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Chap.12Chap.12Species diversitySpecies diversity
鄭先祐鄭先祐生態主張者 生態主張者 AyoAyo 工作室工作室
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 2
Species DiversitySpecies Diversity
Measures of species diversityMeasures of species diversity RichnessRichness Geographic patterns of diversityGeographic patterns of diversity Determinants of species divesityDeterminants of species divesity Mechanisms: Island biogeographyMechanisms: Island biogeography Mechanisms that produce high species Mechanisms that produce high species
diversitydiversity Environmental ApplicationEnvironmental Application
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 3
Measures of species diversityMeasures of species diversity
Diversity = richness Diversity = richness (( 豐富度豐富度 )) + + evennessevenness(( 均勻均勻度度 ))
Indices of species diversity Indices of species diversity Simpson’s index (p.297)Simpson’s index (p.297) The Shannon-Weaver index (p.297-298)The Shannon-Weaver index (p.297-298)
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 4
Core-satellite hypothesisCore-satellite hypothesis
The distribution of rare and common The distribution of rare and common species is bimodal – most species are either species is bimodal – most species are either rare or common rare or common 大部分的種類是常見或大部分的種類是常見或是稀少。是稀少。 ((Fig. 12.4)Fig. 12.4)
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 5
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 6
Total species RichnessTotal species Richness
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 7
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 8
Latitudinal trends in diversityLatitudinal trends in diversity
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 9
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 10
Diversity in EcotonesDiversity in Ecotones
Species diversity is also high in ecotones, Species diversity is also high in ecotones, the boundaries between two habitats.the boundaries between two habitats.
If the transition is more gradual, it is refered If the transition is more gradual, it is refered to as an ecocline.to as an ecocline.
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 11
Deep-ocean diversityDeep-ocean diversity
Grassle(1991) sampled 233 sites between Grassle(1991) sampled 233 sites between 1500 and 2500 meters below the surface off 1500 and 2500 meters below the surface off the coast of New Jersey.the coast of New Jersey.
The samples revealed 198 species in 171 The samples revealed 198 species in 171 families of 14 phyla (Table 12.1)families of 14 phyla (Table 12.1)
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 12
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 13
Mechanisms: Mechanisms: island biogeographyisland biogeography(( 島嶼生物地理學島嶼生物地理學 ))
The equilibrium theory of island biogeographyThe equilibrium theory of island biogeography Empirical evidenceEmpirical evidence Biogeography of habitat islandsBiogeography of habitat islands Conservation applications Conservation applications
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 14
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 15
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 16
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 17
Biogeography of Biogeography of habitat islandshabitat islands
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 18
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 19
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 20
Fig. 10. Schematic Fig. 10. Schematic illustration of some illustration of some principles for the principles for the design of nature design of nature
reserves.reserves.
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 21
Fig. 11. Baja CaliforniaFig. 11. Baja California
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 22
表表 1. 1. Cortez Cortez 海域島嶼間生物地理之比較。海域島嶼間生物地理之比較。
項 目項 目陸生陸生植物植物
沿岸沿岸魚類魚類
陸棲陸棲鳥類鳥類
陸棲陸棲爬蟲爬蟲
蜥蜴蜥蜴 陸棲陸棲哺乳哺乳
5050kmkm22 之海洋島嶼之海洋島嶼所含之平均數所含之平均數
105105 1313 9.39.3 3.53.5 1.31.3
陸橋性島嶼比海洋性島陸橋性島嶼比海洋性島嶼含有更多的種類?嶼含有更多的種類?
NoNo NoNo NoNo YesYes YesYes Very Very YesYes
島嶼上所含之種類比大島嶼上所含之種類比大陸塊上還少嗎?陸塊上還少嗎?
NoNo 有一有一點點
YesYes YesYes Very Very YesYes
HoloceneHolocene 才出現之海洋才出現之海洋性島嶼所含的種類數比性島嶼所含的種類數比老生島嶼還少嗎?老生島嶼還少嗎?
