Chapter 1 - Bricks, Beads And Bones - The Harappan Civilization

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Bricks, Beads and BonesThe Harappan Civilisation

THEME

ONE

The Harappan seal (Fig.1.1) is possibly the mostdistinctive artefact of the Harappan or Indus valleycivilisation. Made of a stone called steatite, sealslike this one often contain animal motifs and signsfrom a script that remains undeciphered. Yet weknow a great deal about the lives of the people wholived in the region from what they left behind –their houses, pots, ornaments, tools and seals – inother words, from archaeological evidence. Let ussee what we know about the Harappan civilisation,and how we know about it. We will explore howarchaeological material is interpreted and howinterpretations sometimes change. Of course, thereare some aspects of the civilisation that are as yetunknown and may even remain so.

Terms, places, timesThe Indus val ley civi l i sat ion is a lso cal led the Harappan culture.Archaeologists use the term “culture” for a group of objects ,distinctive in style, that are usually found together within a specificgeographical area and period of time. In the case of the Harappanculture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stoneblades (Fig. 1.2) and even baked bricks. These objects were foundfrom areas as far apart as Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan(Pakistan) and Gujarat (Map 1).

Named af ter Harappa, the f i rs t s i te where this unique culturewas discovered (p. 6), the civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and1900 BCE. There were earlier and later cultures, often called EarlyHarappan and Late Harappan, in the same area. The Harappancivi l i sat ion is sometimes cal led the Mature Harappan culture todistinguish it from these cultures.

Fig. 1.1A Harappan seal

Fig. 1.2Beads, weights, blades

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THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY2

Map 1Some importantMature Harappan sitesSketch map not to scale

Manda

Harappa

BanawaliRakhigarhi

Mitathal

Ganweriwala

Kot Diji

ChanhudaroAmriBalakot

Mohenjodaro

Sutkagendor

Dholavira

LothalNageshwar Rangpur

Kalibangan

Jhelum

Chenab

Ravi

Indu

s

Yamuna

Ganga

Chambal

Saba

rmat

i

Arabian Sea

Mahi

Narmada

Sutlej

1. BeginningsThere were several archaeological cultures in theregion prior to the Mature Harappan. These cultureswere associated with distinctive pottery, evidence ofagriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts.Settlements were generally small, and there werevirtually no large buildings. It appears that therewas a break between the Early Harappan and theHarappan civilisation, evident from large-scaleburning at some sites, as well as the abandonmentof certain settlements.

2. Subsistence StrategiesIf you look at Maps 1 and 2 you will notice that theMature Harappan culture developed in some of theareas occupied by the Early Harappan cultures.These cultures also shared certain common elementsincluding subsistence strategies. The Harappans atea wide range of plant and animal products, includingfish. Archaeologists have been able to reconstructdietary practices from finds of charred grains andseeds. These are studied by archaeo-botanists, whoare specialists in ancient plant remains. Grains

Early and MatureHarappan cultures

Look at these f igures for thenumber of settlements in Sindand Cholistan (the desert areaof Pakistan bordering the TharDesert).

SIND CHOLISTAN

Total number 106 239of sites

Early Harappan 52 37sites

Mature 65 136Harappan sites

Mature Harappan 43 132settlements onnew sites

Early Harappan 29 33sites abandoned

You will find certainabbreviations, related todates, in this book.

BP stands for BeforePresent

BCE stands for BeforeCommon Era

CE stands for the CommonEra. The present year is2009 according to thisdating system.

c. stands for the Latinword circa and means“approximate.”

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found at Harappan sites includewheat, barley, lentil, chickpeaand sesame. Millets are foundfrom sites in Gujarat. Finds ofrice are relatively rare.

Animal bones found at Harappansites include those of cattle, sheep,goat, buffalo and pig. Studiesdone by archaeo-zoologists or zoo-archaeologists indicate that theseanimals were domesticated.Bones of wild species such asboar, deer and gharial arealso found. We do not knowwhether the Harappans huntedthese animals themselves orobtained meat from other huntingcommunities. Bones of fish andfowl are also found.

2.1 Agricultural technologies

While the prevalence ofagriculture is indicated by findsof grain, it is more difficult toreconstruct actual agricultural practices. Wereseeds broadcast (scattered) on ploughed lands?Representations on seals and terracotta sculptureindicate that the bull was known, andarchaeologists extrapolate from this that oxenwere used for ploughing. Moreover, terracottamodels of the plough have been found at sites inCholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).Archaeologists have also found evidence of aploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan),associated with Early Harappan levels (see p. 20).The field had two sets of furrows at right angles toeach other, suggesting that two different cropswere grown together.

Archaeologists have also tried to identify thetools used for harvesting. Did the Harappans usestone blades set in wooden handles or did they usemetal tools?

Most Harappan sites are located in semi-aridlands, where irrigation was probably required foragriculture. Traces of canals have been found atthe Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, butnot in Punjab or Sind. It is possible that ancient

Discuss...Are there any similarities ordifferences in the distributionof settlements shown on Maps1 and 2?

Fig. 1.3A terracotta bull

BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES

Map 2Areas of Early Harappanoccupation

Sketch map not to scale

AMRI-NAL

Arabian Sea

DAMBSADAAT

Indu

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KOTDIJI

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Do you think thesetools could have been usedfor harvesting?

