz Faz F Faz F Faz

Kamu pun kena ah? Hello,i love you Bodoh ke?bodoh ke? Jason...Jason handsome la Semalam aku tengok wayang dekat rumah Biar betul? Tengok wayang pukul berapa?11:55? Tak..pukul 10:45

185

Extract : 5 Setting : Students leaving the school’s assembly ground Participants : F (Informant) leaving the assembly ground with his friends Recorded on : 15.6.2006

Time Line Interlocutor Utterances

0.011.50

0.12.11

0.12.20

0.12.28

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

F Faz F Kh F Faz F Faz F Faz F J F Faz F J F J F J F Faz F Faz Faz F Faz J Faz J Faz F J Faz F Kh F Kh Faz F Faz Kh F Faz F Faz

Apalah pulak? Tau ini apa? Lepas ini,lepas ini Cepat la. Lepas ni la aku bagitau. Ho, Ah Doh, doh jangan Ada apa Nanti lah aku bagitau Buat apa nanti Nantilah Eh,siapa punya ni? Nantilah Hang ni kacau betul Haaa serupa mainan kita Ha, ha,ha Gila Bodoh Gila Bodoh Gila Bodoh Gila He ha Siapa siapa Bapak engkau Ha he, he, he ah lah xxxxxxx (snore) Biar saja aku tidur satu tindir dengan dia Hah? Biar aku tidur satu tindir dengan dia Manor ah Ini tengok ini Tengohlah atas siapa itu. Orang putih Main Ini bahu ini Eh tak boleh bawa sebenarnya benda ini Mana aku tahu nampak ini apa? Tak tahu? Apa benda tu MP3 Huh Ahah Ah he hehehe Ada computer… (laughter) Lela ada tahi kucing kat depan. Ada tahi kucing kat depan nu Mana Tahi kucing kat depan Mana Itu ah Ah itu kau pijak (laughter) Faza pijak. Bodoh Ingat Faza ingat dia naik kereta dia pijak tahi kucing itu

186

APPENDIX B: Sample of the Questionnaire

UNIVERSITY MALAYA

LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS FACULTY KUALA LUMPUR

SOAL SELIDIK BAHASA

PEMILIHAN BAHASA REMAJA MALAYSIA

Salam sejahtera. Saya seorang penyelidik bahasa dan saya amat memerlukan pertolongan anda untuk mengetahui bahasa yang anda guna semasa anda bersama

dengan orang di sekeliling anda dalam kehidupan seharian. Ini bukan ujian, tetapi hanya sesuatu soal selidik untuk mengetahui bahasa yang anda pilih semasa anda bertutur

dengan orang lain. Maklumat yang anda beri adalah sulit dan tidak akan dibaca oleh sesiapa melainkan saya sendiri. Ia akan dimusnahkan setelah penyelidikan ini tamat

nanti. Sila ikut arahan dan jangan segan untuk meminta penjelasan daripada guru anda sekiranya anda tidak memahami arahan atau soalan-soalan yang dikemukakan. Yang

pentingnya jawapan anda memberi gambaran yang benar dan tepat tentang pemilihan

bahasa yang digunakan serta pandangan anda. Terima kasih kerana menjawab dengan

tulus dan ikhlas.

LANGUAGE SURVEY

LANGUAGE CHOICES OF MALAYSIAN YOUTH

Hi, I’m a language researcher and I need your help to find out the languages you use

with people around you in your daily life. This is not a test but a survey to find out your

language choices when you speak with others. The information you give will be kept

confidential and is highly valued. They will be destroyed once the research is over.

Please follow the instructions and you are most welcome to ask for further explanation

from your teacher if you do not understand the instructions or the questions. It is

important that your answers reflect your actual language choices and your opinions

accurately. Thanks for answering honestly.

Nota: Bahasa utama = Bahasa yang paling sering di gunakan

(kekerapan 60% ke atas) Note: Main Language = Language most frequently used (60% and above of the time)

Prepared by

MR. LIM CHIN CHYE

TXGC 050001 SEMESTER 2, ACADEMIC YEAR 2005/2006

Data collection for dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Masters in Linguistics programme

187

A. Mengenali diri anda A. Getting To Know You

Sila tik ���� pilihan anda Please Tick ���� your choices

1. Nama : ………………………………………………………………… Name

2. Tingkatan :………………………………………. Form

3. Umur : ……………………………………… Age

4. Lelaki/Perempuan : lelaki perempuan Male/Female male female

5. Tarikh Lahir : ……………………………… Birthday

6. Tempat lahir : ……………………………… Place of Birth

7. Keturunan : Melayu Cina Indian Punjabi Serani

Ethnicity: Malay Chinese Indian Punjabi Eurasian

Lain-lain (sila nyatakan):………………………………. Others (please state)

