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Chapter 3

Introduction to Quantitative Research

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Concepts Relevant To Quantitative Research

Basic research Applied research Rigor Control

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Basic Research

The pursuit of “knowledge for knowledge’s sake”

Purpose is to generate and refine theory andbuild constructs

Findings are frequently not directly useful inpractice

Findings can be generalized to varioussettings

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Basic Research - Case Study

Examine the causes of body fat loss early in the development of cancer cachexia in male rats

The study demonstrates the importance of genetic research in understanding disease pathology and provides basis for further research in animals and in humans with cancer cachexia

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Applied (Practical) Research

Scientific investigation conducted to generate knowledge that will directly influence or improve clinical practice

Purpose is to solve problems, to make decisions, or to predict or control outcomes in real-life practice situations

The findings are less generalizable than those from basic research

Complementary to basic research

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Applied Research Case Study

Determine the effectiveness of a nurse- managed telemonitoring (TM) program on the blood pressure (BP) of urban African Americans

Findings showed that this nurse-managedTM intervention significantly affected BP in a population with a high incidence of hypertension

Based on these findings, home monitoring became part of a patient’s prescribed treatment

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Rigor

The striving for excellence in research Discipline Scrupulous adherence to detail Strict accuracy Precision Measurement involving objectively

experiencing the real world

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Control

Imposing “rules” to decrease the possibilityof error

Increases the probability that the study’sfindings are an accurate reflection of reality

Through control, the researcher can reduce the influence or confounding effect of extraneous variables on the study variables

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Control (Cont’d)

Experimental

Quasi-experimental

Correlational

Descriptive

More Control

Less Control

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Common Areas in Which Control Might be Enhanced

Selection of subjects (sampling) Reduction of subject or participant attrition Selection of the research setting Development and implementation of the

intervention Measurement of study variables Subjects’ knowledge of the study

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Sampling and Attrition

Sampling: process of selecting subjects, events, behaviors, or elements for participation in a study

Random sampling: usually provides a sample that is representative of a population

Attrition: loss of study subjects (researchers limit this to increase the rigor of their studies)

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Research Settings

Natural: uncontrolled, real-life settings (descriptive and correlational)

Partially controlled: environment that the researcher manipulates/modifies in some way (quasi-experimental)

Highly controlled: artificially constructed environments that are developed for the sole purpose of conducting research

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Development and Implementation of Study Interventions or Treatments

Intervention fidelity A study intervention needs to be:

Clearly and precisely developed Consistently implemented Examined for effectiveness through quality

measurement of the dependent variables

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Measurement of Study Variables

Attempt to use the most precise instruments available to measure the study variables

Rigorously control the process for measuring study variables to improve the design validity and quality of the study findings

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Subjects’ Knowledge of a Study

Hawthorne effect: individuals may change their behavior due to the attention they are receiving from researchers rather than because of any manipulation of independent variables.

Kind of messes with the validity of your study…don’t you think?

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Steps of the Quantitative Research Process

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Steps of the Quantitative Research Process (Cont’d)

Conceptualizing

Planning

Implementing

Communicating findings

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Formulating a Research Problem and Purpose

Research problem: area of concern or phenomenon of interest where there is a gap in the knowledge base needed for nursing practice

Research purposed: generated from the problem and identifies the specific focus or aim of the study (often indicates the type of study to be conducted)

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Major Sources for Nursing Research Problems

Nursing practice Literature review Research priorities for funding agencies and

professional organizations Researcher and peer interactions Theory testing

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Review of Relevant Literature

What is relevant literature?

Sources that are pertinent or highly important in providing the in-depth knowledge needed to study a selected problem and purpose

Why do it?

To find out what is already known and identifies the knowledge gaps that exist

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Developing a Framework

Framework: the abstract, logical structure ofmeaning that will guide the development of a study and enable the researcher to link the findings to the body of nursing knowledge

Assumptions are inherent in the framework but may not be explicitly stated

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Formulating Research Objectives, Questions, or Hypotheses

Narrow the focus of the research purpose Often specify only one or two research

variables Identify the relationship between the

variables Indicate the population to be studied

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Defining Research Variables

Identified by the objectives, questions, or hypotheses Variables: concepts that are measured, manipulated,

or controlled in a study More abstract concepts (e.g., creativity, empathy,

social support) are sometimes referred to as “research concepts”

Conceptual definition: theoretical meaning variable/concept

Operational definition: how a variable will be measured/manipulated in a study

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Selecting a Research Design

A blueprint for maximizing control over factors that could interfere with a study’s desired outcome

The type of design directs the selection of: Population Sampling process Methods of measurement A plan for data collection and analysis

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Defining the Population and Sample

Population: all the elements (individuals, objects, or substances) that meet criteria for inclusion in a universe and which are accessible and can be best represented by the study sample

Sample: subset of the population that is selected for a particular study

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Selecting Methods of Measurement

Measurement: assigning numbers to objects in accord with some rule

Instrumentation: the application of specific rules to the development of a measurement device/instrument

Data generated with an instrument are at thenominal (lowest), ordinal, interval, or ratio (highest) level of measurement

The level of measurement, determines the type of statistical analyses that you can perform on the data

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Instrument Selection

Requires extensive examination of its reliability and validity

Reliability: how consistently the measurement technique measures a concept

Validity: the extent that instrument actuallyreflects the abstract concept being examined

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Developing a Plan for Data Collection and Analysis

Data collection: precise, systematic gathering of information relevant to the research purpose, objectives, questions, or hypotheses

Detailed procedures are developed, with a schedule identifying initiation and termination of the process

Analysis plan is based on the research objectives/questions/hypotheses; the data to be collected; research design; researchers’expertise; availability of computer resources

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Implementing the Research Plan

Intervention implementation Data collection Data analysis Interpretation of research finding Pilot study

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Pilot Study

A smaller version of a proposed study conducted to refine the methodology

Many reasons for conducting, but a pilot study has the potential to improve the development, funding, and implementation of future studies

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Data Collection

Obtaining numerical data Consent forms Techniques

Observation Interview Questionnaires Scales Physiological measurement

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Data Analysis

Reduces, organizes, and gives meaning to the data

Analysis techniques Descriptive Statistical Make predictions Examine group differences

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Interpreting Research Outcomes

Examining the results from data analysis Exploring the significance of the findings Identifying study limitations Forming conclusions Generalizing the findings Considering the implications for nursing Suggesting further studies

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Communicating Research Findings

Developing and disseminating a research report to appropriate audiences

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Types of Quantitative Research

Descriptive Correlational Quasi-experimental Experimental

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Descriptive Research

Purpose is to explore and describe phenomena in real-life situations

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Correlational Research

Examines linear relationships between twoor more variables and determines the type (positive or negative) and degree (strength) of the relationship

-1 is a perfect negative correlation +1 is a perfect positive correlation 0 indicates no relationship

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Quasi-experimental Research

Examines the cause-and-effect relationshipsamong selected independent and dependent variables

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Experimental Research

Examines cause and effect relationships between independent and dependent variables under highly controlled conditions