Fig. 1.5Reservoir at DholaviraNote the masonry work.

Archaeologists use present-day analogies to tryand understand what ancient artefacts were usedfor. Mackay was comparing present-day quernswith what he found. Is this a useful strategy?

Discuss...What is the evidence used byarchaeologists to reconstructdietary practices?

Fig. 1.4Copper tools

Fig. 1.6Saddle quern

Source 1

canals silted up long ago. It is also likely that waterdrawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides,water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) mayhave been used to store water for agriculture.

How artefacts are identified

Processing of food required grinding equipment as well as vesselsfor mixing, blending and cooking. These were made of stone, metaland terracotta. This is an excerpt from one of the earliest reports onexcavations at Mohenjodaro, the best-known Harappan site:

Saddle querns … are found in considerable numbers… and they seem to have been the only means in usefor grinding cereals. As a rule, they were roughly madeof hard, gritty, igneous rock or sandstone and mostlyshow signs of hard usage. As their bases are usuallyconvex, they must have been set in the earth or inmud to prevent their rocking. Two main types havebeen found: those on which another smaller stone waspushed or rolled to and fro, and others with which asecond stone was used as a pounder, eventuallymaking a large cavity in the nether stone. Querns ofthe former type were probably used solely for grain;the second type possibly only for pounding herbs andspices for making curries. In fact, stones of this lattertype are dubbed “curry stones” by our workmen andour cook asked for the loan of one from the museumfor use in the kitchen.

FROM ERNEST MACKAY , Further Excavations atMohenjodaro, 1937.

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How is the Lower Towndifferent from the Citadel?

3. MohenjodaroA Planned Urban Centre

Perhaps the most unique feature of the Harappancivilisation was the development of urban centres.Let us look at one such centre, Mohenjodaro,more closely. Although Mohenjodaro is the mostwell-known site, the first site to be discoveredwas Harappa.

The settlement is divided into two sections, onesmaller but higher and the other much larger but

Fig. 1.7Layout of Mohenjodaro


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The plight of HarappaAlthough Harappa was thefirst site to be discovered, itwas badly destroyed by brickrobbers. As early as 1875,Alexander Cunningham, thefirst Director-General of theArchaeo log ica l Survey o fIndia (ASI), often called thefather of Indian archaeology,no ted tha t the amounto f b r i ck t aken f rom theanc ien t s i te was enoughto l ay b r i ck s fo r “about100 mi les” o f the ra i lwayl ine be tween L a h o re andMultan. Thus, many of theancient structures at the sitewere damaged. In contrast,Mohenjodaro was far betterpreserved.

lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadeland the Lower Town respectively. The Citadel owesits height to the fact that buildings were constructedon mud brick platforms. It was walled, whichmeant that it was physically separated from theLower Town.

The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildingswere built on platforms, which served as foundations.It has been calculated that if one labourer movedroughly a cubic metre of earth daily, just to put thefoundations in place it would have required fourmillion person-days, in other words, mobilisinglabour on a very large scale.

Consider something else. Once the platforms werein place, all building activity within the city wasrestricted to a fixed area on the platforms. So itseems that the settlement was first planned andthen implemented accordingly. Other signs ofplanning include bricks, which, whether sun-driedor baked, were of a standardised ratio, where thelength and breadth were four times and twice theheight respectively. Such bricks were used at allHarappan settlements.

3.1 Laying out drainsOne of the most distinctive features of Harappancities was the carefully planned drainage system. Ifyou look at the plan of the Lower Town you will noticethat roads and streets were laid out along anapproximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at rightangles. It seems that streets with drains were laidout first and then houses built along them. Ifdomestic waste water had to flow into the streetdrains, every house needed to have at least one wallalong a street.

CitadelsWhile most Harappan settlements have a small highwestern part and a larger lower eastern section, thereare variations. At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal(Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, andsections within the town were also separated by walls.The Citadel within Lothal was not walled off, but was

Fig. 1.8A drain in MohenjodaroNotice the huge opening of thedrain.

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built at a height.

3.2 Domestic architectureThe Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examplesof residential buildings. Many were centred on acourtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyardwas probably the centre of activities such as cookingand weaving, particularly during hot and dryweather. What is also interesting is an apparentconcern for privacy: there are no windows in thewalls along the ground level. Besides, the mainentrance does not give a direct view of the interioror the courtyard.

Every house had its own bathroom paved withbricks, with drains connected through the wall tothe street drains. Some houses have remains ofstaircases to reach a second storey or the roof. Manyhouses had wells, often in a room that could bereached from the outside and perhaps used bypassers-by. Scholars have estimated that the total

The most ancientsystem yet discovered

About the drains, Mackaynoted: “It is certainly the mostcomplete ancient system as yetdiscovered.” Every house wasconnected to the street drains.The main channels were madeof bricks set in mortar and werecovered with loose bricks thatcould be removed for cleaning.In some cases, limestone wasused for the covers. Housedrains first emptied into a sumpor cesspit into which solidmatter settled while waste waterflowed out into the street drains.Very long drainage channelswere provided at intervals withsumps for cleaning. It is awonder of archaeology that“little heaps of material, mostlysand, have frequently beenfound lying alongside drainagechannels, which shows … thatthe debris was not alwayscarted away when the drainwas cleared”.

FROM ERNEST MACKAY, Early IndusCivilisation, 1948.