8. Nama sekolah rendah anda hadiri: SRK/SRJK/SRJK(T)/SRJK(C).................. Name of Primary School:

9. Nama sekolah menengah rendah anda hadiri: ……………………………...... Name of Lower Secondary School:

10. Nama sekolah anda hadiri sekarang: ……………..………………………….. Name of present school:

11. Nombor telefon (jika ada)……………………….…………………………… Contact No. (Optional):

12. Nama bapa (Father’s Name): …………………………………………………

Pekerjaan bapa (Father’s Occupation):………………………………………….

13. Keturunan Bapa: Melayu Cina Indian Punjabi Serani

Ethnicity: Malay Chinese Indian Punjabi Eurasian

Lain-lain (sila nyatakan):………………………………. Others (please state)

14. Nama Ibu (Mother’s Name): …………………………………………………

Pekerjaan Ibu (Mother’s Occupation):………………………………………….

15. Keturunan Ibu: Melayu Cina Indian Punjabi Serani

Ethnicity: Malay Chinese Indian Punjabi Eurasian

Lain-lain (sila nyatakan):………………………………. Others (Please state)

188

B. Mengenali corak penggunaan bahasa anda. Sila tik ���� pilihan anda

B. Getting To Know Your Language Habits. Please Tick ���� your choices

16. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda guna semasa kecil (kanak-kanak) Main language/languages you used when you were a child.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

17. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda guna kini

Main language/languages you use today.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

189

18. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa yang guna di rumah dengan abang dan kakak anda. Main language/languages you speak at home with your older brothers and sisters.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

19. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa yang anda guna di rumah dengan adik-adik anda. Main language/languages you speak at home with your younger brothers and sisters.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

190

20. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna di rumah dengan ayah. Main language/languages you speak at home with your father.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

21. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna di rumah dengan ibu. Main language/languages you speak at home with your mother.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

191

22. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna di rumah dengan datuk. Main language/languages you speak at home with your grandfather.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Tidak ada datuk lagi (Not Living)

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

23. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna di rumah dengan nenek. Main language/languages you speak at home with your grandmother.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Tidak ada nenek lagi (Not Living)

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

192

24. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum Melayu. Main language/languages you speak with your Malay neighbourhood friends around your age.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Tidak ada orang Melayu di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Malays in my neighbourhood

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

25. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum Cina. Main language/languages you speak with your Chinese neighbourhood friends around your age.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Tidak ada orang Cina di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Chinese in my neighbourhood

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

193

26. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum India. Main language/languages you speak with your Indian neighbourhood friends around your age.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Tidak ada orang India di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Indians in my neighbourhood

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

27. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai Melayu di tempat kediaman

anda.. Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Malay shopkeepers.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Tidak ada pekedai Melayu di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Malay shopkeepers in my neighbourhood

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

194

28. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai Cina di tempat kediaman anda. Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Chinese shopkeepers.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Tidak ada pekedai Cina di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Chineseshopkeeper in my neighbourhood

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

29. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai India di tempat kediaman anda. Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Indian shopkeepers.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Tidak ada pekedai India di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Indian shopkeepers in my neighbourhood

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

195

30. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru Melayu di sekolah

anda. Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Malays.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

31. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru kaum Cina di sekolah

anda. Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Chinese.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

196

32. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru kaum India di sekolah

anda. Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Indians.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

33. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu dalam kelas

anda. Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends in the classroom.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

197

34. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina dalam kelas

anda. Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends in the classroom.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

35. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India dalam kelas

anda. Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends in the classroom.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

198

36. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu pada waktu

rehat. Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends during recess.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

37. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina pada waktu

rehat. Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends during recess.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

199

38. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India pada waktu

rehat. Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends during recess.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

39. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu pada waktu aktiviti

ko-kurikulum. Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends during co-curricular activities.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

200

40. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina pada waktu aktiviti ko-

kurikulum. Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends during co-curricular activities.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

41. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India pada waktu aktiviti ko-

kurikulum. Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends during co-curricular activities.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

201

42. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan Melayu di sekolah. Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Malay friends in school.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

43. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan Cina di sekolah. Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Chinese friends in school.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

202

44. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan India di sekolah. Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Indian friends in school.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

45. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan

Melayu. Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Malay friends.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

203

46. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan

Cina. Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Chinese friends.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

47. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan

India. Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Indian friends.

