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CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION
Job satisfaction in staff/managers of hotels and restaurants should be of
great concern to any organization. Hotel and Restaurant staff and management
personnel hold the majority of positions in most hospitality-industry settings, and
replacement of a licensed personnel is costly and time consuming. Many
registered and/or accredited personnel in hotels and restaurant sectors had
limited time but ample exposure to varying degrees of job satisfaction. What
makes some so happy with their chosen profession, and others so unhappy?
Aside from a change of career, is there a solution? With the current employee’s
shortage, and the anticipation of worsening conditions, the researcher of this
study set out to investigate the sources of dissatisfaction in the hotel and
restaurant settings.
Most medium-sized enterprises realize that their effectiveness depend on
the utilization of their human resources. Employees’ levels of burnout, job
satisfaction and job performance give an indication of the effectiveness of an
enterprise. The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between
a dispositional variable (sense of coherence), burnout, job satisfaction and job
performance. A once-off cross-sectional survey design was used.. The
Orientation to Life Questionnaire, Maslach Burnout Inventory, Minnesota Job
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Satisfaction Questionnaire and Performance Appraisal Questionnaire were used
as measuring instruments. Sense of coherence was related to the three
subscales of burnout. Job satisfaction was found to be negatively related to
burnout. The results showed that one component of burnout, namely low
personal accomplishment correlates with lower creativity.
Most employers realize that the effectiveness of their organizations
depends on the utilization of their human resources and management (Boshoff &
Arnolds, 1995). Employees’ levels of burnout, job performance and job
satisfaction are some of the indicators of the effectiveness of an organization
(Kreitner & Kinicki, 1998).
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Human behaviors nonetheless, have always been global. We are all God’s
handiwork, our bodies are composed of blood and bones and a network of
nerves and glands and myriads cells which spring into action called human
behavior.
Imbalances and dysfunctions of the association between the different
systems in the human body shall be experience when unassociated factor(s) and
environmental conditions have influenced human responses with respect to
himself and to his environment. Such interactions and responses of the human
body to the conditions brought about by his environment, as well as, to his
desires and goals in life, shall characterized his behaviors, his perceptions, and
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his total personality, which in turn shall control his emotions and daily activities of
living with other components of the society an individual is living-in.
In the course of life, behaviors and personality of an individual should be
placed to a test/action upon experiencing or perceiving: environmental/societal
changes, change in life styles and human desired/aspirations, as well as socio-
cultural changes; by which all changes experienced or perceived by an individual
shall initiate the formation and filing-up of stress and may lead to various
problems. This problem touches every aspect of an individual personality –
physical, mental, emotional and social; especially those problems that concern
with all of an individual’s attitudes and behavioral problems.
Problems that have been encountered by each person in this world may
be attributed to this ever-changing society – a world being contoured and
recontoured at a pace no one seems to catch up nor fully grasp or comprehend.
Various changes in one’s life are “bedrocks of stress” more especially if these
changes are “unexpected, sudden and inescapable”.
Economic depression in many countries, not to mention the rapid lowering
of the level and quality of education given to the graduates; has thrown a large
number of people jobless. The concomitant anxiety and stress, fears and
insecurities inflict more and more people and are disorders that upset the
equilibrium and peace of minds not only of these concerned but also of the
families and the people around them.
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People of all ages are being afflicted with stress, anxiety and depression.
Problems with schoolwork, with the home and even in the workplace often lead
to depression, drug abuse and sometimes suicide.
As a result, countless persons seem to feel that happiness and peace of
mind seem so elusive. As a result, gripping anxiety and fear; and finally,
depression and mental breakdown occur.
In due to these changes and problems people are experiencing in this
modern society; it is a must that a vast amount of knowledge and understanding
in the nature of change or problems that may be encountered must be properly
acquired by such concerned individuals. It is a fact that guidance must be
appropriated to each individual in order to provide directions and essential help in
coordinating and integrating of all his activities, using his basic potentials and
environmental opportunities.
There are many factors that contribute to dissatisfaction in the work place.
Many variables within each factor make achieving satisfaction for every individual
a very difficult task. Recognition of frustrations, such as turnover, lack of internal
empowerment, burnout, and, elimination of external sources of stress can
decrease dissatisfaction in the health care setting.
Issues concerning job satisfaction, potential for burnout, as well as effect
of burnout on clients, expanded knowledge and better understanding of
productivity, and, sources of empowerment for Hotel and restaurant personnel in
the health care setting should continue to be investigated. Improved job
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satisfaction results in less turnover, better quality patient care, less physical and
mental injuries to health care staff, and betterment of entire organization.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This study is conceptualized from the fact that “a person who works well is
satisfied with his work and his ways of living”. It is therefore considered important
to consider the “HOWs” and the “WHATs” of having being satisfied with an
individuals work and necessities of better living and working conditions.
These are the stressors from our family, occupations, and environment
and event from us. Undue stress occurs when we try to live up to an ideal image
of ourselves. When unrealistic expectations clash with reality it always leads to
disappointment and frustrations. This will lead to lot of reactions and
manifestations. To better put out minds in a proper perspective, there’s a need in
familiarizing ourselves with stressors. Having knowledge on the reasons why we
are stressed will pave for better management of stress, thus allowing people to
work productivity and efficiently.
Since the Hotel and restaurant personnel and the hotel and restaurant
industry administrators are expected, to have been using the stress management
because of the high expectations from others they are the best persons to
evaluate its effectiveness; they are the primary sources of the data of this study.
Areas to be assessed are: different satisfactory working conditions and
ways of human living, the different stressors that tend to block the means of
having job-satisfaction, manifestations of not being satisfied to someone’s job,
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the hotel and restaurant industry management approaches in order to attain job-
satisfaction, and the level of job-satisfaction of those health-workers employed in
hotel and restaurant businesses. This study shall be conducted in selected hotel
and restaurant establishments in Zambales with 100 employees, including both
hotel and restaurant personnel and hotel and restaurant administrator-
respondents.
Data shall be gathered using a structured survey-questionnaire and
through the use of unstructured interviews and observations to those different
respondents.
Data shall be consolidated and will be statistically treated with the use of
different techniques of both descriptive and inferential statistical procedures
which are essential in the structuring of various findings as well as the proposal
for conclusions and recommendations in revisions and in the improvement of this
research
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PARADIGM OF THE STUDY
INPUT OUTPUTPROCESS
Survey Questionnaire
Unstructured Interviews
Indirect Observation
Statistical Procedures for Data Gathering and Interpretation
hotel and restaurant personnel Respondents’ Profile:
agesexcivil statuseducational attainment, andlength of service
hotel and restaurant Administrators Profile:
agesexcivil statuseducational attainment, andlength of service
Perceptions of Respondents for Job SatisfactionPerceptions of Respondents for the Managerial and Leadership Styles in their EstablishmentsPerceptions of Respondents for the Effect of various factors towards the marketability of the Hotel and Restaurant Establishments to which they are currently working
Improvement of hotel and restaurant industries Employees Welfare
Unparallel Employees Career Development
Better hotel and restaurant Services provided to the Public/Community
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Figure 1: The Research Paradigm
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The study aims to perform an evaluation with regards to job satisfaction,
as assessment of the managerial and leadership styles and their relationship with
the marketability of hotel and restaurant personnel and hotel and restaurant
industry administrators that are employed in selected hotel and restaurant
establishments in Zambales.
Specifically, it seeks to answer the following question:
1. What is the profile of the hotel and restaurant personnel-respondents in
terms of:
1.1 age
1.2 sex
1.3 civil status
1.4 educational attainment, and
1.5 length of service
2. What is the profile of the hotel and restaurant industry administrator-
respondents in terms of:
2.1 age
2.2 sex
2.3 civil status
2.4 educational attainment, and
2.5 length of service
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3. Which of the different conditions that satisfies hotel and restaurant
personnel and hotel and restaurant industry administrators working in
selected hotel and restaurant establishments in Zambales?
4. Which of the factor that concerns job satisfaction is the most effective?
5. What is the prevalent managerial/leadership styles shown by hotel and
restaurant managers?
6. What are some of the factors as related to job satisfaction and the
managerial and leadership styles that promote effective marketability of
selected hotel and restaurant establishments in Zambales?
7. Is there any significant difference between the satisfaction level of the
hotel and restaurant and the hotel and restaurant industry administrators?
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS (Null Hypothesis)
As a basis in order to determine the difference and the relationship of the
degree of job-satisfaction between those hotel and restaurant personnel-
respondents and hotel and restaurant industry administrator-respondents, the
research of this study will conceptualized and will structure the framework of the
research process as based on the following hypothesis indicated below:
There is no significant difference between the level of job-satisfaction as
perceived by the hotel and restaurant personnel-respondents and the
hotel and restaurant industry administrator-respondents.
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SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
The study has for its focus the different conditions and the level of job
satisfaction among the hotel and restaurant personnel and hotel and restaurant
industry administrators of the selected hotel and restaurant establishments in
Zambales.
The respondents will be limited only to fulltime or regular hotel and
restaurant personnel and hotel and restaurant industry administrators who are
working in the said industry as stated above. This study will be limited to
calendar year 2007-2008 and shall concern 100 employees or respondents.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
With regards to the used of different terms in this study, the researcher
have enumerated and described the following for the clarification and
understanding for the readers and critics of this research study:
Administrators or Hotel and Restaurant Administrators. As used in this study, this
refers to the managers or overseers who supervise and handle group of
employees in any organization, specifically those who are working in hotel
and restaurant industries and hotel and restaurant service workers. This
somebody has the job to administer the affairs of a business or
organization.
Hotel and Restaurant Personnel. This refers to the fulltime and regular hotel and
restaurant personnel who are employed in the selected hotel and
restaurant establishments in Zambales.
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Job-Satisfaction. This refers to the different conditions that favorably satisfies and
increases the quality and level of performance of employees, especially of
the hotel and restaurant personnel.
Stress. refers to the state of the body resulting to changes in both mind and
body. It defines as events or situations that cause them to feel tension,
pressure, or negative emotions such as anxiety and anger. Others view
stress as the response to these situations.
Stress Variables. As used in this study, this refers to the stressors brought about
by certain conditions emanating from work itself.
Management. This is the process of handling one’s situation by application of
different styles, approaches, and techniques.
Salary. As used by the researcher of this study, this refers to the monthly income
and net take home pay of the respondents used in this study.
Career Growth. As used in this study, this refers to the increase in one’s
opportunity and chances of attaining better living conditions.
Work/Life Balance. As used in this study, this term refers to the capability of a
person in either having more time off or a flexible work schedule as being
necessary to improve satisfaction in their current position.
Hotel and Restaurant Establishments. This refers to place where the study will be
conducted the – selected hotel and restaurant establishments which are
located at various places in Zambales.
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SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The organization could contribute to the development of employees’
sense of coherence by presenting information in a constant, structured, orderly
way that is completely understood by the employees. To ensure that employees
feel that work demands are under own or other’s control; the organization can
provide the necessary knowledge, skills, material, instruments, support and other
resources. Furthermore, by being allowed a degree of independence and
freedom of choice to execute the task at hand in their won way, employees will
feel that their jobs are meaningful. If employees’ sense of coherence can be
enhanced within the organization, the organization could contribute to the
enhancement of the job satisfaction of employees. The levels of burnout of their
employees will also be lower.
Regarding burnout, the organization should attend to the levels of
emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment levels of hotel and
restaurant managers and personnel alike. The nature of such mentioned
individuals are emotionally exhausting, and emotional support by management
might lower their emotional exhaustion. Methods to let employees know that they
meet their clients’ need may help to heighten the feeling of personal
accomplishments of their employees. Low levels of burnout will lead to job
satisfaction and sense of coherence. A training and self-development program
that focuses on the psychological strengths and burnout of the employees could
be implemented.