Drainage systems were notunique to the larger cities,but were found in smallersettlements as well. At Lothalfor example, while houses werebuilt of mud bricks, drains weremade of burnt bricks.

Fig. 1.9This is an isometric drawing of alarge house in Mohenjodaro.There was a well in room no 6.

Where is the courtyard? Where are the twostaircases? What is the entrance to the house like?


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number of wells inMohenjodaro was about700.

3.3 The CitadelIt is on the Citadel that wefind evidence of structuresthat were probably used forspecial public purposes.These include the warehouse– a massive structure ofwhich the lower brickportions remain, while theupper portions, probablyof wood, decayed longago – and the Great Bath.

The Great Bath was alarge rectangular tank in acourtyard surrounded by acorridor on all four sides.There were two flights ofsteps on the north andsouth leading into the tank,which was made watertightby setting bricks on edgeand using a mortar ofgypsum. There were roomson three sides, in one ofwhich was a large well.Water from the tank flowedinto a huge drain. Across alane to the north lay asmaller building witheight bathrooms, four oneach side of a corridor,with drains from eachbathroom connecting to adrain that ran along thecorridor. The uniqueness ofthe structure, as well as

the context in which it was found (theCitadel, with several distinctive buildings),has led scholars to suggest that it was meant forsome kind of a special ritual bath.

Fig. 1.10Plan of the Citadel

Discuss...Which of the architecturalfeatures of Mohenjodaroindicate planning?

Are there other structures on the Citadel apart fromthe warehouse and the Great Bath?

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4. Tracking Social Differences4.1 BurialsArchaeologists generally use certain strategies tofind out whether there were social or economicdifferences amongst people living within a particularculture. These include studying burials. You areprobably familiar with the massive pyramids ofEgypt, some of which were contemporaneous withthe Harappan civilisation. Many of these pyramidswere royal burials, where enormous quantities ofwealth was buried.

At burials in Harappan sites the dead weregenerally laid in pits. Sometimes, there weredifferences in the way the burial pit was made – insome instances, the hollowed-out spaces were linedwith bricks. Could these variations be an indicationof social differences? We are not sure.

Some graves contain pottery and ornaments,perhaps indicating a belief that these could be usedin the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burialsof both men and women. In fact, in the excavationsat the cemetery in Harappa in the mid-1980s, anornament consisting of three shell rings, a jasper(a kind of semi-precious stone) bead and hundredsof micro beads was found near the skull of a male.In some instances the dead were buried with coppermirrors. But on the whole, it appears that theHarappans did not believe in burying precious thingswith the dead.

4.2 Looking for “luxuries”Another strategy to identify social differences is tostudy artefacts, which archaeologists broadlyclassify as utilitarian and luxuries. The first categoryincludes objects of daily use made fairly easily outof ordinary materials such as stone or clay. Theseinclude querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers (bodyscrubbers), etc., and are usually found distributedthroughout settlements. Archaeologists assumeobjects were luxuries if they are rare or made fromcostly, non-local materials or with complicatedtechnologies. Thus, little pots of faience (a materialmade of ground sand or silica mixed with colourand a gum and then fired) were probably consideredprecious because they were difficult to make.

The situation becomes more complicatedwhen we find what seem to be articles of daily

Fig. 1.11A copper mirror


Fig. 1.12A faience pot

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use, such as spindle whorls made of rare materialssuch as faience. Do we classify these as utilitarianor luxuries?

If we study the distribution of such artefacts, wefind that rare objects made of valuable materialsare generally concentrated in large settlements likeMohenjodaro and Harappa and are rarely found inthe smaller settlements. For example, miniature potsof faience, perhaps used as perfume bottles, are foundmostly in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and there arenone from small settlements like Kalibangan. Goldtoo was rare, and as at present, probably precious –all the gold jewellery found at Harappan sites wasrecovered from hoards.

5. Finding Out About CraftProduction

Locate Chanhudaro on Map 1. This is a tinysettlement (less than 7 hectares) as compared toMohenjodaro (125 hectares), almost exclusivelydevoted to craft production, including bead-making,shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making andweight-making.

The variety of materials used to make beads isremarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful redcolour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metalslike copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience andterracotta or burnt clay. Some beads were made oftwo or more stones, cemented together, some of stonewith gold caps. The shapes were numerous – disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped,segmented. Some were decorated by incising orpainting, and some had designs etched onto them.

Discuss...What are the modes ofdisposal of the dead prevalentat present? To what extent dothese represent socialdifferences?

Hoards are objects keptcarefully by people, often insidecontainers such as pots. Suchhoards can be of jewellery ormetal objects saved for reuseby metalworkers. If for somereason the original owners donot retrieve them, they remainwhere they are left till somearchaeologist finds them.

Fig. 1.13A tool and beads

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Techniques for making beads differed accordingto the material. Steatite, a very soft stone, was easilyworked. Some beads were moulded out of a pastemade with steatite powder. This permitted making avariety of shapes, unlike the geometrical forms madeout of harder stones. How the steatite micro beadwas made remains a puzzle for archaeologistsstudying ancient technology.

Archaeologists’ experiments have revealed that thered colour of carnelian was obtained by firing theyellowish raw material and beads at various stagesof production. Nodules were chipped into roughshapes, and then finely flaked into the final form.Grinding, polishing and drilling completed theprocess. Specialised drills have been found atChanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.