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu

Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris

Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

204

48. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan

perhubungan persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar Melayu di sekolah anda? Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Malay students in friendship in

your school?

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

49. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan

perhubungan persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar Cina di sekolah anda? Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Chinese students in friendship in

your school?

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

205

50. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan

perhubungan persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar India di sekolah anda? Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Indian students in friendship in

your school?

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

51. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajar-

pelajar Melayu memahami apa yang anda kata? Main language/languages you use when you do not want Malay students to know what you are saying?

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):

Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris

Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi

Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris

Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state):

206

52. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajar-

pelajar Cina memahami apa yang anda kata? Main language/languages you use when you do not want Chinese students to know what you are

saying?

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

53. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajar-

pelajar India memahami apa yang anda kata? Main language/languages you use when you do not want Indian students to know what you are saying?

Melayu (Malay) Inggeris (English) Tamil(Tamil)

Punjabi(Punjabi) Mandarin (Mandarin) Kantonis (Cantonese)

Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):

Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages): Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris

Majority Malay Less English

Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu

Majority English Less Malay

Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English

Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil

Majority English Less Tamil

Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris

Majority Punjabi Less English

Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu

Majority Punjabi Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi

Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English

Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu

Majority Mandarin Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin

Majority English Less Mandarin

Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English

Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu

Majority Cantonese Less Malay

Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis

Majority English Less Cantonese

Campuran Lain:………………

Other combination (please state):

Sekian sahaja soal selidik ini. Terima kasih kerana mengambil bahagian dalam kajian ini.

This is the end of the survey. Thank you for participating.

207

APPENDIX C: Results of the findings from the Questionnaire.

16. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda guna semasa kecil (kanak-kanak)

Main language/languages you used when you were a child.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 34 100 2 4.7 5 11.4

English 3 8.8 23 53.5 28 63.6

Tamil 33 75.0

Mandarin 6 14

Cantonese 31 72.1

Other languages/dialects 1 2.3 2 4.5

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 31 91.2 3 7 3 6.8

Majority English less Malay 2 5.9 6 14 10 22.7

Majority Tamil less English 24 54.5

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.3 9 20.5

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3 10 22.7

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English 2 4.7

Majority Mandarin less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Mandarin 5 11.6

Majority Cantonese less English 18 41.9

Majority Cantonese less Malay 11 25.6

Majority English less Cantonese 11 25.6

Other combination 1 2.3

17. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda guna kini

Main language/languages you use today.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 34 100 9 20.9 17 38.6

English 9 26.5 28 65.1 34 77.3

Tamil 1 2.9 27 61.4

Mandarin 3 7.0

Cantonese 28 65.1 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects 1 2.9 1 2.3 1 2.3

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 29 85.3 3 6.8

Majority English less Malay 4 11.8 11 25.6 13 29.5

Majority Tamil less English 20 45.5

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.3 6 13.6

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.9 1 2.3 13 29.5

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less English 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Mandarin 4 9.3

Majority Cantonese less English 11 25.6

Majority Cantonese less Malay 7 16.3

Majority English less Cantonese 20 46.5 1 2.3

Other combination 1 2.3 1 2.3

208

18. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa yang guna di rumah dengan abang dan kakak anda.

Main language/languages you speak at home with your older brothers and sisters.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 32 94.1 4 9.3 5 11.4

English 1 2.9 23 53.5 29 65.9

Tamil 31 70.5

Punjabi

Mandarin 4 9.3

Cantonese 27 62.8

Other languages/dialects 1 2.3 2 4.5

Not Available 2 5.9 2 4.7

Majority Malay less English 28 82.4 2 4.5

Majority English less Malay 1 2.9 8 18.6 6 13.6

Majority Tamil less English 20 45.5

Majority Tamil less Malay 9 20.5

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3 10 22.7

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less English 2 4.7

Majority Mandarin less Malay 2 4.7

Majority English less Mandarin 5 11.6

Majority Cantonese less English 19 44.2

Majority Cantonese less Malay 8 18.6

Majority English less Cantonese 10 23.3

Other combination 2 4.5

19. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa yang anda guna di rumah dengan adik-adik anda.