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Work/life issues are mixed and benefits are the least important among
considerations.
Salary: Respondents most frequently identified salary as an item
they evaluate regarding satisfaction level with their current position. It also tops
their list as the factor most likely to be used to evaluate whether or not they will
accept a future position. Forty percent of respondents believed they were not
paid market value; this is the same percentage that indicated an increase in
compensation would increase their job satisfaction.
Career Growth: Respondents most frequently cited career growth
as the reason they left their last position. Just over half indicated they were
offered career growth in their current position. Fifty-four percent indicated future
career growth opportunities would improve their satisfaction with their current
position. This is also a top consideration when making a decision to accept a
new position.
Work/life balance: Almost half of the respondents indicated the
ability to balance their career and family obligations was important in evaluating
their job satisfaction and it was an important consideration for accepting a new
position. Few respondents identified either more time off or a flexible work
schedule as being necessary to improve satisfaction in their current position.
Benefits: Benefits and perks do not seem to be as important as
career growth, salary, and involvement in decision making when individuals are
evaluating satisfaction in their current position or evaluating a new position.
13
Insurance and financial benefits make up two of the three bottom factors used to
evaluate current job satisfaction.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
This chapter presents the review of related literature and studies from both
foreign and local researchers, which provide insights, background information
and reference for the present study.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
FOREIGN RELATED LITERATURE
The estimated gender earnings gap indicates women are paid less, but
women in both countries appear more satisfied with their jobs than men1 (Clark
and Oswald, 1996; Clark, 1997; Sousa-Poza and Sousa-Poza, 2000). The
literature provides two explanations. First, satisfaction is a function of
expectations, and if women have lower expectations about labour market
outcomes, their expectations are more easily fulfilled (Clark, 1997). Second, the
bundle of characteristics associated with women’s jobs may appeal to them
sufficiently to overcome the satisfaction lost from their lower earnings.
These same two explanations have been used in exploring the role of
occupational segregation. Thus, the argument that women’s jobs appeal to them
sufficiently to overcome lower earnings clearly requires that women
disproportionately ‘choose’ a particular set of jobs, yet, much of the literature
assumes that women are ‘crowded’ into a particular set of jobs. Thus, one might
15
anticipate that the job satisfaction of women should be lower in the female
dominated jobs into which they are crowded.
Sloane and Williams (2000) take this as evidence that women largely
‘choose’ the jobs they dominate arguing that policy designed to decrease
segregation would reduce the job satisfaction of female workers. Hamermesh
(2001) makes clear why economists should study the determinants of job
satisfaction: ‘Only one measure, the satisfaction that workers derive from their
jobs, might be viewed as reflecting how they react to the entire panoply of job
characteristics. Indeed, a potentially useful view is that job satisfaction is the
resultant of the worker’s weighting in his/her own mind of all the job’s aspects.
It can be viewed as a single metric that allows the worker to compare the
current job to other labour-market opportunities.’ Hence, job satisfaction is a
more global measure allowing economists to get closer to the fundamental
concept of the aggregate well-being generated from a job, a concept that may be
poorly proxied by earnings. While such self-reported measures of satisfaction
have been criticized as subjective, Blanchflower and Oswald (1999) explain that
such measures have been successfully used for years by social psychologists
and that they do correlate in expected fashions with many objective outcomes.
For example, workers with lower self-reported job satisfaction have higher
absenteeism and are more likely to quit (Clark et al., 1998). Further, higher job
satisfaction within a firm correlates positively with its performance (Ostroff, 1992)
and, within the service industries, job satisfaction correlates positively with
customer satisfaction.
16
The renewed interest by economists in job satisfaction has yielded a
series of reasonably consistent and robust findings. Job satisfaction is higher for
the youngest and oldest workers (Clark et al., 1998), for non-union workers
(Clark, 1997; Bender and Sloane, 1998; Heywood et al., 2002), and for the less
educated (Clark and Oswald, 1996) yet, the issue attracting the most attention
has been the role of gender as a determinant of job satisfaction. The issue has
been examined in dozens of countries including not only those in Europe and
North America cited earlier but also in Kenya (Mulinge and Mueller, 1998), China
(Loscocco and Bose, 1998), and Kuwait (Metle, 2001).
The so-called paradox arises because the apparent job satisfaction of
women seems at odds with their lower adjusted earnings, lower chances for
employer provided training (at least in the US—see Lynch, 1992), and lower
adjusted probabilities of receiving pensions and health insurance (Heywood,
1989). Yet, the job characteristics valued by women and men have repeatedly
been shown to differ.
Job Satisfaction and Gender Segregation. As an alternative, the extent of
segregation may itself be considered a job attribute over which workers have
preferences. Given incomplete information on the full set of job attributes, most
evidence necessarily conflates the role of segregation per se and its role as a
proxy for job characteristics. Nonetheless, Tsui et al. (1992) find that the job
satisfaction of male workers decreases with the proportion of females in their
work group, and Sloane and Williams (2000) find that the job satisfaction of UK
women is significantly lower in ‘male dominated workplaces’. Clark (1997)
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presents very similar evidence also for the UK, finding that the gender
satisfaction gap increases with the extent of females in the workplace, a result
that flows from the greater satisfaction of women in more female dominated
workplaces.
While there exists evidence that workers’ job satisfaction is greater in work
groups largely of the same gender, we recognize that the factors influencing the
gender composition of a work group may be complex. Theoretical work in
economics has addressed the issue of the optimal size of a minority within a
workgroup.
The optimization typically recognizes a productivity interaction between
groups, such as communication within homogenous groups is superior, or a
preference interaction, where one or more groups receive disutility from working
with a minority (Rapoport and Weiss, 2001). Firms themselves may desire a
particular gender (or racial) composition in order to appeal to potential
customers.
Thus, banks may wish the composition of employees in the lobby to
roughly match those of their customers (Kim and Squires, 1996). Social
psychologists have also measured the influence of work group gender
composition on the commitment and on the effectiveness (productivity) of the
group.7
In what follows we present new evidence on the relationship between
gender composition and job satisfaction. More importantly we identify the critical
work and family flexibility variables that drive that relationship. This identification
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fits with the findings that a major reason women choose self-employment is for
family flexibility (Lombard, 2001) and that women take careers that allow such
flexibility and that this flexibility explains, at least in part, their lower earnings
(Hundley, 2001). We conclude from our evidence that gender composition does
not influence job satisfaction after accounting for flexibility.
Flexibility, Working Conditions, and Job Satisfaction. Deardorff and
Stafford (1976) examine a team production environment where workers give up
flexibility and must cooperate in terms of work times, effort, and conditions. They
demonstrate that compensation will necessarily be higher in this environment
than in one in which workers retain flexibility. Empirical researchers have taken
the view of team production as foregone flexibility showing that workers engaged
in team production earn more, other things equal (Idson, 1995). Moreover,
Heywood and Jirjahn (2002) show that women sort away from team production in
order to retain flexibility between home and work. Thus, the estimated
relationship between job satisfaction and gender composition might merely
reflect women sorting into jobs that provide flexibility. The flexibility provides
satisfaction for women, not the share of women in the job.
The explanation for higher female job satisfaction by Clark (1997) and
others is that women have lower expectations about labour market outcomes and
so are more easily satisfied with their actual experience. Yet, this argument
suggests that the expectations of women do not adapt to actual experience. They
supposedly retain lowered expectations despite an average of roughly seven
years of tenure in the NSCW. Moreover, the evidence presented shows that job
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satisfaction of women is highest in the traditionally female dominated work
places, the very places in which women as a whole have the most experience
and should have the most accurate expectations. It may be that the literature’s
notion of ‘expectations’ is that of social norms. Under such an interpretation
women may be socialized not to anticipate much satisfaction from work and are
thus surprised by the actual experience. This still leaves open why the social
norms are so persistent given the reality. In addition, Clark (1997, p.342) argues
lower expectations of women ‘likely result from the poorer position in the labour
market that women have held in the past. As the difference between men’s and
women’s jobs is eroded so will the gender difference in expectations and job
satisfaction.’ Thus, Clark, who emphasizes the importance of expectations, sees
them as rooted in dated and inaccurate information.
Similarly, providing women with additional earnings but forcing them to
choose between home and work reduces their job satisfaction (as an additional
dollar of earnings adds far less to female job satisfaction). While not as extreme
as these illustrations, public policy has become increasingly focused on
mandating ‘family friendly’ workplaces. In the US, the ‘Take Care Network’ is a
coalition supporting increased family leave for care giving and increased
opportunities for flexible scheduling and job sharing (see www. takecarenet.org).
In the UK, a government Commission (Bain, 2001) recommended giving working
parents with children the right to require their employer to provide a flexible
working pattern. This recommendation was accepted by the government which
believes it will create ‘a transformation in culture of the workplace’ (DTI, 2001,
20
p.3). To the extent that this legislates increased flexibility, our results suggest it
may be more valuable to women and may reduce the extent of segregation
created by women seeking more flexible employment. Note, however, that men
who avoided flexibility to seek higher earnings, may well be worse off as the
flexibility between work and home responsibilities is less valuable to them and
may come at a cost of reduced earnings. These reduced earnings would follow if
the provision of flexible arrangements is costly to firms that did not previously
offer them (see Heywood et al., 2001). Thus, policies to promote flexibility may
have the consequence of a economic transfer between genders.
Job Performance in Relation to Job Satisfaction. In the field of
Industrial/Organizational psychology, one of the most researched areas is the
relationship between job satisfaction and job performance (Judge, Thoresen,
Bono, & Patton, 2001). Landy (1989) described this relationship as the “Holy
Grail” of Industrial psychology. Research linking job performance with satisfaction
and other attitudes has been studied since at least 1939, with the Hawthorne
studies (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939). In Judge et al. (2001), it was found by
Brayfield and Crockett (1955) that there is only a minimal relationship between
job performance and job satisfaction. However, since 1955, Judge et al. (2001)
cited that there are other studies by Locke (1970), Schwab & Cummings (1970),
and Vroom (1964) that have shown that there is at least some relationship
between those variables. Iaffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) did an extensive
analysis on the relationship between job performance and job satisfaction.
Across their many studies, they found a mean correlation of .17 (Iaffaldano &
21
Muchinsky, 1985). There are also stronger relationships depending on specific
circumstances such as mood and employee level within the company (Morrison,
1997). Organ (1988) also found that the job performance and job satisfaction
relationship follows the social exchange theory; employees’ performance is
giving back to the organization from which they get their satisfaction.
Judge et al. (2001) argued that there are seven different models that can
be used to describe the job satisfaction and job performance relationship. Some
of these models view the relationship between job satisfaction and job
performance to be unidirectional, that either job satisfaction causes job
performance or vice versa. Another model states that the relationship is a
reciprocal one; this has been supported by the research of Wanous (1974). The
underlying theory of this reciprocal model is that if the satisfaction is extrinsic,
then satisfaction leads to performance, but if the satisfaction is intrinsic, then the
performance leads to satisfaction. Other models suggest there is either an
outside factor that causes a seemingly relationship between the factors or that
there is no relationship at all, however, neither of these models have much
research.
The final model is “Alternative Conceptualizations of Job Satisfaction
and/or Job Performance.” This model discusses how positive attitudes toward
one’s job can predict a high degree of job performance. George and Brief (1996)
and Isen and Baron (1991) both found that employees’ attitudes are reflected in
their job performance. If this is the case, then we can argue that there is a
relationship between employees’ job satisfaction and job performance, as
22
satisfaction is an attitude about their job. Industrial psychologists do not justify
any relationship between job satisfaction and job performance; although it has
been found that a positive mood is related to higher levels of job performance
and job satisfaction.
Job Performance and Job Satisfaction in Relation to Personality Type .