If you locate Nageshwar and Balakot on Map 1,you will notice that both settlements are near thecoast. These were specialised centres for makingshell objects – including bangles, ladles andinlay – which were taken to other settlements.Similarly, it is likely that finished products (suchas beads) from Chanhudaro and Lothal were takento the large urban centres such as Mohenjodaroand Harappa.

5.1 Identifying centres of productionIn order to identify centresof craft production,archaeologists usually lookfor the following: rawmaterial such as stonenodules, whole shells, copperore; tools; unfinishedobjects; rejects and wastematerial. In fact, waste isone of the best indicatorsof craft work. For instance,if shell or stone is cut tomake objects, then piecesof these materials will bediscarded as waste at theplace of production.

Fig. 1.14PotterySome of these can be seen in theNational Museum, Delhi or in thesite museum at Lothal.

Discuss...Should the stone artefactsillustrated in the chapter beconsidered as utilitarianobjects or as luxuries? Arethere any that may fall intoboth categories?


Fig. 1.15A terracotta figurine

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Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up tomake smaller objects, but minuscule bits wereusually left in the work area. These traces suggestthat apart from small, specialised centres, craftproduction was also undertaken in large cities suchas Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

6. Strategies for ProcuringMaterials

As is obvious, a variety of materials was used forcraft production. While some such as clay werelocally available, many such as stone, timber andmetal had to be procured from outside the alluvialplain. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggestthat this was one important means of transportinggoods and people across land routes. Riverine routesalong the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastalroutes were also probably used.

6.1 Materials from the subcontinent and beyondThe Harappans procured materials for craftproduction in various ways. For instance, theyestablished settlements such as Nageshwar andBalakot in areas where shell was available. Othersuch sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan,near the best source of lapis lazuli, a blue stonethat was apparently very highly valued, and Lothalwhich was near sources of carnelian (from Bharuchin Gujarat), steatite (from south Rajasthan and northGujarat) and metal (from Rajasthan).

Another strategy for procuring raw materials mayhave been to send expeditions to areas such as theKhetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and southIndia (for gold). These expeditions establishedcommunication with local communities. Occasionalfinds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite microbeads in these areas are indications of such contact.There is evidence in the Khetri area for whatarchaeologists call the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture,with its distinctive non-Harappan pottery andan unusual wealth of copper objects. It is possiblethat the inhabitants of this region supplied copperto the Harappans.

Fig.1.16Copper and bronze vessels © N

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6.2 Contact with distant landsRecent archaeological finds suggest that copper wasalso probably brought from Oman, on the south-eastern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Chemicalanalyses have shown that both the Omani copperand Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel,suggesting a common origin. There are other tracesof contact as well. A distinctive type of vessel, alarge Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of blackclay has been found at Omani sites. Such thickcoatings prevent the percolation of liquids. We donot know what was carried in these vessels, but itis possible that the Harappans exchanged thecontents of these vessels for Omani copper.

Mesopotamian texts datable to the thirdmillennium BCE refer to copper coming froma region called Magan, perhaps a name forOman, and interestingly enough copper found at

Fig. 1.17A Harappan jar found in Oman


Map 3The Harappan Civilisation and West Asia


MediterraneanSea

RedSea

MESOPOTAMIA

Arabian Sea

Uruk

Ur

DILMUN

CaspianSea Altyn Depe

TURAN

Shahr-i-Sokhta

Tepe Yahya

Sutkagendor

MELUHHA

Harappa

LothalMAGANRasal’ Janayz

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Mesopotamian sites alsocontains traces of nickel.Other archaeologicalfinds suggestive of long-distance contacts includeHarappan seals, weights,dice and beads. In thiscontext, it is worth notingthat Mesopotamian texts

mention contact with regions named Dilmun(probably the island of Bahrain), Magan andMeluhha, possibly the Harappan region. Theymention the products from Meluhha: carnelian,lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.A Mesopotamian myth says of Meluhha: “May yourbird be the haja-bird, may its call be heard inthe royal palace.” Some archaeologists think thehaja-bird was the peacock. Did it get this name

from its call? It is likely thatcommunication with Oman,

Bahrain or Mesopotamia wasby sea. Mesopotamian textsrefer to Meluhha as aland of seafarers. Besides,we find depictions of shipsand boats on seals.

Fig. 1.18This is a cylinder seal, typical ofMesopotamia, but the humped bullmotif on it appears to be derivedfrom the Indus region.

Fig. 1.19The round “Persian Gulf” seal foundin Bahrain sometimes carriesHarappan motifs. Interestingly,local “Dilmun” weights followedthe Harappan standard.

Fig. 1.20Seal depicting a boat

Discuss...What were the possible routesfrom the Harappan region toOman, Dilmun andMesopotamia?

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7. Seals, Script, Weights7.1 Seals and sealingsSeals and sealings were used to facilitate long-distance communication. Imagine a bag of goodsbeing sent from one place to another. Its mouth wastied with rope and on the knot was affixed some wetclay on which one or more seals were pressed,leaving an impression. If the bag reached withits sealing intact, it meant that it had not beentampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identityof the sender.

7.2 An enigmatic scriptHarappan seals usually have a line of writing,probably containing the name and title of the owner.Scholars have also suggested that the motif(generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to thosewho could not read.