Main language/languages you speak at home with your younger brothers and sisters.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 31 91.2 1 2.3 4 9.1

English 9 26.5 21 48.8 29 65.9

Tamil 1 2.3 29 65.9

Punjabi

Mandarin 3 7

Cantonese 24 55.8 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects 1 2.9 2 4.7 2 4.5

Not Available 2 5.9 3 7 2 4.5

Majority Malay less English 28 82.4 2 4.5

Majority English less Malay 1 2.9 4 9.3 4 9.1

Majority Tamil less English 20 45.5

Majority Tamil less Malay 7 15.9

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3 11 25.0

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English 2 4.7

Majority Mandarin less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Mandarin 4 9.3

Majority Cantonese less English 17 39.5

Majority Cantonese less Malay 6 14

Majority English less Cantonese 10 23.3 1 2.3

Other combination 1 2.9 1 2.3

209

20. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna di rumah dengan ayah.

Main language/languages you speak at home with your father.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 31 91.2 1 2.3 2 4.5

English 5 14.7 19 44.2 29 65.9

Tamil 1 2.3 30 68.2

Punjabi

Mandarin 3 7

Cantonese 22 51.2

Other languages/dialects 4 9.3 2 4.5

Not Available 2 5.9 1 2.3

Majority Malay less English 30 88.2 1 2.3

Majority English less Malay 2 5.9 3 7 4 9.1

Majority Tamil less English 19 43.2

Majority Tamil less Malay 7 15.9

Majority English less Tamil 10 22.7

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Punjabi 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less English 4 9.3

Majority Mandarin less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Mandarin 2 4.7

Majority Cantonese less English 16 37.2

Majority Cantonese less Malay 5 11.6

Majority English less Cantonese 11 25.6

Other combination 2 4.7 1 2.3

21. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna di rumah dengan ibu.

Main language/languages you speak at home with your mother.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 31 91.2 2 4.7 4 9.1

English 5 14.7 19 44.2 29 65.9

Tamil 1 2.3 31 70.5

Punjabi

Mandarin 4 9.3

Cantonese 27 62.8

Other languages/dialects 3 7 1 2.3

Not Available 2 5.9

Majority Malay less English 30 88.2 2 4.5

Majority English less Malay 2 5.9 5 11.6 6 13.6

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3 22 50.0

Majority Tamil less Malay 7 15.9

Majority English less Tamil 12 27.3

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English 4 9.3

Majority Mandarin less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Mandarin 3 7

Majority Cantonese less English 19 44.2

Majority Cantonese less Malay 6 14 1 2.3

Majority English less Cantonese 10 23.3

Other combination 2 4.7 1 2.3

210

22. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna di rumah dengan datuk.

Main language/languages you speak at home with your grandfather.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 32 94.1 3 6.8

English 1 2.9 3 7 12 27.3

Tamil 29 65.9

Punjabi 1 2.3

Mandarin

Cantonese 18 41.9

Other languages/dialects 5 11.6 2 4.5

Not Available 2 5.9 16 37.2 8 18.2

Majority Malay less English 28 82.4 2 4.5

Majority English less Malay 2 4.5

Majority Tamil less English 21 47.7

Majority Tamil less Malay 7 15.9

Majority English less Tamil 4 9.1

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 10 23.3

Majority Cantonese less Malay 2 4.7

Majority English less Cantonese 2 4.7

Other combination 2 4.7 1 2.3

23. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna di rumah dengan nenek.

Main language/languages you speak at home with your grandmother.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 33 97.1 4 9.1

English 1 2.9 6 14 11 25.0

Tamil 35 79.5

Punjabi

Mandarin 2 4.7

Cantonese 28 65.1

Other languages/dialects 7 16.3 2 4.5

Not Available 5 11.6 3 6.8

Majority Malay less English 27 79.4 3 6.8

Majority English less Malay 1 2.3

Majority Tamil less English 22 50.0

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.9 1 2.3 9 20.5

Majority English less Tamil 5 11.4

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 13 30.2

Majority Cantonese less Malay 5 11.6

Majority English less Cantonese 2 4.7

Other combination 1 2.3 1 2.3

211

24. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum Melayu.

Main language/languages you speak with your Malay neighbourhood friends around your age

(peers).

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 33 97.1 20 46.5 36 81.8

English 2 5.9 12 27.9 13 29.5

Tamil 3 6.8

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese 4 9.3 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 15 34.9 7 15.9

Majority Malay less English 28 82.4 16 37.2 22 50.0

Majority English less Malay 1 2.9 3 7.0 7 15.9

Majority Tamil less English 4 9.1

Majority Tamil less Malay 3 6.8

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3 2 4.5

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 3 7.0

Majority Cantonese less Malay 1 2.3 1 2.3

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination

25. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum Cina. Main language/languages you speak with your Chinese neighbourhood friends around your age

(peers).