One construct that has been used to predict job performance is personality. This
is one area that is criticized by many people as something that may not be valid
to use (Rothstein & Goffin, 2000). Despite these criticisms, most researchers feel
that studying the relationship between personality and job performance is
extremely useful (Goffin, Rothstein, & Johnston, 2000).
Scheider and Dachler (1978) found that, over time, satisfaction with a job
remains unusually stable, which made them believe that it was people’s
personality that was due to the satisfaction with their job, rather than other
variables. Most studies dealing with job satisfaction in relation to personality are
conducted in large organizations; however, very few have been done to view the
impact on smaller organizations (Morrison, 1997). There are many different
personality factors that have been correlated to job satisfaction, but overall, there
seem to be two traits that have significant correlations: locus of control and
negative affectivity (Spector, 1997).
Locus of control refers to people’s beliefs about how much control they
have over their job, life, or various other factors (Rotter, 1966). Locus of control
has been correlated with job performance as well as job satisfaction (Spector,
1997).
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Negative affectivity is people’s tendency to have negative emotions,
independent of the situation (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). This is correlated
to job dissatisfaction because if people feel negative overall, they will be negative
about their job as well (Spector, 1997).
According to Buss (1992), the Big Five factors (which for this study are
Cattell’s five Global factors of: extraversion, anxiety, tough-mindedness,
independence, and self-control) have some influence on job performance. The
original “big five” personality factors are emotional stability, extraversion,
intellect/openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (Acton, 2002). Acton
(2002) compared the “big five” to Cattell’s global factors. He found that
extraversion is the same in both, tough-mindedness was the “big five” version of
agreeableness, anxiety was the version of emotional stability; independence was
the version of openness to experience, and self-control the version of
conscientiousness.
It seems to be a common assumption that employees, who are happy with
their job, should also be more productive at work (Spector, 1997). It has been
hypothesized that if above average performance is rewarded on the job, then the
correlation between job satisfaction and job performance would be higher
(Jacobs & Solomon, 1977).
There has been recent research that has shown relationships between
personality and job performance in firefighters (Liao, Arvey, & Butler, 2001).
Specifically, the study by Liao et al. (2001), found that the MMPI trait of social
introversion was significantly negatively correlated to injury frequency (r =-.08).
24
The reason stated for underlying this finding is that introverts tend to be less
social and because firefighters need to work as a team, introverts may be less
likely to ask for help when needed. This, in turn, also creates more hazards on
the job, and subsequently, more job-related injuries.
The addition of the personality variables to job satisfaction may also help
to account for some of the variance in job performance. As found in previous
research, there are relationships between these different areas. This research
will add to the existing literature by finding relationships between personality, job
satisfaction, and job performance.
Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors (16PF). Russell and Karol’s (2002)
manual on Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors was the basis for the data that follows.
The 16PF is a personality assessment that measures a person’s complete
personality on the basis of 16 different factors. The factors measure everything
from how people think about things, to how they view rules and laws to how
people are in social situations and how open they are to disclosing information
about themselves, to how emotional they are to others and to how they make
decisions and their confidence with those decisions. There are 16 primary factors
and five global factors. The primary factors are warmth (A), reasoning (B),
emotional stability (C), dominance (E), liveliness (F), rule-consciousness (G),
social boldness (H), sensitivity (I), vigilance (L), abstractedness (M), Privateness
(N), apprehension (O), openness to change (Q1), self-reliance (Q2),
perfectionism (Q3), and tension (Q4). Each of the primary factors is given two
levels to each factor: low or high. The global factors are derived from the original
25
16 primary factors and represent a more broad of a definition of personality than
the primary factors. The global factors are extraversion (EX), anxiety (AX), tough-
mindedness (TM), independence (IN), and self-control (SC). Each global factor is
divided into subsections; a low and high score for each factor. A description of
each factor follows.
Warmth (A)
This factor refers to how people are involved with others and their
interactions with others: the amount of warmth they show when being involved
with someone. This is the first of three factors that are significantly different
between the sexes. Women on this factor tend to score slightly higher than men.
Reasoning (B)
This factor measures people’s ability to derive answers and use logic and
reasoning to find an answer.
Emotional Stability (C)
The emotional stability factor deals with how people live with daily
challenges and adaptability.
Dominance (E)
This factor measures how inclined one is to have control over others
versus letting others have their way. This does not measure assertiveness
because the dominance factor looks at how one wants to have power over others
rather than just protect their own beliefs.
Liveliness (F)
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This factor measures how spontaneous and restrained a person acts seen
in various situations. It measures the self-expression levels.
Rule-Consciousness (G)
The rule-consciousness factor measures how inclined a person is to follow
the cultural norms and what is considered right and wrong.
Social Boldness (H)
This factor measures people act in social groups and situations: whether
they like to be exhibitionists or stay to themselves.
Sensitivity (I)
This is the second factor that has a gender difference: women tend to
score slightly higher than men. This factor measures how people make decisions
and how they make judgments.
Vigilance (L)
This factor measures people’s tendency to believe in and trust others. It
looks at how much people look at others motivations for actions.
Abstractedness (M)
The abstractedness factor looks at the way that people give their attention
to various things. This factor measures the thought process that one goes
through when paying attention to things.
Privateness (N)
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This factor measures how willing or not people are to discuss themselves
and things that are personal to them.
Apprehension (O)
This is the third factor that has differences between men and women. On
this factor, women tend to score higher than men. This factor measures how
much people tend to worry about things in their life. It also measures how they
feel about the decision once it has been made.
Openness to Change (Q1)
This factor measures how willing people are to change what is familiar to
them: whether they like experimenting and change or like things to stay the
same.
Self-Reliance (Q2)
The self-reliance factor measures how much people like to have close
relationships with others. It looks at if one needs to feel part of a group or if they
like to be on their own.
Perfectionism (Q3)
This factor measures how much people like to have things go their way
and do things right. It looks at how inclined people are to keep things organized
and also how much they like planning things.
Tension (Q4)
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The tension factor looks at how nervous a person acts: whether they have
a lot of energy and are fidgety or are relaxed. It also looks at how irritable a
person can be when made to wait or when things are not going right.
Extraversion (EX)
This factor has been studied in almost every personality assessment. It
measures how much people like social interactions overall. This global factor
takes into account the primary factors of warmth, liveliness, social boldness,
privateness, and self-reliance.
Anxiety (AX)
This is another factor that is usually assessed in other personality
assessments. It is the factor that can be described by how people respond to the
world around them. This factor is made from the primary factors of emotional
stability, vigilance, apprehension, and tension.
Tough-Mindedness (TM)
Tough-mindedness is the factor that looks at how people deal with their
problems at the cognitive level. This factor is made of the primary factors of
warmth, sensitivity, abstractedness, and openness to change.
Independence (IN)
This factor measures how people think and act: whether they push their
ideas on others or give in to people. The independence factor is made of the
primary factors of dominance, social boldness, vigilance, and openness to
change.
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Self-Control (SC)
This factor deals with how likely people are to control their urges: whether
they are able to inhibit their actions or they have to act out. This factor is made of
the primary factors of liveliness, rule-consciousness, abstractedness, and
perfectionism.
Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
Balzer et al.’s (1997) manual for the Job Descriptive Index provided the
information that follows.
Smith, Kendall, and Hulin developed the JDI in 1969. Smith et al. argue
that that job satisfaction is composed of five different areas: work on present job,
present pay, opportunities for promotion, supervision, and people on your
present job. Validity and reliability of each of the scales is discussed in the
literature review of the Job Descriptive Index.
Work on Present Job
This scale is designed to measure how people feel about the job they are
currently doing. It measures how satisfied an employee is with the work. The
questions related to this area are designed to measure the different facets of a
job including: “opportunities for creativity and task variety, allowing an individual
to increase his or her knowledge, and changes in responsibility, amount of work,
autonomy, job enrichment and job complexity.”
Present Pay
This scale measures how a people feel with their pay and the difference
between what a people are actually getting and what they believe they should be
30
getting. This area is influenced by various factors: the pay of employees doing
the same job, the financial situation of the employee, the pay the employee
received on previous jobs, and the economy.
Opportunities for Promotion
This scale measures how the employees feel about the procedures that
the administration follows in accordance with giving promotions. The different
factors that create satisfaction with promotions are “frequency of promotions, the
importance of promotions, and the desirability of promotions.”
Supervision
This scale of the JDI measures how satisfied people are with their
supervisors. Typically, if supervisors are employee-centered, meaning that they
take interest in their employees and listen to them, than the employees are more
satisfied with their supervisors. Employees also find more satisfaction with
supervisors if the supervisors are deemed competent with their job.
People on Your Present Job (Co-workers)
This scale looks at the relationship and satisfaction that the employees
have with their co-workers. This area of satisfaction is measured by how well
employees get along with each other and how well they look up to their fellow
employees.
Job in General (JIG)
The Job in General scale is a measure that is included with the Job
Descriptive Index. The scale was developed to assess the overall satisfaction of
people with their jobs. The JDI measures the different areas for satisfaction, but
31
when the areas are added together, they do not give an accurate representation
of people’s overall job satisfaction, whereas this scale is designed to measure job
satisfaction overall.
Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR)
The Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding is a measure that looks
at the tendency of people to respond in the most socially acceptable way when
answering self-report measures (Paulhus, 1998). It is a measure that is divided
into two subcategories: Self-Deceptive Enhancement and Impression
Management. Self-Deception, as defined by Paulhus (1998), is “the tendency to
give honest, but inflated self-descriptions.” The Impression Management aspect
is defined as “the tendency to give inflated self-descriptions because of
contextual factors” (Paulhus, 1998). This assessment was used to avoid faking
good on the other assessments and to see if there was any relationship between
how a person answered the other assessments in relation with how they
answered the BIDR.
Positive and Negative Affectivity Scale (PANAS)
The PANAS was developed by Watson and Clark (1988) and is comprised
of 20 adjectives that are described as words that elicit either positive or negative
feelings (Witt, 1994). The scale yields two scores: Positive Affect (PA) and
Negative Affect (NA).
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This measure was used to see if there was a relationship between the
positive or negative mood of the person and the responses given.
Job satisfaction is rarely measured by the size of the paycheck; although
above average remuneration can make less than stellar working conditions a
little more bearable. Highway construction site flag men and swampers on
garbage trucks perform important duties that some of us would not want to do for
more than a summer job. They find their jobs fulfilling and rewarding because
they recognize that they play important roles in society.
In an office environment, opportunities for advancement and recognition of
each individual's contributions and talents are big influences on whether a job is
fulfilling. The less stress there is, the better, but most men will accept a certain
amount of pressure if they feel recognized and respected.
How well an employee relates to the company's leadership style and
corporate values are also key factors in job satisfaction. Fair rewards in terms of
salary and benefits, good working conditions and appropriate employee
empowerment are all strong motivators that promote job satisfaction.
Here are some questions to ask to measure if your job fulfills you:
Do you enjoy going to work? When it's a real struggle getting up every
day, it could be an indicator that you're stressed, burnt out or unfulfilled. If you're
dragging yourself out of bed in the morning and it's not because you stayed up
too late or partied too hard, your body and brain may be trying to tell you
33
something. Good working conditions, the camaraderie of a team environment
and duties you enjoy will make it more fun to go to work. Feeling inspired and
energized by your boss and the company's leadership is even better.
Are your expectations reasonable? You cannot have executive privileges
in an entry-level position. Jumping ship because you don't have as much time off
as you'd like would be irresponsible and immature. Even though you have
education, enthusiasm and energy on your side, you still need to work your way
up the corporate ladder by earning respect and privileges, and proving yourself.
Examine your job and your attitude objectively before deciding to pull the
pin because you don't feel fulfilled. Stop being negative. And quit hanging around
the copier with the whiners or you'll get sucked into their spiral of negativity.