Most inscriptions are short, the longest containingabout 26 signs. Although the script remainsundeciphered to date, it was evidently notalphabetical (where each sign stands for a vowel ora consonant) as it has just too many signs –somewhere between 375 and 400. It is apparent thatthe script was written from right to left as someseals show a wider spacing on the right and crampingon the left, as if the engraver began working fromthe right and then ran out of space.

Consider the variety of objects on which writinghas been found: seals, copper tools, rims of jars,copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods,even an ancient signboard! Remember, there mayhave been writing on perishable materials too. Couldthis mean that literacy was widespread?

7.3 WeightsExchanges were regulated by a precise system ofweights, usually made of a stone called chert andgenerally cubical (Fig. 1.2), with no markings. The

Fig. 1.22A sealing from Ropar

How many seals areimpressed on this piece of clay?

Fig. 1.21Letters on an ancient signboard

Discuss...What are some of the present-day methods used for long-distance exchange of goods?What are their advantagesand problems?


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lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4,8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while the higherdenominations followed the decimal system. Thesmaller weights were probably used for weighingjewellery and beads. Metal scale-pans have alsobeen found.

8. Ancient AuthorityThere are indications of complex decisions beingtaken and implemented in Harappan society. Takefor instance, the extraordinary uniformity ofHarappan artefacts as evident in pottery (Fig. 1.14),seals, weights and bricks. Notably, bricks, thoughobviously not produced in any single centre, were ofa uniform ratio throughout the region, from Jammuto Gujarat. We have also seen that settlements werestrategically set up in specific locations for variousreasons. Besides, labour was mobilised for makingbricks and for the construction of massive wallsand platforms.

Who organised these activities?

8.1 Palaces and kingsIf we look for a centre of power or for depictions ofpeople in power, archaeological records provide noimmediate answers. A large building found atMohenjodaro was labelled as a palace byarchaeologists but no spectacular finds wereassociated with it. A stone statue was labelled andcontinues to be known as the “priest-king”. This isbecause archaeologists were familiar withMesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” and havefound parallels in the Indus region. But as we willsee (p.23), the ritual practices of the Harappancivilisation are not well understood yet nor are thereany means of knowing whether those who performedthem also held political power.

Some archaeologists are of the opinion thatHarappan society had no rulers, and that everybodyenjoyed equal status. Others feel there was no singleruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separateruler, Harappa another, and so forth. Yet othersargue that there was a single state, given thesimilarity in artefacts, the evidence for plannedsettlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, andthe establishment of settlements near sources of raw

Discuss...Could everybody in Harappansociety have been equal?

Fig. 1.23A “priest-king”

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material. As of now, the last theory seems the mostplausible, as it is unlikely that entire communitiescould have collectively made and implemented suchcomplex decisions.

9. The End of the CivilisationThere is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the MatureHarappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had beenabandoned. Simultaneously, there wasan expansion of population into newsettlements in Gujarat, Haryana andwestern Uttar Pradesh.

In the few Harappan sites thatcontinued to be occupied after 1900BCE there appears to have been atransformation of material culture,marked by the disappearance of thedistinctive artefacts of the civilisation– weights, seals, special beads.Writing, long-distance trade, andcraft specialisation also disappeared.In general, far fewer materials wereused to make far fewer things. Houseconstruction techniques deterioratedand large public structures were nolonger produced. Overall, artefactsand settlements indicate a rural wayof life in what are called “LateHarappan” or “successor cultures”.

What brought about thesechanges? Several explanations havebeen put forward. These range fromclimatic change, deforestation,excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up ofrivers, to overuse of the landscape. Some of these“causes” may hold for certain settlements, but theydo not explain the collapse of the entire civilisation.

It appears that a strong unifying element, perhapsthe Harappan state, came to an end. This isevidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script,distinctive beads and pottery, the shift from astandardised weight system to the use of localweights; and the decline and abandonment of cities.The subcontinent would have to wait for over amillennium for new cities to develop in a completelydifferent region.


SWAT

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RANGPUR II B-C

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Map 4Areas of Late Harappan occupation


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Evidence of an “invasion”

Deadman Lane is a narrow alley, varying from 3 to 6 feet in width … At the pointwhere the lane turns westward, part of a skull and the bones of the thorax andupper arm of an adult were discovered, all in very friable condition, at a depth of4 ft 2 in. The body lay on its back diagonally across the lane. Fifteen inches to thewest were a few fragments of a tiny skull. It is to these remains that the lane owesits name.

FROM JOHN MARSHALL, Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilisation, 1931.

Sixteen skeletons of people with the ornaments that they were wearing when theydied were found from the same part of Mohenjodaro in 1925.

Much later, in 1947, R.E.M. Wheeler, then Director-General of the ASI, tried tocorrelate this archaeological evidence with that of the Rigveda, the earliest knowntext in the subcontinent. He wrote:

The Rigveda mentions pur, meaning rampart, fort or stronghold. Indra, the Aryanwar-god is called puramdara, the fort-destroyer.