NoNo NoNo NoNo NoNo No No 有一點有一點
距大陸愈遠,種類數愈距大陸愈遠,種類數愈少嗎?陸橋性島嶼少嗎?陸橋性島嶼海洋性島嶼海洋性島嶼
NoNo
NoNo
NoNo
NoNo
NoNo
NoNo
NoNo
NoNo
NoNo
YesYes
有一點有一點YesYes
特有性:陸橋性島嶼特有性:陸橋性島嶼海洋性島嶼海洋性島嶼
00
22
00
00
00
00
55
3535
00
4747
1616
6969
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 23
Fig. 13. Fig. 13. 島嶼生物地理學島嶼生物地理學 (( 修改自修改自 Case & Code, 1987)Case & Code, 1987)
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 24
Fig. 14. Diagram of experimental design. Plots with solid Fig. 14. Diagram of experimental design. Plots with solid edges represent edges represent enclosuresenclosures preventing access by sheep. preventing access by sheep. Broken lines mark delineated plots in the grazed area.Broken lines mark delineated plots in the grazed area.
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 25
表表 2. 2. 於不同大小面積之隔離區與牧養區內,顯花於不同大小面積之隔離區與牧養區內,顯花植物的種類數之比較。植物的種類數之比較。
項目項目隔離區隔離區 牧養區牧養區
小型小型 中型中型 大型大型 小型小型 中型中型 大型大型
NN 3232 88 22 1616 44 11
總數總數 2929 2626 2020 2626 1616 1515
最多最多 // 各各區區
1515 1515 1515 1313 1212 (15)(15)
最少最少 // 各各區區
33 88 1515 55 88 (15)(15)
全區全區 3434 種種 2626 種種
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 26
表表 3. 3. 各型樣區的種類數目之變化。各型樣區的種類數目之變化。
項 目項 目 小型小型 中型中型 大型大型 全部全部種類種類 19851985
19861986
19871987
2929
3030
3333
2626
2727
2929
2020
2020
2525
3434
3333
4040
遺失種類遺失種類 1985-19861985-1986
1986-19871986-1987
44
22
55
33
33
22
55
11
新增種類新增種類 1985-19861985-1986
1986-19871986-1987
55
55
66
55
33
77
44
66
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 27
Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic archipelagos.archipelagos.
a. Extant native birds of the Hawaiian islandsa. Extant native birds of the Hawaiian islandsb. Galapagos land birdsb. Galapagos land birds
c. Galapagos Darwin's finchesc. Galapagos Darwin's finchesd. Galapagos ferns.d. Galapagos ferns.
海洋性島嶼
離岸 200 公里以上
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 28
Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic archipelagos.archipelagos.
e. Galapagos insectse. Galapagos insectsf. Galapagos flowering plantsf. Galapagos flowering plants
g. Caribbean bats.g. Caribbean bats.h. Facroes islands ground beetles.h. Facroes islands ground beetles.
海洋性島嶼
離岸 200 公里以上
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 29
Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic archipelagos. archipelagos.
g. Caribbean bats.g. Caribbean bats.h. Facroes islands ground beetles.h. Facroes islands ground beetles.
i.. Canary Islands birdsi.. Canary Islands birdsj. Canary island ground beetles.j. Canary island ground beetles.
海洋性島嶼
離岸 200 公里以上
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 30
Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshores Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshores archipelagos. archipelagos.
a. Seabirds on islands off of Scotland.a. Seabirds on islands off of Scotland.b. Extant marsupials on islands in the Bass Straits.b. Extant marsupials on islands in the Bass Straits.
c. Reptiles on islands in the Bass Straits. c. Reptiles on islands in the Bass Straits.
d. Sand dune mammals on islands in the Bass Straits.d. Sand dune mammals on islands in the Bass Straits.