Decades of research by psychologists and organizational behaviorists
suggest that self-reported job satisfaction reflects two main factors: the feelings
workers experience while actually on the job and a judgment about their
employment situation, which reflects, in part, their expectations and aspirations.
While job satisfaction can change if work circumstances change, a large
component of reported job satisfaction also appears to be tied to workers'
personality traits.
Job satisfaction is typically gauged by a general question that asks people
how satisfied they are with their work on the whole. Feelings at work are
34
assessed by asking workers while they are on the job about their mood at that
specific moment or by asking them to record their feelings in a diary.
Factors like job security, pay and benefits contribute more strongly to
reported job satisfaction than to the feelings experienced at work, while day-to-
day features of the work environment, like the closeness of supervision,
pressures to work quickly and social isolation, have a more depressing effect on
feelings than on reported job satisfaction.
In his new book, "Demanding Work: The Paradox of Job Quality in the
Affluent Economy" (Princeton University Press), Francis Green, an economist at
the University of Kent in Canterbury, England, documents trends in job
satisfaction around the world and tries to make sense of them. Professor Green
points to a decline in discretion on the job as the main explanation for the drop in
job satisfaction in Britain, although he suspects that other factors, like an
increase in work intensity, also contributed.
Job satisfaction was evaluated on several levels: Profits, Job
performance, Intrinsic work values, and, care issues. Profits referred not to
personal financial gain, but to the organization’s profits. Many nurses responded
feeling "devalued in their job" (Fletcher, 2001), and resentful of "the perceived
placing of profits over patients…" (Fletcher, 2001). Job Performance was not only
applied to themselves, but attitudes and performance of coworkers on a
horizontal and vertical plane were also considered. Many held expectations of
35
fellow employees to a high standard and "…were frequently disappointed"
(Fletcher, 2001).
Extrinsic work values such as, job security, salary, fringe benefits, and
work schedules, are also considered to be important in job satisfaction.
Restrictions in scheduling and limited availability of time off promote frustration
and dissatisfaction.
Productivity. In the article written by D. K. McNeese-Smith, issues of
productivity and nonproductivity were investigated. The purpose of this study was
to consider "staff nurse views of their productivity and nonproductivity, and
factors that increase or decrease their productivity" (McNeese-Smith, 2001).
McNeese-Smith used semi-structured interviews to gather data about, and
factors influencing productivity. Recruited from six different nursing units, 30 staff
nurses were used, in an attempt to accurately represent nurses as a whole. The
researchers found that productivity was based on two categories; quantity, and
quality of their work. A third category considered, was personal factors that
"influence their quantity and quality of work" (McNeese-Smith, 2001).
The quantity of work accomplished was a key factor in having felt
productive in their days work. Common themes of respondents were "finishing all
tasks", "being efficient", "staying late", and "doing extra around the
unit"( McNeese-Smith, 2001), done without monetary compensation.
36
The quality of work was found to be based on several aspects of nursing
care. Respondents felt that outcomes of teaching and caring for individuals
proved to be rewarding and contributed to productivity of work. Many felt that an
offering of suggestions to improve the nursing unit contributed to work quality, as
well as the day-to-day process of nursing care (McNeese, 2001).
Nonproductivity was discussed in "…relation to two major categories:
organizational factors and personal factors" (McNeese-Smith, 2001).
Organization was dependent on feelings of "being overloaded", reaction to
"difficult patients" and "lack of teamwork" (McNeese-Smith, 2001). Most nurses
felt lack of organization, usually based on the above, contributed significantly to
feeling of nonproductivity.
Personal factors such as personal problems, and lack of physical or
mental readiness to work also contributed to nonproductivity. According to most
respondents, personal factors made just as much, if not more of an influence on
coworkers’ productivity levels. Staff nurses consumed with personal inabilities
are seen as a distraction to others (McNeese, 2001).
The findings of this research suggest that nurses understand the factors
pertinent to productivity and lack thereof. And given the appropriate settings,
including quality and quantity of patient care, can improve productivity in the
nursing field.
37
Turnover. In the article written by K. E. Shrader, et al, research was
conducted with the purpose of examining the relationship between work
satisfaction, stress, age, cohesion, work schedule and anticipated turnover. The
study used a cross-sectional design in which 241 staff nurses and five nurses
managers from 12 nursing units completed a questionnaire.
Burnout. Burnout is defined as "A syndrome of emotional exhaustion and
cynicism that occurs frequently among individuals who do "people work" of some
kind" (Toscano, 1998). The research conducted by P. Toscano and M.
Ponterdolph attempted to investigate any correlations that might exist between
the personality trait of hardiness and the syndrome of burnout. The researchers
used a questionnaire of 100 nurses. Though "this study did not indicate a
correlation between personality hardiness and burnout", (Toscano, 1998), it
helped to identify factors that do exist. The authors made several suggestions
regarding prevention of burnout, such as: improved environment, additional
personal time, compensation for certification requirements, age analysis (does
burnout affect ages differently?), and stress management (Toscano, 1998)
Burnout is a significant contributor to job satisfaction, and needs to be decreased
in order to improve job satisfaction.
Empowerment. In the article written by H. K. Spence Laschinger and D.
Sullivan Havens, the authors discuss testing of the Kanter’s theory of
organizational power. (Kanter, 1993). Based on Kanter’s work, empowerment is
defined as “…conditions [that] are created that enhance persons’ ability and
38
motivation to develop and make the most constructive use of their talents and
experience” (Spence Laschinger, 1997). The authors used 150 nurses and the
questionnaire method of investigation, and the variables studies were:
opportunity, information, support, resources, overall empowerment, formal
power, informal power, job tension, work effectiveness, and achievement
orientation.
Opportunity for growth and movement as well as access challenge and an
increase in knowledge and skill was found to be key in motivation towards
empowerment (Spence Laschinger, 1997). Lack of opportunity in any form,
contributes to negative occupational stress, and limits improvement from within.
• Emotional exhaustion describes a reduction in the emotional resources
of an individual. Individuals usually feel drained or used up and physically
fatigued.
• Depersonalization is characterized by an increase in negative, cynical
and insensitive attitudes towards client/patients, as well as colleagues.
• Low personal accomplishment refers to a feeling of being unable to meet
client’ needs and to satisfy essential elements of job performance.
Job satisfaction is an affective or emotional response toward various
facets of a person’s job, and stems from the incumbent's comparison of actual
outcomes with the required outcomes (Cranny, Smith & Stone, 1992). In defining
job satisfaction, it is important to distinguish between an overall job satisfaction
and satisfaction with components of a job. It is better to measure specific
39
components and to determine the sum of the general job satisfaction in a specific
job, than just to measure general job satisfaction (Coster, 1992). Cranny et al.
(1992) defined job satisfaction as an affective or emotional response toward
various facets/actions of a person’s job, which derives from the individual’s
(employee’s) comparison of actual outcomes with the required outcomes.
According to Bassett (1994), worker satisfaction results from external factors in
the work situation. However, internal forces, which are entirely unrelated to the
work environment, may also play a role in the satisfactory state of the individual.
Some people seem to be satisfied in almost every situation while others are the
exact opposite. Satisfaction may thus be related to the personality of a person
(Staw, Bell & Clausen, 1986).
Job performance indicates how well employees perform their tasks. Job
performance is a multi-dimensional construct which indicates how well a specific
employee is performing his/her job, the initiative they take, the resourcefulness
they show in solving problems, the extent to which they complete tasks, the way
they utilize their available resource as well as the time and energy they spent on
their tasks (Boshoff & Arnolds, 1995; Schepers, 1994). Thus, job performance is
a set of behavioral patterns and functions (knowledge, technical competencies,
management competencies, conscientiousness and conceptual abilities) relevant
to the organizational goal (Murphy & Shiarella, 1997).
From the definitions of the constructs burnout, job satisfaction and job
performance, it could be deduced that employees who suffers from burnout could
be more dissatisfied with their work and perform poor. According to Makin,
40
Cooper and Cox (1996), employees’ satisfaction with aspects of their jobs may
influence their motivation, which in turn could affect their performance. However,
Iaffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) found an estimated correlation of only 0,17
between job satisfaction and job performance. In line with the opinion expressed
by Bassett (1994), it is not assumed here that a more satisfied employee will be a
more productive employee, nor is it assumed that job satisfaction is the result of
high job performance. A relationship between burnout and satisfaction as well as
burnout and job performance could be expected
First, it is important to know that there are different kinds of job
satisfaction. The surveys just described investigated overall job satisfaction.
This is when a person considers the whole job and everything about it. Overall
job satisfaction is actually a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction:
Intrinsic job satisfaction is when workers consider only the kind of
work they do, the tasks that make up the job.
Extrinsic job satisfaction is when workers consider the conditions of
work, such as their pay, coworkers, and supervisor.
LOCAL RELATED LITERATURE
To learn about the job satisfaction of recent financial planning graduates
of a large university in the Philippines, the authors developed a survey on job
satisfaction and work experience. The survey was designed to serve three
purposes: First, it was assumed that information on job satisfaction of recent
41
financial planning graduates would benefit the financial services industry.
Second, the information from a university with an established program could
serve as a benchmark for other educational programs in financial planning. Third,
the information could be used to improve the curriculum at the university.
Two social theories compete to explain what determines job satisfaction:
the "bottom-up theory" and the "top-down" theory. The bottom-up theory basically
states that individuals have needs and that they will be happy if their needs are
satisfied. The sum of positive and negative effects is used to determine
happiness. If the positive effects are greater than the negative effects, individuals
will judge their life as happy. In contrast, top-down theory states that there is "a
global propensity to experience things in a positive way." In other words, all
individuals have a desire to be happy and this attitude will be the major influence
on their lives. Thus, feelings about job satisfaction are generated in one of two
ways: from the bottom up by adding positive effects and subtracting negative
ones, or from the top down by the diffusion of one’s desire to be happy.1
Abraham H. Maslow’s hierarchical model of human needs can be used to
identify the factors affecting job satisfaction. The model states that individuals
experience a hierarchy of needs, from lower level to higher level psychological
needs.2 Maslow’s model can be used by individuals to develop a sense of
satisfaction in their jobs if they utilize a bottom-up perspective on job satisfaction.
Safety is an example of a lower level need; it helps explain the effects of job
security and pay on job satisfaction.
42
Moving up the hierarchy, it can be observed that individuals also have
social needs--for affection, belonging, and acceptance. These needs affect the
way that individuals interact with their coworkers and management. The highest
need in Maslow’s hierarchical model is self-actualization. Self-actualization and
self-esteem are related to the sense of inner reward that some individuals
experience when doing their work. In addition, self-actualization is believed to be
one of the principal factors motivating people toward self-employment.
Some empirical evidence exists for the bottom-up theory. A study by
Alfonso and Andres Sousa-Poza, for example, suggests that job satisfaction is
determined by finding a balance between work-role inputs and outputs.3
Examples of work-role inputs include the worker’s level of education, the number
of hours worked, and the type of occupation for which the worker was trained.
Examples of work-role outputs are the amount of total compensation received,
the level of perceived job security, the opportunities for advancement, the extent
to which the job and work are interesting, the amount of independence and self-
direction in the work, the benefits of the work to people and society, and the
quality of the relations workers have with their colleagues and management. The
Sousa-Poza study found that "having an interesting job" and "having good
relations with management" explained the largest proportion of variance in job
satisfaction.
REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES
FOREIGN RELATED STUDIES
43
Job satisfaction was once a hot topic in academia. From the 1960’s
through till the late 1980’s, management theorists looked at the question from
every angle they could think of, trying to find ways to create a contented labour
force: “one less concerned with money rewards and less inclined to unionize”.
Researchers expected to find a strong correlation between job satisfaction and
productivity. But when this proved elusive, research funding dried up.