Where are – or were – these citadels? It has in the past been supposed that theywere mythical … The recent excavation of Harappa may be thought to havechanged the picture. Here we have a highly evolved civilisation of essentially non-Aryan type, now known to have employed massive fortifications … What destroyedthis firmly settled civilisation? Climatic, economic or political deterioration mayhave weakened it, but its ultimate extinction is more likely to have been completedby deliberate and large-scale destruction. It may be no mere chance that at a lateperiod of Mohenjodaro men, women, and children, appear to have beenmassacred there. On circumstantial evidence, Indra stands accused.

FROM R.E.M. WHEELER, “Harappa 1946”, Ancient India, 1947.

In the 1960s, the evidence of a massacre in Mohenjodaro was questioned by anarchaeologist named George Dales. He demonstrated that the skeletons found at thesite did not belong to the same period:

Whereas a couple of them definitely seem to indicate a slaughter, … the bulk ofthe bones were found in contexts suggesting burials of the sloppiest and mostirreverent nature. There is no destruction level covering the latest period of thecity, no sign of extensive burning, no bodies of warriors clad in armour andsurrounded by the weapons of war. The citadel, the only fortified part of the city,yielded no evidence of a final defence.

FROM G.F. DALES, “The Mythical Massacre at Mohenjodaro”, Expediton, 1964.

As you can see, a careful re-examination of the data can sometimes lead to areversal of earlier interpretations.

Discuss...What are the similarities and differences between Maps 1, 2 and 4?

Source 3

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10. Discovering the HarappanCivilisation

So far, we have examined facets of the Harappancivilisation in the context of how archaeologistshave used evidence from material remains topiece together parts of a fascinating history. However,there is another story as well – about howarchaeologists “discovered” the civilisation.

When Harappan cities fell into ruin, peoplegradually forgot all about them. When men andwomen began living in the area millennia later, theydid not know what to make of the strange artefactsthat occasionally surfaced, washed by floods orexposed by soil erosion, or turned up while ploughinga field, or digging for treasure.

10.1 Cunningham’s confusionWhen Cunningham, the first Director-General of theASI, began archaeological excavations in the mid-nineteenth century, archaeologists preferred to usethe written word (texts and inscriptions) as a guideto investigations. In fact, Cunningham’s maininterest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic(c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and laterperiods. He used the accounts left by ChineseBuddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinentbetween the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locateearly settlements. Cunningham also collected,documented and translated inscriptions found duringhis surveys. When he excavated sites he tended torecover artefacts that he thought had cultural value.

A site like Harappa, which was not part of theitinerary of the Chinese pilgrims and was not knownas an Early Historic city, did not fit very neatly withinhis framework of investigation. So, althoughHarappan artefacts were found fairly often duringthe nineteenth century and some of these reachedCunningham, he did not realise how old these were.

A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by anEnglishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessfullytried to place it within the time-frame with whichhe was familiar. This was because he, like manyothers, thought that Indian history began with thefirst cities in the Ganga valley (see Chapter 2). Givenhis specific focus, it is not surprising that he missedthe significance of Harappa.

Fig. 1.24Cunningham’s sketch of the first-known seal from Harappa


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Sites, mounds, layersArchaeological sites are formedthrough the production, useand discarding of materialsand structures. When peoplecontinue to live in the sameplace, their constant use andreuse of the landscape resultsin the build up of occupationaldebris, called a mound. Briefor permanent abandonmentresults in alteration of thelandscape by wind or wateractivity and erosion. Occupationsare detected by traces ofancient materials found inlayers, which differ from oneanother in colour, texture andthe artefacts that are foundin them. Abandonment ordesertions, what are called“steri le layers”, can beidentified by the absence ofsuch traces.

Generally, the lowest layersare the oldest and the highestare the most recent. The studyof these layers is calledstratigraphy. Artefacts found inlayers can be assigned tospecific cultural periods andcan thus provide the cultural

sequence for a site.

10.2 A new old civilisationSubsequently, seals were discovered at Harappa byarchaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni in the earlydecades of the twentieth century, in layers that weredefinitely much older than Early Historic levels. Itwas then that their significance began to be realised.Another archaeologist, Rakhal Das Banerji foundsimilar seals at Mohenjodaro, leading to theconjecture that these sites were part of a singlearchaeological culture. Based on these finds, in 1924,John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI,announced the discovery of a new civilisation in theIndus valley to the world. As S.N. Roy noted inThe Story of Indian Archaeology, “Marshall left Indiathree thousand years older than he had found her.”This was because similar, till-then-unidentifiedseals were found at excavations at Mesopotamiansites. It was then that the world knew not only of anew civilisation, but also of one contemporaneouswith Mesopotamia.

In fact, John Marshall’s stint as Director-Generalof the ASI marked a major change in Indianarchaeology. He was the first professionalarchaeologist to work in India, and brought hisexperience of working in Greece and Crete to thefield. More importantly, though like Cunningham hetoo was interested in spectacular finds, he wasequally keen to look for patterns of everyday life.

Marshall tended to excavate along regularhorizontal units, measured uniformly throughout themound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. Thismeant that all the artefacts recovered from the sameunit were grouped together, even if they were foundat different stratigraphic layers. As a result, valuable

Fig. 1.25The stratigraphy of a small moundNotice that the layers are not exactly horizontal.

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information about the context of these finds wasirretrievably lost.

10.3 New techniques and questionsIt was R.E.M. Wheeler, after he took over as Director-General of the ASI in 1944, who rectified thisproblem. Wheeler recognised that it was necessaryto follow the stratigraphy of the mound ratherthan dig mechanically along uniform horizontallines. Moreover, as an ex-army brigadier, he broughtwith him a military precision to the practiceof archaeology.