沿岸島嶼
離岸 100KM 以內
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 31
沿岸島嶼
離岸 100KM 以內
Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshore Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshore archipelagos. archipelagos.
e. Birds of the California Channel islands.e. Birds of the California Channel islands.f. Reptiles and amphibians of the California Channel f. Reptiles and amphibians of the California Channel
islands.islands.g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.
h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 32
Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshores archipelagos. nearshores archipelagos.
g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.i. Reptiles and amphibians of the islands in the Gulf i. Reptiles and amphibians of the islands in the Gulf
of California.of California.
沿岸島嶼
離岸 100KM 以內
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 33
Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial habitat isolates.habitat isolates.
a. Mammals of East African national parks.a. Mammals of East African national parks.b. Birds of East African national parks.b. Birds of East African national parks.
c. Mountaintop small mammals. c. Mountaintop small mammals. d. Mountaintop plants.d. Mountaintop plants.
陸域隔離區
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 34
Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial habitat isolates.habitat isolates.
e. Mountaintop birdse. Mountaintop birdsf. Birds in New Jersey woodlotsf. Birds in New Jersey woodlots
g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.
陸域隔離區
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 35
Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial habitat isolates. terrestrial habitat isolates.
g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.
i. Mammals of U.S. national parks.i. Mammals of U.S. national parks.
陸域隔離區
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 36
切割棲息地後,所含的生物種類數反而增加,切割棲息地後,所含的生物種類數反而增加,可能的原因:可能的原因:
1. 1. Habitat diversityHabitat diversity 2. Population dynamics.2. Population dynamics.
– Priority effectsPriority effects– Multiple stable equilibriaMultiple stable equilibria– Edge effects Edge effects – DisturbanceDisturbance– Species pool and dispersal ability.Species pool and dispersal ability.– ColonizationColonization– Evolutionary effects.Evolutionary effects.– Extinctions.Extinctions.
3. Historical effects. 3. Historical effects.
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 37
當代的切割理論與生物保育策略當代的切割理論與生物保育策略
「一大」或是「多小」?「一大」或是「多小」? (1) (1) maximizes the mean size of reservesmaximizes the mean size of reserves (2) maximizes the number of reserves(2) maximizes the number of reserves
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 38
Mechanisms that produce high Mechanisms that produce high species diversityspecies diversity
Evolutionary timeEvolutionary time Ecological timeEcological time Climatic stabilityClimatic stability Climatic predictabilityClimatic predictability Structural heterogeneityStructural heterogeneity Primary productionPrimary production Biotic interactionsBiotic interactions Intermediate levels of disturbanceIntermediate levels of disturbance Geographic areaGeographic area
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 39
Consequences of species Consequences of species diversitydiversity
One early principle of community ecology One early principle of community ecology held that diversity and stability are causally held that diversity and stability are causally related.related.
1. Species diversity leads to complex 1. Species diversity leads to complex ecological interactions.ecological interactions.
2. Complex systems are inherently more 2. Complex systems are inherently more stable.stable.
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 40
Diversity and StabilityDiversity and Stability
1. 1. Rivet Rivet 金卯金卯丁丁 hypothesis (Ehrlich and hypothesis (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1981)Ehrlich, 1981)
2. Redundancy hypothesis (Walker , 1992)2. Redundancy hypothesis (Walker , 1992)– 有些物種是比要重要,但有些則是較無所謂。有些物種是比要重要,但有些則是較無所謂。
Keystone speciesKeystone species 的觀念。的觀念。 3. 3. Idiosyncratic hypothesis (Lawton, 1994)Idiosyncratic hypothesis (Lawton, 1994)
– 這是這是 null modelnull model ,, diversity diversity 和和 ecosystem ecosystem functionfunction 的關係是的關係是 indeterminateindeterminate 。 。
Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 41
問題與討論!問題與討論!
Ayo 文化站 http://faculty.pccu.edu.tw/~ayo