Unions have never let the question drop. One of the central concerns of
PSI’s Quality Public Services campaign is the improvement of jobs. As Wendy
Caird, coordinator of the campaign, puts it: “You won’t get quality public services
in an environment where workers are stressed out, underpaid, and forced to
compete for bonuses and fringe benefits. These ‘quality of working life’ questions
are becoming a defining issue of our campaign.”
In 1999 the most extensive workplace survey in the USA since the 1970’s
- “What Do Workers Want? ” reported that:
Most employees want a voice in how their workplace operates;
Most employees support the formation of labor-management
committees, to which they elect representatives to run the organization and settle
conflicts.
It also showed that giving workers the opportunity to express their
opinions would raise job satisfaction and increase productivity and profitability.
The book provided a particular boost for unions as well, showing that:
44
Nearly 90 percent want some sort of independent employee
organization at their workplace.
Many non-union workers favor the creation of unions, and virtually
all union members support their union.
Research three years before had also shown that: job satisfaction
depends not on absolute pay, but on pay relative to others of the same education
and job qualification. In Los Angeles, social workers were found to be
comparable to probation officers in skill, effort, responsibility, and working
conditions. Even so, social workers were paid an average $20,000 less. In the
state of Illinois, job analysis showed that registered nurses had jobs which scored
much higher in skill, effort, responsibility and working conditions than electricians,
but were paid $12,000 less per year. There is not a single country in the world
where pay equity is the norm.
Traditionally, economists have argued that it is self interest which drives
the demand for higher pay. In fact there is evidence that this is true for those at
the highest-paid end of the scale: as far as directors are concerned, money
appears to be a motivating factor, while job satisfaction is not” But for most
people satisfaction depends not on objective income, but on the relative amount,
compared to others in the organization, and to others in the same occupation.
Job satisfaction is related to perceptions of fair pay, rather than high pay.
Workers want equal pay for work of equal value. This difference of
attitudes towards pay explains why those on higher scales (eg CEO’s) seem to
45
believe that performance-based pay systems will lead to higher productivity. In
their case, it may well be true. But such a belief runs counter to the evidence for
most workers. In 2003 an OECD paper found massive problems with
performance pay in public services: “One conclusion from the experience of
OECD countries… is that the technique is functioning well in none of these
countries' public services. In addition, it has created side effects that are difficult
to deal with.” A parallel study in Australia showed that performance pay could
lead to:
demotivation of staff
workplace divisiveness and erosion of co-operation
an undermining of teamwork
reduction in open feedback within the workplace
increased administrative burdens and costs
And in an update to this research, it was further shown that performance
levels had been damaged, rather than improved, by the introduction of
performance pay.
Professor Richard Layard, director of the Centre for Economic
Performance at the London School of Economics, complains about the narrow,
economic view of human nature which finds its expression in individual incentives
and targets, competitive rankings and comprehensive performance systems.
Competition for money and status is a zero-sum game; and the more
46
opportunities there are for making comparisons, the greater that dissatisfaction
will be.
Workers want co-operation, not competition. But should managers care
about job satisfaction? Didn’t all those years of study fail to establish a clear link
between happy workers and productive ones? New evidence is leading to a
radical rethink of what “job satisfaction” consists of. And yes, it is very definitely
linked to production levels. In fact, in the right circumstances, job satisfaction and
high productivity can reinforce each other.
In 2001 a survey of 2,500 Canadian employees concluded that good
employment relationships are the key ingredient of a “good job” The study also
showed a strong synergy between job satisfaction and productivity growth.
This echoed a finding from two years previously, which has been called
the first evidence of a comprehensive link between good people management
and business success. Professor Michael West and Malcolm Patterson from the
UK Institute of Work Psychology published an eight-year study showing that the
organizations which performed best were those which:
avoided aggressive management styles
made sure their staff were never bored
allowed them to feel they had a stake in the company’s
performance.
47
Added Patterson, who led the research: “It appears that a happy
workforce is a more productive workforce. It is a simple message to bosses, but
is backed up with hard evidence.”
“For one thing, researchers recognized certain errors in the early reviews,
and also realized that seemingly small correlations…” (ie between job
satisfaction and productivity) “could amount to huge productivity differences
when applied to organizations and to nations. In addition, scientists noticed that
certain types of behaviors are consistently related to job satisfaction. Job
satisfaction is reliably related to “organizational citizenship” (helping others and
the organization not specifically related to one’s assigned tasks) and to the
absence of bad citizenship (eg stealing from the employer).... more satisfied
employees are more practical, helpful, and friendly… satisfied workers have
lower turnover and absenteeism, and are more punctual, cooperative, and helpful
to other workers.”
The significance of this change in perspective cannot be overstated.
Workplace culture – the relationships between workers; and between workers
and management; and between the organization and society – looks set to
become the dominant industrial relations issue of the next few years. As
competition for markets and resources becomes more intense, improving social
dynamics in the workplace will make or break an organization. Workers both
want and need an independent, collective voice in this dialogue.
48
Management experts David Sirota, Louis Mischkind and Michael Meltzer
have surveyed over four million workers in 89 countries over the past 30 years.
Their new book, The Enthusiastic Employee - How Companies Profit by Giving
Workers What They Want, reports that 90% percent of employees become
indifferent to their workplace over time. The top 10% of companies today are
those which meet three goals which the vast majority of employees desire:
equity, achievement and camaraderie. These goals apply to all workers, whether
they are baby boomers, Gen X, Gen Y, or Gen D (digital). With an enthusiastic
workforce, the authors report, employee turnover can be reduced by as much as
80% and performance can be increased by 25%.
It is a good moment to remember the words of management theorist
Frederick Herzberg, who in many ways launched this field of enquiry in the late
1950’s: If you want someone to do a good job, give them a good job to do.
In recent years, researchers have begun to explore the psychological
processes that might underlie dispositional causes of job satisfaction. In this
research, the dispositional causes of burnout, job satisfaction and job
performance are studied from a salutogenic paradigm (which focuses on the
origins of health) (Antonovsky, 1987; Strümpfer, 1990) or fortigenic paradigm
(which focuses on the origins of strengths) (Strümpfer, 1995). Sense of
coherence is defined as a feeling of confidence that one’s internal and external
environments are predictable and that things will work out as planned.
(Antonovsky, 1987). The definition of sense of coherence includes three
49
dimensions that represent the concept, viz. comprehensibility, manageability and
meaningfulness (Antonovsky, 1987).
Strümpfer, Danana, Gouws and Viviers (1998) found a moderate
correlation (r = 0,47) between sense of coherence and job satisfaction. Coetzee
and Rothmann (1999) found a moderate relationship between job satisfaction
and sense of coherence. In contrast to this were the findings of Naudé and
Rothmann (2000) who have found no practical significance between job
satisfaction and sense of coherence. However, Rothmann (2000) found a
practically significant correlation of large effect between sense of coherence and
job satisfaction in eight organizations. Levert et al. (2000) reported significant
correlation coefficients between two components of burnout (emotional
exhaustion and depersonalization) and sense of coherence. Strydom (2000)
found no significant relationship between sense of coherence and job
performance.
A study by Dolan (1987) showed that burnout is related to job
dissatisfaction. In general, work-related factors are more strongly associated with
burnout than individual factors (Shaufeli & Janczur, 1994). Role conflict and role
ambiguity, that indirectly influences burnout (Levert et al., 2000), was found to
influence job satisfaction (Bhana & Haffejee, 1996; Harrison, 1980). It has been
found that low individual productivity is related to burned-out individuals
(Golembiewski & Munzenrider, 1988). However, the efficiency of intensive-care
units has been found to be better when the average level of burnout was higher
among nurses (Schaufeli, Keijsters & Reis Mirand, 1995).
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Another important component of job satisfaction is the worker’s attitude
toward the job. The intrinsic rewards of a job--such as a sense of control over
one’s work and a feeling of accomplishment--are important determinants of job
satisfaction. More complex jobs generally are more mentally challenging, and
when workers have various autonomous tasks in their jobs, they tend to have
more of a sense of control. Previous studies have shown that job satisfaction is
negatively related to the performance of routine tasks, and also that job
satisfaction is positively related to the performance of more complex and
autonomous tasks.
Several studies take a social approach to job satisfaction, examining the
influence of supervision, management, and coworker social support. An
individual’s level of job satisfaction might be a function of personal characteristics
and the characteristics of the groups to which she or he belongs. The social
context of work is likely to have a significant impact on a worker’s attitude and
behavior. Relationships with both coworkers and supervisors are important.
Some studies have shown that the better the relationship, the greater the level of
job satisfaction.
Studies in the field of consumer satisfaction have shown that consumers
experience more satisfaction with a product or service if their expectations are
congruent with the experience itself. Applying this concept to the work
experience suggests that job satisfaction will be determined by a comparison of
one’s prior expectations about the job to one’s actual experience on the job.
51
LOCAL RELATED STUDIES
Often times, teachers are affected by stress and problems at home or in
meeting deadlines and requirements of the educational institutions by which they
are teaching. Due to this, most of the time stressed teachers are showing
unprofessional and improper teaching behaviors. Pareja (1989) believed that in
the Philippines all teachers in regardless by the level they teach, are expected to
possess above everything else, these qualities are: approachability, intelligence
and open-mindedness and serve as “models of good behavior” and to have
“concern to the learners”. If the teachers as well as the parents will always put to
mind their responsibilities, failure will be lessened.
Bustos (1985) cited that teachers should have adequate knowledge of the
subject matter, formulate workable instructional objectives, understand the nature
of the learner, have wide interest and love for the young and resourceful in
meeting problems in the classroom. A pleasing personality, a neat and well
groomed appearance, a good sense of humor, happy disposition and enthusiasm
are significant contributory factors to enhance better performance among
students.
SIGNIFICANCE AND RELATIONSHIP OF PREVIOUS STUDIES TO THE
STUDY AT PRESENT
In recent years, researchers have begun to explore the psychological
processes that might underlie dispositional causes of job satisfaction, other
researches that are related to job-satisfactions are those researches that
52
concerns those different factors that stresses the workers rendering them to
perform at a lower level of performance. In this research, the researchers have
considered the different conditions that are satisfying as perceived by the
respondents – eventually leading to the discovery of different facts that will be
considered as problems related to hotel and restaurant administration and
management in the implementation and proposal for plans for the development,
growth and welfare of health providers. Sense of coherence is defined as a
feeling of confidence that one’s internal and external environments are
predictable and that things will work out as planned. (Antonovsky, 1987). The
definition of sense of coherence includes three dimensions that represent the
concept, viz. comprehensibility, manageability and meaningfulness (Antonovsky,
1987).
53
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter will presents the research design of the study, the
respondents, data gathering procedure, instruments, the administration and
collection of the statement data.
RESEARCH DESIGN
The research will use the descriptive method of research using the survey
questionnaire and document analysis as the main instrument. All the data to be
gathered from the respondents will be treated with appropriate statistical
computations for a scientific analysis and interpretation as well as the informal
interview in order the data to be gathered.
A survey design was used to reach the research objectives. The specific
design is the cross-sectional design, whereby a sample is drawn from a
population at a particular point in time (Shaughnessy & Zechmeister, 1997).
Many authors have described this method as fact-finding that provides
adequate interpretation of information, more than just a data gathering technique.
As described by Sevilla (1990), Descriptive type of research is a direct source of
54
new knowledge and it involves collection of data in order to test hypothesis and
to answer problems of the study. Descriptive research describes and interprets
the “what” of any sort (Sanchez, 1997). It is concerned with conditions of
relationships that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and processes that are
going on, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing.
According to Aquino (1998), data collected and logically classified a
reported in the point of view of objectives and the basic assumption of the study,
then discussion of those data is carried up into the level of adequate
interpretation in terms of ordered reasoning. Researchers use this method when
they depict current status and identify relationships that exist among phenomena
or trends that appear to be developing. It involves an element of interpretation of
the meaning or significance of what is described, and the description is often
combined with comparison and contrast involving measurement, classification,
interpretations and evaluations.