The frontiers of the Harappan civilisation havelittle or no connection with present-day nationalboundaries. However, with the partition of thesubcontinent and the creation of Pakistan, the majorsites are now in Pakistani territory. This has spurredIndian archaeologists to try and locate sites in India.An extensive survey in Kutch has revealed a numberof Harappan settlements and explorations in Punjaband Haryana have added to the list of Harappansites. While Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi Garhi andmost recently Dholavira have been discovered,explored and excavated as part of these efforts, freshexplorations continue.

Over the decades, new issues have assumedimportance. Where some archaeologists are oftenkeen to obtain a cultural sequence, others try tounderstand the logic underlying the location ofspecific sites. They also grapple with the wealth ofartefacts, trying to figure out the functions thesemay have served.

Since the 1980s, there has also been growinginternational interest in Harappan archaeology.Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad havebeen jointly working at both Harappa andMohenjodaro. They are using modern scientifictechniques including surface exploration to recovertraces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animalremains as well as to minutely analyse every scrapof available evidence. These explorations promise toyield interesting results in the future.

Wheeler at HarappaEarly archaeologists were oftendriven by a sense of adventure.This is what Wheeler wroteabout his experience atHarappa:

It was, I recall, on a warmMay night in 1944 that a fourmiles’ tonga-ride brought meas the newly appointedDirector General of theArchaeological Survey withmy local Muslim officer froma little railway-station labelled“Harappa” along a deepsand track to a small rest-house beside the moonlitmounds of the ancient site.Warned by my anxiouscolleague that we must startour inspection at 5.30 nextmorning and finish by 7.30“after which it would be toohot”, we turned in with thedark figure of the punka-wallacrouched patiently in theentrance and the nightair rent by innumerablejackals in the neighbouringwilderness.

Next morning, punctuallyat 5.30, our little processionstarted out towards the sandyheaps. Within ten minutes Istopped and rubbed my eyesas I gazed upon the tallestmound, scarcely trusting myvision. Six hours later myembarrassed staff and I werestill toiling with picks andknives under the blazing sun,the mad sahib (I am afraid)setting a relentless pace.

FROM R.E.M. WHEELER,My Archaeological Missionto India and Pakistan, 1976.

Discuss...Which of the themes in this chapter would haveinterested Cunningham? Which are the issuesthat have been of interest since 1947?


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11. Problems of Piecing Togetherthe Past

As we have seen, it is not the Harappan script thathelps in understanding the ancient civilisation. Rather,it is material evidence that allows archaeologists tobetter reconstruct Harappan life. This material couldbe pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc.Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood andreeds generally decompose, especially in tropicalregions. What survive are stone, burnt clay (orterracotta), metal, etc.

It is also important to remember that only brokenor useless objects would have been thrown away.Other things would probably have been recycled.Consequently, valuable artefacts that are foundintact were either lost in the past or hoarded andnever retrieved. In other words, such finds areaccidental rather than typical.

11.1 Classifying findsRecovering artefacts is just the beginning of thearchaeological enterprise. Archaeologists thenclassify their finds. One simple principle ofclassification is in terms of material, such as stone,clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc. The second, and morecomplicated, is in terms of function: archaeologistshave to decide whether, for instance, an artefact isa tool or an ornament, or both, or something meantfor ritual use.

An understanding of the function of an artefact isoften shaped by its resemblance with present-daythings – beads, querns, stone blades and pots areobvious examples. Archaeologists also try to identifythe function of an artefact by investigating thecontext in which it was found: was it found in ahouse, in a drain, in a grave, in a kiln?

Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourseto indirect evidence. For instance, though there aretraces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find outabout clothing we have to depend on indirectevidence including depictions in sculpture.

Archaeologists have to develop frames of reference.We have seen that the first Harappan seal that wasfound could not be understood till archaeologists hada context in which to place it – both in terms of thecultural sequence in which it was found, and interms of a comparison with finds in Mesopotamia.

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11.2 Problems of interpretationThe problems of archaeological interpretation areperhaps most evident in attempts to reconstructreligious practices. Early archaeologists thought thatcertain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliarmay have had a religious significance. These includedterracotta figurines of women, heavily jewelled, somewith elaborate head-dresses. These were regardedas mother goddesses. Rare stone statuary of men inan almost standardised posture, seated with onehand on the knee – such as the “priest-king” – wasalso similarly classified. In other instances,structures have been assigned ritual significance.These include the Great Bath and fire altars foundat Kalibangan and Lothal.

Attempts have also been made to reconstructreligious beliefs and practices by examining seals,some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others,with plant motifs, are thought to indicate natureworship. Some animals – such as the one-hornedanimal, often called the “unicorn” – depicted on sealsseem to be mythical, composite creatures. In someseals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic”posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, hasbeen regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, thatis, an early form of one of the major deities ofHinduism. Besides, conical stone objects have beenclassified as lingas.

Many reconstructions of Harappan religion aremade on the assumption that later traditions provideparallels with earlier ones. This is becausearchaeologists often move from the known to theunknown, that is, from the present to the past. Whilethis is plausible in the case of stone querns andpots, it becomes more speculative when we extendit to “religious” symbols.