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 20 58.8 19 43.2

English 12 35.3 16 37.2 35 79.5

Tamil

Punjabi

Mandarin 7 16.3

Cantonese 38 88.4 2 4.5

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 6 17.6 4 9.1

Majority Malay less English 15 44.1 11 25.0

Majority English less Malay 10 29.4 1 2.3 18 40.9

Majority Tamil less English 2 4.5

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.3 1 2.3

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3 5 11.4

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less Malay 2 4.7

Majority English less Mandarin 2 4.7

Majority Cantonese less English 19 44.2 1 2.3

Majority Cantonese less Malay 6 14.0 1 2.3

Majority English less Cantonese 7 16.3 1 2.3

Other combination 1 2.3

212

26. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum India.

Main language/languages you speak with your Indian neighbourhood friends around your age

(peers).

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 22 64.7 15 34.9 3 6.8

English 10 29.4 22 51.2 23 52.3

Tamil 1 2.3 37 84.1

Punjabi

Cantonese

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 6 17.6 12 27.9 2 4.5

Majority Malay less English 18 52.9 7 16.3

Majority English less Malay 8 23.5 8 18.6 3 6.8

Majority Tamil less English 27 61.4

Majority Tamil less Malay 9 20.5

Majority English less Tamil 3 7.0 7 15.9

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese

Other combination

27. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai Melayu di tempat kediaman anda..

Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Malay shopkeepers.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 33 97.1 33 76.7 32 72.7

English 1 2.9 4 9.3 5 11.4

Tamil

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 1 2.9 8 18.6

Majority Malay less English 26 76.5 19 44.2 21 47.7

Majority English less Malay

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese

Other combination

213

28. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai Cina di tempat kediaman anda.

Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Chinese shopkeepers.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 28 82.4 1 2.3 27 61.4

English 7 20.6 10 23.3 30 68.2

Tamil 1 2.3

Punjabi

Mandarin 5 11.6

Cantonese 38 88.4 2 4.5

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 4 11.8 4 9.1

Majority Malay less English 22 64.7 15 34.1

Majority English less Malay 4 11.8 1 2.3 18 40.9

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Tamil 4 9.1

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English 2 4.7

Major Mandarin less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 17 39.5

Majority Cantonese less Malay 6 14.0 1 2.3

Majority English less Cantonese 2 4.7 2 4.5

Other combination

29. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai India di tempat kediaman anda.

Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Indian shopkeepers.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 25 73.5 22 51.2 8 18.2

English 5 14.7 22 51.2 19 43.2

Tamil 38 86.4

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 7 20.6 8 18.6 2 4.5

Majority Malay less English 23 67.6 12 27.9 7 15.9

Majority English less Malay 2 5.9 9 20.9 24 54.5

Majority Tamil less English 11 25.0

Majority Tamil less Malay 4 9.1

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination

214

30. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru Melayu di sekolah anda.

Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Malays.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 32 94.1 34 79.1 43 97.7

English 2 5.9 18 41.9 23 52.3

Tamil

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 28 82.4 23 53.5 31 70.5

Majority English less Malay 3 8.8 8 18.6 7 15.9

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3

Majority Tamil less Malay

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese

Other combination

31. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru kaum Cina di sekolah anda.

Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Chinese.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 26 76.5 6 14.0 21 47.7

English 12 35.3 39 90.7 40 90.9

Tamil

Punjabi

Mandarin 1 2.3

Cantonese 7 16.3 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 19 55.9 1 2.3 11 25.0

Majority English less Malay 10 29.4 15 34.9 28 63.6

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3

Majority Tamil less Malay

Majority English less Tamil 3 6.8

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Mandarin 2 4.7

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 10 23.3 1 2.3

Other combination

215

32. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru kaum India di sekolah anda.

Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Indians.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 25 73.5 17 39.5 18 40.9

English 12 35.3 35 81.4 40 90.9

Tamil 12 27.3

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 18 52.9 3 7.0 8 18.2

Majority English less Malay 11 32.4 22 51.2 23 52.3

Majority Tamil less English 2 4.5

Majority Tamil less Malay 4 9.1

Majority English less Tamil 2 4.7 11 25.0

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination

33. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu dalam kelas anda.

Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends in the classroom.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 32 94.1 38 88.4 39 88.6

English 2 5.9 19 44.2 17 38.6

Tamil 1 2.3 2 4.5

Punjabi

Mandarin 1 2.3

Cantonese 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects 4 11.8

Not Available 1 2.9

Majority Malay less English 30 88.2 26 60.5 33 75.0

Majority English less Malay 2 4.7 7 15.9

Majority Tamil less English 2 4.5

Majority Tamil less Malay

Majority English less Tamil

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin 1 2.3

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 2 4.7

Other combination

216

34. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina dalam kelas anda.

Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends in the classroom.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 25 73.5 6 14.0 19 43.2

English 13 38.2 24 55.8 41 93.2

Tamil 1 2.3

Punjabi

Mandarin 1 2.3

Cantonese 32 74.4 3 6.8

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 1 2.9

Majority Malay less English 22 64.7 10 22.7

Majority English less Malay 10 29.4 6 14.0 25 56.8

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3

Majority Tamil less Malay

Majority English less Tamil 4 9.1

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin 2 4.7

Majority Cantonese less English 19 44.2

Majority Cantonese less Malay 6 14

Majority English less Cantonese 12 27.9 3 6.8

Other combination

35. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India dalam kelas anda.

Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends in the classroom.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 29 85.3 22 51.2 12 27.3

English 10 29.4 34 79.1 27 61.4

Tamil 1 2.3 34 77.3

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 25 73.5 9 20.9 7 15.9

Majority English less Malay 8 23.5 22 51.2 9 20.5

Majority Tamil less English 21 47.7

Majority Tamil less Malay 7 15.9

Majority English less Tamil 2 4.7 9 20.5

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination

217

36. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu pada waktu rehat.

Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends during recess.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 32 94.1 37 86.0 39 88.6

English 1 2.9 16 37.2 13 29.5

Tamil 3 6.8

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese 3 7.0

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 2 5.9 1 2.3

Majority Malay less English 31 91.2 25 58.1 31 70.5

Majority English less Malay 2 4.7 5 11.4

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3

Majority Tamil less Malay 2 4.5

Majority English less Tamil

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination

37. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina pada waktu rehat.

Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends during recess.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 26 76.5 3 7.0 20 45.5

English 11 32.4 27 62.8 41 93.2

Tamil

Punjabi

Mandarin 2 4.7

Cantonese 30 69.8

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 1 2.9

Majority Malay less English 24 70.6 5 11.4

Majority English less Malay 7 20.6 4 9.3 27 61.4

Majority Tamil less English

Majority Tamil less Malay

Majority English less Tamil 4 9.1

Majority Punjabi less English 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin 3 7.0

Majority Cantonese less English 21 48.8

Majority Cantonese less Malay 3 7.0

Majority English less Cantonese 8 18.6 1 2.3

Other combination

218

38. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India pada waktu rehat.

Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends during recess.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 31 91.2 21 48.8 9 20.5

English 6 17.6 36 83.7 22 50.0

Tamil 32 72.7

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 26 76.5 9 20.9 6 13.6

Majority English less Malay 4 11.8 15 34.9 8 18.2

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3 20 45.5

Majority Tamil less Malay 10 22.7

Majority English less Tamil 2 4.7 6 13.6

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination

39. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu pada waktu aktiviti ko-

kurikulum.

Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends during co-curricular activities.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 33 97.1 35 81.4 38 86.4

English 2 5.9 22 51.2 22 50

Tamil 6 13.6

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese 2 4.7 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 1 2.9

Majority Malay less English 30 88.2 24 55.8 29 65.9

Majority English less Malay 6 14.0 10 22.7

Majority Tamil less English 2 4.5

Majority Tamil less Malay 2 4.5

Majority English less Tamil 2 4.5

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 2 4.7 1 2.3

Other combination

219

40. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina pada waktu aktiviti ko-

kurikulum.

Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends during co-curricular activities.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 28 82.4 4 9.3 21 48.8

English 10 29.4 28 65.1 38 88.4

Tamil 2 4.7

Punjabi

Mandarin 1 2.3

Cantonese 29 67.4 3 7.0

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 1 2.9 1 2.3

Majority Malay less English 27 79.4 1 2.3 13 30.2

Majority English less Malay 7 20.6 4 9.3 23 53.5

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3

Majority Tamil less Malay

Majority English less Tamil 3 7

Majority Punjabi less English 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin 1 2.3

Majority Cantonese less English 19 44.2 1 2.3

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 14 32.6 1 2.3

Other combination

41. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India pada waktu aktiviti ko-

kurikulum.

Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends during co-curricular activities.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 30 88.2 20 46.5 12 27.9

English 8 23.5 37 86.0 29 67.4

Tamil 33 76.7

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 1 2.9

Majority Malay less English 26 76.5 7 16.3 7 16.3

Majority English less Malay 4 11.8 21 48.8 12 27.9

Majority Tamil less English 19 44.2

Majority Tamil less Malay 11 25.6

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3 9 20.9

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3 1 2.3

Other combination

220

42. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan Melayu di sekolah.

Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Malay friends in school.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 33 97.1 39 90.7 37 86.0

English 3 8.8 20 46.5 20 46.5

Tamil 1 2.3 5 11.6

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese 2 4.7

Other languages/dialects 2 5.9

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 30 88.2 26 60.5 25 58.1

Majority English less Malay 3 7.0 9 20.9

Majority Tamil less English 2 4.7

Majority Tamil less Malay 4 9.3

Majority English less Tamil 2 4.7

Majority Punjabi less English 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 1 2.3

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination

43. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan Cina di sekolah.

Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Chinese friends in school.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 28 82.4 4 9.3 21 48.8

English 10 29.4 28 65.1 37 86.0

Tamil 1 2.3 3 7.0

Punjabi

Mandarin 1 2.3

Cantonese 34 79.1 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 25 73.5 10 23.3

Majority English less Malay 6 17.6 3 7.0 21 48.8

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Tamil 5 11.6

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 25 58.1

Majority Cantonese less Malay 4 9.3

Majority English less Cantonese 5 11.6 1 2.3

Other combination

221

44. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan India di sekolah.

Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Indian friends in school.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 30 88.2 23 53.5 12 27.9

English 8 23.5 36 83.7 24 55.8

Tamil 2 5.9 2 4.7 35 81.4

Punjabi 2 4.7

Mandarin

Cantonese 2 4.7

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 25 73.5 8 18.6 6 14

Majority English less Malay 5 14.7 16 37.2 12 27.9

Majority Tamil less English 21 48.8

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.3 8 18.6

Majority English less Tamil 2 5.9 7 16.3

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination

45. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan

Melayu.

Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Malay friends.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 32 94.1 30 69.8 32 74.4

English 5 14.7 26 60.5 18 41.9

Tamil 1 2.9 3 7.0 14 32.6

Punjabi 1 2.3 2 4.7

Mandarin 1 2.9

Cantonese 11 25.6 2 4.7

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 26 76.5 13 30.2 19 44.2

Majority English less Malay 3 8.8 8 18.6 4 9.3

Majority Tamil less English 10 23.3

Majority Tamil less Malay 4 9.3

Majority English less Tamil 2 4.7

Majority Punjabi less English

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 5 11.6

Majority Cantonese less Malay 2 4.7

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination

222

46. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan Cina.

Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Chinese friends.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 27 79.4 7 16.3 17 39.5

English 9 26.5 25 58.1 34 79.1

Tamil 2 4.7 9 20.9

Punjabi 1 2.3

Mandarin 1 2.9 2 4.7 3 7

Cantonese 35 81.4 6 14

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 1 2.9

Majority Malay less English 11 25.6

Majority English less Malay 4 11.8 4 9.3 13 30.2

Majority Tamil less English 8 18.6

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.9 3 7.0

Majority English less Tamil 6 14

Majority Punjabi less English 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 23 53.5 2 4.7

Majority Cantonese less Malay 6 14.0 1 2.3

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3 1 2.3

Other combination

47. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan India.

Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Indian friends.

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 27 79.4 16 37.2 9 20.9

English 7 20.6 32 74.4 22 51.2

Tamil 4 11.8 4 9.3 38 88.4

Punjabi 1 2.3 2 4.7

Mandarin 1 2.9 1 2.3

Cantonese 7 16.3 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects

Not Available 1 2.9 1 2.3

Majority Malay less English 21 61.8 5 11.6 4 9.3

Majority English less Malay 3 8.8 14 32.6 6 14.0

Majority Tamil less English 23 53.5

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.3 11 25.6

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.9 4 9.3

Majority Punjabi less English 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Punjabi 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 4 9.3

Majority Cantonese less Malay 1 2.9

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination

223

48. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan perhubungan

persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar Melayu di sekolah anda?

Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Malay students in friendship in your

school?

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 33 97.1 36 83.7 41 95.3

English 3 8.8 16 37.2 19 44.2

Tamil 2 4.7

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese 3 7 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 30 88.2 23 53.5 33 76.7

Majority English less Malay 6 14.0 5 11.6

Majority Tamil less English 2 4.7

Majority Tamil less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 2 4.7 1 2.3

Majority Cantonese less Malay 1 2.3 1 2.3

Majority English less Cantonese

Other combination

49. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan perhubungan

persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar Cina di sekolah anda?

Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Chinese students in friendship in your

school?