Furthermore, this method as viewed by Best (1989) is concerned with
hypothesis formulation and testing, the analysis of relationship between non-
manipulative variables and the development of generalization.
THE LOCALE OF THE STUDY
This study was conducted in the selected hotel and restaurant
establishments for the calendar year 2007-2008 located in the various
municipalities of Zambales. Each of these hotel and restaurant establishment
55
caters hospitality services and other hotel and restaurant related services to
people of the Zambales community and tourists alike.
Figure 2: Map of the Province of Zambales
THE RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY
The sample includes employees of the selected hotel and restaurant
establishments that include both hotel and restaurant personnel and hotel and
restaurant industry administrators. The total population of health workers that
shall be considered as respondents of this study shall be included in the
empirical study.
THE SURVEY INSTRUMENT
For the research instrument that was considered for this study, the
researchers have consolidated data and essential information as based from the
56
following questionnaires and survey materials that were recently used by the
both foreign and local researchers in the business industry, these are
enumerated as follows:
The Orientation to Life Questionnaire (OLQ) was used to measure
participants’ sense of coherence. The OLQ consists of 29 items. Antonovsky
(1993) reported alpha coefficients of the OLQ in 29 research studies varying
between 0,85 and 0,91. Test-retest reliability studies found coefficients between
0,41 and 0,97 (Antonovsky, 1993). Rothmann (2000) reported an alpha
coefficient 0,89 for the OLQ, which may be regarded as acceptable (Nunnally &
Bernstein, 1994). Regarding the construct validity of the OLQ, it was found that
there is a negative relationship between the OLQ and experienced stress and
that the OLQ correlates negatively with the "State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Trait"
and the "Beck Depression Inventory" (Frenz, Carey & Jorgensen, 1993).
The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) was used to determine participants'
level of burnout. The MBI consists of three sub-scales, namely Emotional
Exhaustion, Depersonalization and Personal Accomplishment (Maslach &
Jackson, 1986). The three sub-scales of the MBI were dealt with separately in
this study, based on considerable factor-analytic support for their separation
(Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Schaufeli & Janczur, 1994). Maslach and Jackson
(1986) and Lahoz and Mason (1989) reported Cronbach alpha coefficients
varying from 0,71 to 0,90 for the three sub-scales of the MBI. Test-retest
reliability varied from 0,60 to 0,82 and 0,54 to 0,60 (applied after one year).
External validation of the MBI comes from analyses of its convergence with peer
57
ratings, job dimensions associated with burnout, and stress outcomes (Maslach
& Jackson, 1984).
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Dawis, England &
Lofquist, 1967) was used to measure employees' job satisfaction. Test-retest
reliabilities of 0,70 and 0,80 were found over a span of a week and a year
respectively (Cook, Hepworth, Wall & Warr, 1981). In this study a Cronbach
alpha coefficient of 0,96 was found for total job satisfaction. The mean inter-item
correlation is 0,22, which is acceptable for broad higher order constructs (Clark &
Watson, 1995).
The Performance Appraisal Questionnaire (PAQ) (Schepers, 1994) was
used to measure job performance. The PAQ has three scales, namely
Performance, Creativity and Management skills. Acceptable Cronbach alpha
coefficients were found for the questionnaire. Managers appraise the
performance of each employee. All managers will undergo a half-day intensive
rater-training course to ensure that they were aware of and able to avoid
common pitfalls.
CONSTRUCTION AND EVALUATION OF THE SURVEY INSTRUMENT
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The statistical analysis is carried out by using the SAS program (SAS
Institute, 2000). Cronbach alpha coefficients and inter-item correlation
coefficients to assess the reliability and validity of the measuring instruments
(Clark & Watson, 1995). Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, standard deviations,
skewness and kurtosis) will be used to analyze the data. To determine the
58
proportion of variance in the dependent variable that is predicted by the
independent variables, a stepwise multiple regression analysis was conducted.
The effect size (which indicates practical significance) in the case of multiple
regression is given by following formula (Steyn, 1999):
TREATMENT OF THE DATA
The following statistical treatment of data was employed to analyze and
interpret the data:
1. Percentage (%). It was used to describe the percent distribution of the profile
of the respondents in terms of sex, age, parents’ educational attainment and
family monthly income.
Formula : % = (f / N) x 100
Where : % - Percentage
F - Frequency
N – Total No. of Respondents
2. Weighted Mean (WX). This was employed to determine the attitudes and
behaviors of the respondents with respect to their degree of job-satisfaction and
desired managerial styles.
Formula : WX = wx / N
Where : WX – weighted mean
W – Weight of score
X – Score
N – Total number of respondents
59
3. t-Test was employed to test the significant difference between responses of
several groups of respondents based on the attitudes and behaviors of the
respondents with respect to their degree of job-satisfaction and desired
managerial styles.
Formula : t = d / Sd
d = Σ d / n
Sd = √ (Σ d2 – nd2) / (n-1)
Sd = Sd / √ n
Where : t = t – value
d = difference between two paired observation
n = number of paired observation
INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA
A Likert Scale type of instrument, as illustrated below, as employed for the
qualitative description of data that includes: interpretation of findings of the study
based on the responses of both the Hotel and Restaurant supervisor-and-
personnel respondents on their perceptions toward each indicator of employees’
job-satisfaction level and its probable effect on the marketability of their
establishments which were considered significant and therefore adopted in this
research study; and in the process of testing hypotheses as stated in Chapter 1.
This Likert Scale type of instrument is shown below:
Numerical Value Point Scale Descriptive Equivalent Symbol
5 4.20 – 5.00 Very Competent VC
4 3.40 – 4.19 Competent CO
60
3 2.60 – 3.39 Moderately Competent MC
2 1.80 – 2.59 Fairly Competent FC
1 1.00 – 1.79 Not Competent at All NCA
Figure 3: Likert Scale used for Interpretation of Data and Results of the Study
CHAPTER 4
PRRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
The results are presented, analyzed and interpreted in accordance to the
objectives of the study. The first section includes the profile of the supervisors
61
and their subordinates. The second part deals with the leadership style of
supervisors as perceived by their subordinates. The third part deals with the job
satisfaction of subordinates. The fourth section deals with the relation ship
between the independent and dependent variables. The last part deals with the
relationship between the leadership style of supervisors and their profile and
relationship between job satisfaction of subordinates and their personal profile.
Profile of Supervisors
Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5 reflect the profile of the supervisors that include: age-
range, gender, years in service, civil status, educational attainment, occupation
of spouse, monthly family income, and number of in-service training they have
attended.
Age Range
The age range of the respondent-supervisors is presented in Table 2. Of
the eleven supervisors, five (5) belong to the age rage 46-50 years old. The rest
of the respondents, that is, five (5) belong to age range 51-55; there were two (2)
supervisor-respondents that fall under the 45-below age range; and one (1) of
these respondents falls under the age range: 56-60 years old. The data imply
that there are more supervisors who are considered relatively young (falling
under the age range of 50 years old and below) as compared to those
respondents who were categorized to fall above 51 years of age and were
classified as “older respondents”. All of them, however, are in the middle
adulthood stage indicating that these supervisors possess maturity to be able to
lead their subordinates with patience and understanding.
62
Gender
Almost all the respondents (10) are male except one (1) whop heads the
administrative as shown in Table 2. This information discloses that the Hotel and
Restaurant Allied Agencies is supervised more by male supervisors than female
supervisors. In a patriarchal society like the Philippines, this is a normal situation
since the Hotel and Restaurant Allied Agencies whose main function, is culturally
considered as a man’s domain.
TABLE 2
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTSBY AGE RANGE, GENDER AND
YEARS IN SERVICE
VARIABLES FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE RANGE
56 – 6051 – 5546 – 50
45 - below
1352
9.1927.2745.4518.18
GENDERMale
Female101
90.919.09
YEARS IN SERVICE1 – 23 – 45 – 6
209
18.180
81.82
Gender
Almost all the respondents (10) are male except one (1) who heads the
administrative as shown in Table 2. This information discloses that the Hotel and
Restaurant Allied Agencies is supervised more by male supervisors than female
supervisors. In a patriarchal society like the Philippines, this is a normal situation
63
since the Hotel and Restaurant Allied Agencies whose main function, is culturally
considered as a man’s domain.
Years in Service
As reflected in Table 2, nine (9) respondents are in between 5-6 years as
supervisors, the remaining two (2) respondents are in between 1-2 years. The
data chow that more super visors have longer supervisory experience, however,
the difference between the old and the young supervisors is not so great. In fact,
if one considers their age, all the respondents can be considered young in terms
of their number years as supervisors.
TABLE 3
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY CIVIL STATUSAND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
VARIABLES FREQUENCY PERCENTCIVIL STATUS Married Widowed
101
90.919.09
HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT Bachelor Master’s (with academic requirements
83
72.7327.27
64
Completed)
Civil Status
As shown in Table 3, almost all (10) respondents are married except one
(1) who is a widow. The respondents-supervisors are all breadwinners as shown
by their status.
Highest Educational Attainment
On the educational attainment of respondents, eight (8) are bachelor’s
degree holders. Only three (3) respondents have completed their academic
requirements in the master’s program. The data disclose that the academic
qualification of the supervisors is still low, considering their position in their
organization. This suggests the need for them to upgrade themselves
educationally. The Administration of the Hotel and Restaurant Allied Agencies of
Zambales requires those who have supervisory positions to obtain a master’s
degree to qualify for their present position or to be given the opportunity for
promotion to higher rank. In addition, supervisors who possess maturity in
supervisory functions and management this shall enable them to lead their
subordinates with patience and understanding.
TABLE 4
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY OCCUPATIONOF SPOUSE AND MONTHLY FAMILY INCOME
VARIABLES FREQUENCY PERCENTOCCUPATION OF SPOUSE Unemployed Non-skilled Skilled Professional
5141
45.459.0936.369.09
65
MONTHLY FAMILY INCOME 11,000.00 – 20,000.00 21,000.00 – 30,000.00 31,000.00 – 40,000.00
911
81.829.109.10
Occupation of Spouse
As to the occupation of the spouses of the respondents as reflected in
Table 4, five (5) spouses are unemployed while four (4) are skilled workers.
There is one (1) spouse who is non-skilled and another one (1) is a professional.
Ion a way, five (5) or 50 percent of the supervisor-respondents have spouses
who helped them financially although as the data show, it is not so significant
considering the occupations they are engaged in.
Monthly Family Income
Table 4 shows the monthly family income of respondents. Nine (9) of them
have income ranging between P11,000.00 – P20,000.00. One (1) respondent
has income ranging between P21,000.00 – P30,000.00 and another one (1)
respondent has an income ranging between P31,000.00 – P40,000.00. As the
distribution shows, majority of the respondents have low family income.
TABLE 5
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY NUMBER OFIN-SERVICE TRAINING ATTENDED SINCE
DESIGNATED AS SUPERVISOR
TRAININGS ATTENDED FREQUENCY PERCENTManagement-Related Training
0 – 23 – 56 – 89 - 11
12 – 1415 - Above
261101
18.1854.559.099.09
09.09
66
Non-Management-Related Training0 – 23 – 56 – 89 - 11
12 – 1415 – 1718 – 21
22 - Above
22121021
18.1818.189.0918.189.09
018.189.09
Number of Trainings Attended Since Designated as Supervisor
Trainings attended by the respondents since they were designated as
supervisors are categorized into two as reflected in Table 5: management-related
training and non-management-related training. On management-related training,
six (6) have attended between 0-2 trainings. One (1) respondent has attended
between 6-8 trainings, one has attended between 9-11 trainings and another one
(1) has attended between 12-14 trainings. In terms of attendance to
management-related training, majority of the supervisors have few trainings.