Let us look, for instance, at the “proto-Shiva” seals.The earliest religious text, the Rigveda (compiled c.1500-1000 BCE) mentions a god named Rudra, whichis a name used for Shiva in later Puranic traditions(in the first millennium CE; see also Chapter 4).However, unlike Shiva, Rudra in the Rigveda isneither depicted as Pashupati (lord of animals ingeneral and cattle in particular), nor as a yogi. Inother words, this depiction does not match thedescription of Rudra in the Rigveda. Is this, then,possibly a shaman as some scholars have suggested?

Fig. 1.26Was this a mother goddess?

A linga is a polished stonethat is worshipped as asymbol of Shiva.

Fig. 1.27A “proto-Shiva” seal


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What has been achieved after so many decades ofarchaeological work? We have a fairly good idea ofthe Harappan economy. We have been able to teaseout social differences and we have some idea of howthe civilisation functioned. It is really not clear howmuch more we would know if the script were to bedeciphered. If a bilingual inscription is found,questions about the languages spoken by theHarappans could perhaps be put to rest.

Several reconstructions remain speculative atpresent. Was the Great Bath a ritual structure? Howwidespread was literacy? Why do Harappancemeteries show little social differentiation? Alsounanswered are questions on gender – did womenmake pottery or did they only paint pots (as atpresent)? What about other craftspersons? What werethe terracotta female figurines used for? Very fewscholars have investigated issues of gender in thecontext of the Harappan civilisation and this is awhole new area for future work.

Shamans are men andwomen who claim magicaland healing powers, as wellas an ability to communicatewith the other world.

This is what Mackay, one of theearliest excavators, had to sayabout these stones:

Various small cones madeof lapis lazuli , jasper,chalcedony, and otherstones, most beautifully cutand finished, and less thantwo inches in height, are alsothought to be lingas … on theother hand, i t is just aspossible that they were usedin the board-games …

FROM ERNEST MACKAY, EarlyIndus Civilisation, 1948.

Discuss...What are the aspects ofHarappan economy that havebeen reconstructed fromarchaeological evidence?

Fig. 1.28Gamesmen or lingas?

Fig. 1.29A terracotta cart

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Timeline 1Major Periods in Early Indian Archaeology

2 million BP Lower Palaeolithic(BEFORE PRESENT)

80,000 Middle Palaeolithic

35,000 Upper Palaeolithic

12,000 Mesolithic

10,000 Neolithic (early agriculturists and pastoralists)

6,000 Chalcolithic (first use of copper)

2600 BCE Harappan civilisation

1000 BCE Early iron, megalithic burials

600 BCE-400 CE Early Historic

Timeline 2Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology

Nineteenth century

1875 Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal

Twentieth century

1921 M.S. Vats begins excavations at Harappa

1925 Excavations begin at Mohenjodaro

1946 R.E.M. Wheeler excavates at Harappa

1955 S.R. Rao begins excavations at Lothal

1960 B.B. Lal and B.K. Thapar begin excavations at Kalibangan

1974 M.R. Mughal begins explorations in Bahawalpur

1980 A team of German and Italian archaeologists begins surfaceexplorations at Mohenjodaro

1986 American team begins excavations at Harappa

1990 R.S. Bisht begins excavations at Dholavira


(Note: All dates are approximate. Besides, there are wide variations in developments indifferent parts of the subcontinent. Dates indicated are for the earliest evidence of each phase.)

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Answer in100-150 words

1. List the items of foodavailable to people inHarappan cities. Identifythe groups who wouldhave provided these.

2. How do archaeologiststrace socio-economicdifferences in Harappansociety? What are thedifferences that theynotice?

3. Would you agree thatthe drainage system inHarappan cities indicatestown planning? Givereasons for your answer.

4. List the materials used tomake beads in theHarappan civilisation.Describe the process bywhich any one kind of beadwas made.

5. Look at Fig. 1.30 anddescribe what you see.How is the body placed?What are the objectsplaced near it? Are thereany artefacts on the body?Do these indicate the sex ofthe skeleton?

Fig. 1.30A Harappan burial

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Write a short essay (about500 words) on the following:

6. Describe some of the distinctive features ofMohenjodaro.

7. List the raw materials required for craftproduction in the Harappan civilisation anddiscuss how these might have been obtained.

8. Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past.

9. Discuss the functions that may have beenperformed by rulers in Harappan society.

Map work

10. On Map 1, use a pencil to circle sites whereevidence of agriculture has been recovered. Markan X against sites where there is evidence of craftproduction and R against sites where rawmaterials were found.

Project (any one)

11. Find out if there are any museums in your town.Visit one of them and write a report on any tenitems, describing how old they are, where theywere found, and why you think they are ondisplay.

12. Collect illustrations of ten things made of stone,metal and clay produced and used at present.Compare these with the pictures of the Harappancivilisation in this chapter, and discuss thesimilarities and differences that you find.


If you would like to knowmore, read:Raymond and Bridget Allchin.1997. Origins of a Civilization.Viking, New Delhi.

G.L. Possehl. 2003.The Indus Civilization.Vistaar, New Delhi.

Shereen Ratnagar. 2001.Understanding Harappa.Tulika, New Delhi.

For more information,you could visit:http://www.harappa.com/har/harres0.html

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Documents

Chapter 1 - Bricks, Beads And Bones - The Harappan Civilization