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 32 94.1 5 11.6 18 41.9

English 7 20.6 25 58.1 39 90.7

Tamil 1 2.3

Punjabi

Mandarin 1 2.3 1 2.3

Cantonese 35 81.4 4 9.3

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 28 82.4 1 2.3 10 23.3

Majority English less Malay 3 8.8 2 4.7 24 55.8

Majority Tamil less English

Majority Tamil less Malay

Majority English less Tamil 4 9.3

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 23 53.5 1 2.3

Majority Cantonese less Malay 6 14.0

Majority English less Cantonese 6 14.0 2 4.7

Other combination

224

50. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan perhubungan

persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar India di sekolah anda?

Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Indian students in friendship in your

school?

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 32 94.1 17 39.5 9 20.9

English 6 17.6 35 81.4 26 60.5

Tamil 34 79.1

Punjabi

Mandarin

Cantonese 1 2.3

Other languages/dialects

Not Available

Majority Malay less English 27 79.4 7 16.3 5 11.6

Majority English less Malay 4 11.8 18 41.9 11 25.6

Majority Tamil less English 1 2.3 22 51.2

Majority Tamil less Malay 10 23.3

Majority English less Tamil 3 7.0

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese

Other combination

51. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajar-pelajar Melayu

memahami apa yang anda kata?Main language/languages you use when you do not want

Malay students to know what you are saying?

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 13 38.2 3 7.0 6 14.0

English 11 32.4 9 20.9 13 30.2

Tamil 7 20.6 3 7.0 35 81.4

Punjabi 1 2.3

Mandarin 1 2.9 5 11.6 1 2.3

Cantonese 1 2.9 37 86.0 3 7.0

Other languages/dialects 2 5.9 1 2.3

Not Available 6 17.6

Majority Malay less English 14 41.2 4 9.3

Majority English less Malay 8 23.5 2 4.7 5 11.6

Majority Tamil less English 19 44.2

Majority Tamil less Malay 4 11.8 9 20.9

Majority English less Tamil 1 2.9 3 7

Majority Punjabi less English 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less Malay 1 2.3

Majority English less Punjabi

Majority Mandarin less English 1 2.3

Majority English less Mandarin

Majority Cantonese less English 11 25.6 1 2.3

Majority Cantonese less Malay 1 2.9 2 4.7

Majority English less Cantonese 1 2.3

Other combination 4 9.3

225

52. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajar-pelajar Cina

memahami apa yang anda kata?

Main language/languages you use when you do not want Chinese students to know what you

are saying?

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 26 76.5 6 14.0 5 11.6

English 3 8.8 17 39.5 6 14.0

Tamil 4 11.8 9 20.9 38 88.4

Punjabi 1 2.3

Mandarin 1 2.9 3 7

Cantonese 6 14

Other languages/dialects 2 5.9 11 25.6 1 2.3

Not Available 3 8.8 5 11.6

Majority Malay less English 22 64.7 2 4.7 3 7

Majority English less Malay 3 7 3 7

Majority Tamil less English 3 8.8 1 2.3 18 41.9

Majority Tamil less Malay 4 9.3 8 18.6

Majority English less Tamil 2 4.7 2 4.7

Majority Punjabi less English 1 2.3

Majority Punjabi less Malay

Majority Mandarin less English 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less Malay

Majority Cantonese less English 2 4.7

Majority Cantonese less Malay

Majority English less Cantonese 2 4.7

Other combination 2 4.7

53. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajar-pelajar India

memahami apa yang anda kata?

Main language/languages you use when you do not want Indian students to know what you are

saying?

Language Choices Malay

34

Chinese

43

Indian

44

No. % No. % No. %

Malay 21 61.8 2 4.7 10 23.3

English 7 20.6 12 27.9 19 44.2

Tamil 1 2.9 12 27.9

Punjabi 3 7.0

Mandarin 1 2.9 6 14.0 1 2.3

Cantonese 1 2.9 37 86.0 8 18.6

Other languages/dialects 4 11.8 1 2.3 4 9.3

Not Available 3 8.8 2 4.7

Majority Malay less English 18 52.9 5 11.6

Majority English less Malay 6 17.6 1 2.3 7 16.3

Majority Tamil less English 6 14.0

Majority Tamil less Malay 4 9.3

Majority English less Tamil 3 7.0

Majority Punjabi less English 3 7.0

Majority Punjabi less Malay 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less English 1 2.3 1 2.3

Majority Mandarin less Malay 2 4.7

Majority Cantonese less English 13 30.2 4 9.3

Majority Cantonese less Malay 3 7.0 4 9.3

Majority English less Cantonese

Other combination 4 9.3 1 2.3