On non-management related trainings, seven (7) respondents have
attended between 0-11 trainings while four (4) have attended 12 and above
number of trainings. Similarly, more respondents have lesser attendance to non-
management related training.
In general, the supervisors have more attendance in non-management
related trainings that may not be useful for their supervisory position as leaders.
Profile of Subordinates
Tables 6 and 7 present the gender, age range, civil status, educational
attainment and years in service of the respondents-subordinates
Gender
67
Of the sixty-one (61) respondents, fifty-six (56) or 91.80 percent are male
while only five (5) are female (Table 6). In terms of gender, the Hotel and
Restaurant Allied Agencies is a male-dominated department. In fact, female
members are assigned in the office rather than in the field, as observed by the
researcher. This distribution is similar to that of the gender profile of supervisors.
Age Range
Table 6 reflects the age range of the respondents. Thirty nine (39)
respondents belong to the age range between 22 – 27 years old. The rest of the
respondents (22) belong to the age range between 38 and above. Majority of the
respondents-subordinates, as the distribution suggests, belong to the younger
group. Since they are younger, they need the guidance that their supervisors can
provide to them.
Civil Status
In terms of civil status, majority (42) are married while sixteen (16) are
single. Three (3) are widowed. Just like their supervisors, the subordinates are
their families’ breadwinners.
TABLE 6DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY GENDER,
AGE RANGE AND CIVIL STATUS
VARIABLES FREQUENCY PERCENTGENDER Male Female
565
91.808.20
AGE RANGE22 – 2526 – 2930 – 3334 – 3738 – 41
61111117
9.8318.0318.0318.0311.48
68
42 – 4546 – 4950 – 53
54 - Above
4551
6.568.208.201.64
CIVIL STATUS Single Married Widowed
16423
26.2368.524.92
Profile of Subordinates
Tables 6 and 7 present the gender, age range, civil status, educational
attainment and years in service of the respondents-subordinates
Gender
Of the sixty-one (61) respondents, fifty-six (56) or 91.80 percent are male
while only five (5) are female (Table 6). In terms of gender, the Hotel and
Restaurant Allied Agencies is a male-dominated department. In fact, female
members are assigned in the office rather than in the field, as observed by the
researcher. This distribution is similar to that of the gender profile of supervisors.
Age Range
Table 6 reflects the age range of the respondents. Thirty nine (39)
respondents belong to the age range between 22 – 27 years old. The rest of the
respondents (22) belong to the age range between 38 and above. Majority of the
respondents-subordinates, as the distribution suggests, belong to the younger
group. Since they are younger, they need the guidance that their supervisors can
provide to them.
Civil Status
69
In terms of civil status, majority (42) are married while sixteen (16) are
single. Three (3) are widowed. Just like their supervisors, the subordinates are
their families’ breadwinners.
Educational Attainment
Table 7 reflects the educational attainment of respondents. Of the 61
respondents, only twenty-four (24) are college graduate. Majority of them (37) do
not have a college degree. These respondents are college undergraduate (17),
high school graduate (12) or vocational graduate (8). In terms of educational
attainment, the distribution shows that the subordinates have low educational
attainment. But considering their positions in the plantilla, being Security Guards,
the minimum educational qualification is a high school diploma. In case they aim
for a promotion, then, they have to go back to school and get a college diploma
and civil service eligibility.
Years in Service
As can be observed in Table 7, twenty six (26) of the respondents have
between 1 – 3 years in service. There are sixteen (16) who have between 10 -12
years in the service while ten (10) have between 7 – 9 years in the service. The
remaining nine (9) have between 4 – 7 years in the service. Majority (35) of the
respondents belong to the younger group in the service (1-6) compared to the
older group of twenty-six (26) respondents. In terms of years in service, majority
of them are still new. In such case, subordinates need the patience and
understanding or matured supervisors who are always on hand to provide
guidance towards the attainment of organization’s goal.
70
TABLE 7
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY EDUCATIONALATTAINMENT, YEARS IN SERVICE
VARIABLES FREQUENCY PERCENTHIGHEST EDUCATONAL ATTAINMENT High Scholl Graduate Vocational Graduate College Undergraduate College Graduate Master’s Level
128
17240
19.6713.1127.8739.34
0YEARS IN SERVICE
1 – 34 – 67 – 9
10 – 12
269
1016
42.6214.7516.3926.23
Leadership Style of Supervisors
The mean of the four dimensions of leadership style and the standard
deviation of each are shown in Table 8. The highest mean among the four
leadership styles is obtained by contingent reward with a mean of 3.93; following
closely is charismatic leadership with a mean of 3.90. Management by exemption
obtained a mean of 3.77 while individualized consideration was rated the lowest
with a mean of 3.71.
The results obtained indicate that supervisors of the Hotel and Restaurant
Allied Agencies as perceived by their subordinates possess more of the
characteristics of contingent reward style of leadership. It implies that the
supervisors provide various kinds of rewards in exchange for mutually agreed
upon goal accomplishment. As indicated by a mean of 3.90, which is a .03-
difference with that of contingent reward, supervisors, supervisors also possess
71
charismatic characteristics of leadership style. It means that the supervisors also
provide vision and a sense of mission and they instill pride, respect and trust
among their followers.
It should be observed that all the leadership styles obtained a high mean
indicating that the supervisors, in one way or another, possess some
characteristics of management by exemption and individualized consideration.
TABLE 8
MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONOF LEADERSHIP STYLE OF
SUPERVISORS
LEADERSHIP STYLE MEAN SD
Charismatic Leadership
Individualized Consideration
Contingent Reward
Management by Exemption
3.90 (High)
3.71 (High)
3.93 (High)
3.77 (High)
.70
.67
.66
.72
Job Satisfaction
It is indicated in Table 9 that the mean of the job satisfaction of the
subordinate respondents is 4.26 indicating satisfaction in their job. The finding
reveals that the subordinates are satisfied with the tasks that they are
performing, the pay they receive, the promotional opportunities for their
72
advancement, the technical and managerial abilities of their supervisors and the
attitude of their co-workers.
TABLE 9
MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OFJOB SATISFACTION OF
SUBORDINATES
VARIABLE MEAN SDJob Satisfaction 4.26 - Satisfied 0.67
Leadership Style of Supervisors
The mean of the four dimensions of leadership style and the standard
deviation of each are shown in Table 8. The highest mean among the four
leadership styles is obtained by contingent reward with a mean of 3.93; following
closely is charismatic leadership with a mean of 3.90. Management by exemption
obtained a mean of 3.77 while individualized consideration was rated the lowest
with a mean of 3.71.
The results obtained indicate that supervisors of the Hotel and Restaurant
Allied Agencies as perceived by their subordinates possess more of the
characteristics of contingent reward style of leadership. It implies that the
supervisors provide various kinds of rewards in exchange for mutually agreed
upon goal accomplishment. As indicated by a mean of 3.90, which is a .03-
difference with that of contingent reward, supervisors, supervisors also possess
charismatic characteristics of leadership style. It means that the supervisors also
73
provide vision and a sense of mission and they instill pride, respect and trust
among their followers.
It should be observed that all the leadership styles obtained a high mean
indicating that the supervisors, in one way or another, possess some
characteristics of management by exemption and individualized consideration.
Correlation of Leadership/Managerial Style of Supervisors with the Job-
Satisfaction of their Sub-ordinates
The relationship of the four dimensions of leadership style, namely: the
charismatic-type leadership, the individualized-consideration type of leadership,
the contingent-reward type of leadership, and the management by exemption
type of leadership style, as associated to the job satisfaction and performance of
their personnel, such of which were shown in Table 10.
The result reveals that charismatic type of leadership has low positive
correlation to the workers’ job satisfaction (r = 0.3117), and was found to be
significant in its relationship, p = 0.014, when analyzed and interpreted at 0.05
level of significance. This findings implies that the more supervisors and
managers of hotel and restaurant establishments practices the charismatic type
of leadership the satisfied their subordinates with respect to their job and to their
performance.
The “Individualized-Consideration” type of leadership was found positively
correlated to job-satisfaction (r = 0.2207) but was also found to be NOT
74
significant at 0.05 level of significance, as based from the value of p = 0.087. This
therefore implies that if managers of hotel and/or restaurant establishments will
have to make use of the “individualized consideration” type, this shall render no
effect on their workers degree of satisfaction to their job.
The contingent reward was found positively correlated to job satisfaction (r
= 0.3573) and was found significant using 0.05 level of significance (p = 0.005).
The result means that contingent reward is significantly correlated to job
satisfaction. It indicates that the more the supervisors show the contingent
reward of leadership style, the higher the job satisfaction of job satisfaction of
their subordinates. It implies the need for subordinates to be rewards so that the
agreed goals will be achieved.
Management by exemption was found positively correlated to job
satisfaction (r – 0.3007) and found significant at .05 level of significance (p
- .019). It means that management by exemption is significantly correlated to job
satisfaction indicating that the more supervisors show management by
exemption style of leadership, the higher the job satisfaction of their
subordinates. The finding reveals that supervisors have to make definite the
tasks to be undertaken by their subordinates. Job satisfaction of subordinates
comes from the technical and managerial abilities of their supervisors.
The findings are contrary to the findings of Roda-Gayta (1989) in her study
that the leadership styles of principals do not significantly affect job satisfaction.
However, the findings of this study validated that of Shieh, Mills and Waltz
(2001).
75
TABLE 10
CORRELATION OF LEADERSHIP STYLE OF SUPERVISORSWITH JOB SATISFACTION OF SUBORDINATES
LEADERSHIP STYLE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
P
Charismatic Leadership
Individualized Consideration
Contingent Reward
Management by Exemption
0.3117
0.2207
0.3573
0.3007
.014
.087
.005
.019
Correlation of Supervisor’s Profile on their Leadership Style
It was assumed that there are aspects of supervisors profile that tend to
affect certain factors of their leadership style. These factors include age, gender,
civil status, educational attainment, occupation of spouse, family income,
management-related training, non-management related training and years in
service. Table 11 reflects the results of the correlation between the supervisors’
profile on their leadership style.
On charismatic leadership style, no supervisors’ personal; characteristics
was found to be significantly correlated at .05 level of significance.
76
On individualized consideration, the result show that occupation of spouse
is negatively correlated (r = -.552) and significantly (0.018) at .05 level of
significance. The relationship implies that a better occupation of spouses does
not in any way affect the style of leadership of supervisors in terms of
individualized consideration.
On contingent reward, the result shows that there were no personal
characteristics of supervisors found to be significantly correlated at .05 level of
significance.
Management by exemption was found negatively correlated (r = -0.541) to
occupation of spouse and significant (p – 0.020) at .05 level of significance. It
indicates that a higher level of occupation of spouse does not improve the
leadership style of supervisors in terms of management by exemption.
TABLE 11
CORRELATION OF SUPERVISORS’ PROFILE ONTHEIR LEADFERSHIP STYLE
VARIABLES CLr : p
ICr : p
CRr : p
MEr : p
AGEGENDERCIVIL STATUSEDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTOCCUPATION OF SPOUSEFAMILY INCOMEMGT-RELATED TRAININGNON-MGT RELATED TRAININGYEARS IN SERVICE
0.1489 : 0.524-0.043 : 0.8540.258 : 0.269-0.333 : 0.153-0.348 : 0.136-0.353 : 0.1310.214 : 0.359-0.057 : 0.360
0 : 1
0.065 : 0.7820.043 : 0.8520.261 : 0.264-0.336 : 0.149-0.552 : 0.018-0.291 : 0.2120.432 : 0.0640.152 : 0.514-0.065 : 0.782
0.190 : 0.417-0.85 : 0.7150.341 : 0.144-0.275 : 0.239-0.394 : 0.092-0.381 : 0.1020.250 : 0.284-0.075 : 0.749
0 : 1
-0.063 : 0.787-0.171 : 0.4650.341 : 0.144-0.385 : 0.098-0.541 : 0.020-0.445 : 0.0570.289 : 0.2160.246 : 0.291
0 : 1
Correlation of Subordinates’ Personal Profile on Their Job Satisfaction
It was assumed that there are certain aspects of subordinates’ job
satisfaction that significantly affect their job satisfaction. These include gender,
77
age, civil status, educational attainment and years in service. The results of the
correlational analysis are found in Table 12.
The correlation shows that gender and years in service are positively
correlated (r = 0.069; r = 0.030) to job satisfaction but not significantly at .05 level
of significance. On the other hand, age, civil status, and educational attainment
are negatively correlated (r = -0.020; r = -0.054; r = -0.139) but not significant
at .05 level of significance. The findings indicate job satisfaction of subordinates
is not affected by their personal characteristics.
TABLE 12
CORRELATION OF SUBORDIANTES’ PERSONALPROFILE ON THEIR JOB SATISFACTION
VARIABLES CORRELATION COEFFICIENT p
GENDER
AGE
CIVIL STATUS
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
YEARS IN SERVICE
0.069
-0.020
-0.054
-0.139
0.030
0.429
0.817
0.540
0.112
0.728
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Presented in this chapter is the summary of findings, conclusions
formulated and recommendations given in relation to the problem investigated.
Summary of Findings
The study was conducted to determine what leadership styles of
supervisors significantly affect job satisfaction of subordinates. Specifically, it
sought answers to the following questions:
1. What is the leadership style of the supervisors of the Hotel and Restaurant
Allied Agencies of the Tourism Sector of Zambales as perceived by their
subordinates?
2. What is the level of job satisfaction of the subordinates of the supervisors
of the Law Enforcement Department?
3. Which leadership style of supervisors significantly affects the level of job
satisfaction of their subordinates?
4. Is the leadership style of supervisors significantly affected by their
personal profile?
5. Is the job satisfaction of the subordinates significantly affected by their
personal profile?
The study was a descriptive researching the survey method, with a set of
questionnaire. A total of eleven supervisors and sixty-one (61) subordinates of
the Hotel and Restaurant Allied Agencies was the participant of the study.
79
6. The economic status of supervisors is low as indicated by the occupation
of their spouse and the monthly family income.
7. Supervisors have more attendance to non-0management related trainings
than management-related trainings that may not be useful for their
supervisory position.
8. Supervisors possess more of the characteristics of contingent reward style
of leadership and charismatic leadership than management by exemption
and individualized consideration. Supervisors provide various kinds of
rewards in exchange for mutually agreed upon goal accomplishment. AT
the same time, they provide vision, a sense of mission and instill pride,
respect and trust among their subordinates.
9. Subordinates are satisfied with their jobs as indicated by a mean of 4.26
10.Charismatic leadership, contingent reward and management by exemption
are significantly correlated with job satisfaction. The hypothesis that
leadership style of supervisors significantly affects the level of job
satisfaction of subordinates is therefore partly accepted.
11.The hypothesis that leadership style of supervisors is significantly affected
by their personal profile is partly accepted since occupation of spouse was
found top significantly affect individualized consideration and management
by exemption.
12.The hypothesis that job satisfaction of subordinates is significantly
affected by their personal profile is rejected since no profile variable was
found to significantly affect subordinates’ job satisfaction.
80
The important findings of the study are summarized in seven parts: the
profile of supervisors; the profile of subordinates; the leadership style of
supervisors; the job satisfaction of subordinates; the relationship style on job
satisfaction; the relationship of personal profile of supervisors on their leadership
style; and, the relationship of personal profile of subordinates on their job
satisfaction.
Personal Profile of Supervisors
1. Seven (7) supervisors belong to age range 50 years old and below while
four (4) belong to age range 51 years old and above.
2. Almost all the supervisors are male except one (1) who heads the
administrative division of Hotel and Restaurant Allied Agencies.
3. In terms of years of service nine (9) supervisors experience ranging
between 5 – 6 years while two (2) supervisors have only between 1 – 2
years in the service.
4. Almost all the supervisors are married except one who is a widow.
5. On the educational attainment of the supervisors, eight (8) supervisors are
bachelor’s degree holder while three (3) have completed their academic
requirements in the master’s program.
6. Five (5) of the spouses of the supervisors are unemployed while the
remaining six (6) are employed, four (4) of these are skilled workers, one
(1) is unskilled worker and another one (1) is a professional.
81
7. Nine supervisors have monthly family income ranging between
P11,000.00 – P20,000.00. The remaining two have income ranging
between P21,000.00 – P30,000.00 and between P31,000.00 –
P40,000.00, respectively.
8. Nine (9) supervisors attended between 0-8 management-related trainings
while the remaining three (3) supervisors attended more than eight
management-related training. On management-related trainings, seven (7)
supervisors have attended between 0-11 trainings while four (4) attended
12 and above trainings.
Profile of Subordinates
9. Fifty-six (56) subordinates are male while only five (5) are female who are
assigned in the office rather than in the field.
10.Thirty-nine (39) subordinates belong to age range between 22-37 years
old. The rest of the respondents (22) are above 37 years old.
11.Majority of them (42) are married while nineteen (19) are single.
12.Majority of the subordinates (37) do not have a college degree who are
either college undergraduate (17), high school graduate (12) or vocational
graduate (8) while twenty-four (24) of them are degree holders.
13.Thirty-five (35) subordinates have 1-6 years in the service and twenty six
(26) have been in the service between 7-12 years.
Leadership Style of Supervisors
14.Subordinates perceived that their supervisors possess more the
characteristics of contingent reward style of leadership with the highest
82
mean of 3.93, followed closely by charismatic leadership (Mean = 3.90),
management by exemption (M = 3.77) and ;last, the individualized
consideration (M = 3.71).
Job Satisfaction of Subordinates
15.The mean of the job satisfaction of subordinates is. 4.26 indicating
satisfactory satisfaction in their job.
Correlation of Supervisors’ Leadership Styles with Job Satisfaction of
Subordinates
16.Charismatic leadership has low positive correlation to job satisfaction (r =
0.3117) and significant at .05 level of significance (p = .014).
17.Contingent reward has a positive correlation to job satisfaction (r = .3573)
and significant at .05 level of significance (p = .005)
18.Management by exemption has positive correlation to job satisfaction (r =
0.3007) and significant at .05 level of significance (p = .019).
Correlation of Supervisors’ Profile on Their Leadership Style
19.Occupation of spouse is both negatively correlated to individualized
consideration (r = -0.552) and management by exemption (r = -0.541) and
significant at .05 level of significance (p = 0.018) and (p = 0.020)
respectively.
83
Correlation of Subordinates’ Profile on their Job Satisfaction
20.Gender and years in service are positively correlated but not significant
at .05 level of significance.
Correlation of Job Satisfaction and Marketability
To ensure this flawless execution of every hotel and restaurant
management located in Zambales, there needs to be a skilled business
supervisors and analyst communicating business needs and effective human
relationships and friendly environment as perceived by the personnel/workers of
hotel and restaurant establishments. Through hands-on experience and focused
work-related experiences and conditions; good management, managerial styles,
and trainings of supervisors will give each and every hotel and restaurant
establishment’s answers and working solutions to the need to succeed in
hospitality-businesses today.
In addition, it was inferred from the study how hotel and restaurant
businesses may be structured and managed considering the behaviors and
attitudes of their workers/personnel, among these findings are enumerated as
follows:
Better satisfaction of workers with regards to their job conditions
ensures increase in the workers job efficiency;
Improvement of job efficiency renders an increase in the workers’ job
performance;
84
Increase in the establishment’s performance will do better public
acceptability as well as the marketability of the services and products
of the different hotel and restaurant businesses;
Other ways to improve the marketability of hotels and restaurant
establishments as related to job satisfaction, management and leadership styles,
are listed as follows:
increase hotel and restaurant's bottom line by cutting development
costs for new business applications
establishment’s should save valuable time by knowing how to
effectively streamline the introduction of new products and services
the management must react quickly to ever-changing regulations and
improve quality assurance
Recommendations
From the findings identified and the conclusions formulated, the following
recommendations are given:
1. Since it was found that the Hotel and Restaurant Allied Agencies is
male-dominated, the need for gender-sensitivity training is
recommended to be attended to by all personnel of the department.
Such basic orientation on gender issues will serve as an eye opener
for Hotel and Restaurant Allied Agencies leadership to consider the
idea of designating more women supervisors to work in the field rather
than being concentrated in the office. Among the rank and file, a need
85
to increase the strength of women in male-dominated department must
also be considered.
2. There is also a need to look into the salary of supervisors because a
low economic status may affect one’s performance. The Administration
must conduct a thorough study on how to improve the salary of
supervisors or provide them incentives.
3. The educational qualification of the supervisors must be improved. The
Hotel and Restaurant Allied Agencies leadership must encourage their
people to go back to school and take further studies in the graduate
program. An employee development program aimed primarily to
provide scholarship grants for supervisors and subordinates can be
proposed to Hotel and Restaurant Allied Agencies administrators.
4. Since it was found out that supervisors have more attendance to non-
management-related trainings, it is recommended that a study on the
possibility of sending them to management-related training as well as
leadership training must be done. Their attendance to these would be
an avenue for exposure to other leadership styles like transformational
leadership styles which were found to have significantly improved
satisfaction of employees.
5. The management must devise a section process, the purpose of which
is to be able to identify potential supervisors who will later replace the
older supervisors. Those selected can be sent to trainings on
leadership.
86
6. The subordinates were found to be satisfied with their jobs. The Hotel
and Restaurant Allied Agencies management must see to it that
subordinates must maintain their satisfaction with their jobs by
providing increases in salary or additional incentives, improving
working conditions, or providing opportunity for advancement.
7. For further research, this study can be replicated to all the department
of Hotel and Restaurant establishments in Zambales utilizing
supervisors and their subordinates. A study of the leadership styles in
relation to performance is also recommended with Department
Managers as respondents.
87
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A P P E N D I X A
December 2007
The ChairmanDepartment of TourismZambales
SIR:
Please be informed that the researchers, whose names are enumerated below, are graduating students of Ramon Magsaysay Technological University at Iba, Zambales, taking up Bachelor of Science in Accountancy. We are currently working on our undergraduate’s research study regarding leadership style, marketability and job satisfaction. The purpose of this research is to determine what leadership style significantly affects job performance of employees. Data needed for the study will be gathered at the selected municipalities of Zambales.
In this connection, we are requesting that may we please be allowed to distribute questionnaires to the supervisors and employees of the selected Hotel and Restaurant establishments.
We hope for your kind consideration. Thank you very much.
Very truly yours,
EMMANUEL E. BIAGAN
WADE L. MAGSOY
MEDRIAN CHRISTOPHER JOHN V. ALBANIEL
(Researchers)
94
A P P E N D I X B
LETTER TO THE RESPONDENTS
December 2007
Dear Respondents,
We are currently working on our undergraduate’s research project regarding the effect of leadership style on job satisfaction with their corresponding influence on the marketability of the products and services of hotel and restaurant establishments. The study requires two groups of respondents, Supervisors and their subordinates who will rate the leadership style of their supervisor.
In this connection, we would like to request your accurate and honest answers to the attaché questionnaire. Please be assured that your answers will be held confidential.
Thank you for your cooperation.
Respectfully yours,
EMMANUEL E. BIAGAN
WADE L. MAGSOY
MEDRIAN CHRISTOPHER JOHN V. ALBANIEL
(Researchers)
95
LIST OF HOTEL AND RESTAURANT ESTABLISHMENTSIN ZAMBALES
96
