Changes in Science Teacher Education1967-1977

Robert E. Yager,Vincent N. Lunetta, and

Pinchas TamirScience Education

The University of IowaIowa City, Iowa 52242

During the past 2 to 3 decades there has been a vast amount of effortaimed at improving science and mathematics teaching at all levels. Al-though the National Science Foundation has invested almost 2 billiondollars in various programs to upgrade science and mathematics teachingprograms, there are little data to suggest that hoped for improvementshave taken place. In fact, if SAT and ACT scores are taken into consid-eration, one may suggest there has been a regression. The question hasbeen raised as to whether preservice or inservice programs for scienceteachers have been geared to provide the training necessary to implementthese new directions. This article deals with some facets of the questionjust posed as they apply to science teaching.Newton and Watson(4) conducted a major study in 1965-67 that dealt

with the status of teacher education programs in the sciences. The studyinvolved all 992 institutions with teacher-education programs in theUnited States and including on-site visits with faculty and students atthirty-seven institutions selected to represent all sizes and types ofschools and to provide geographical distribution. The report, publishedin 1968, concluded that 1) there are examples of every conceivable pat-tern of science-teacher education somewhere in the United States, whe-ther referring to methods courses, student-teaching arrangements, courserequirements or program sequences; 2) there is almost a complete lack ofobjective evidence on the effectiveness of programs, although studentsare demanding information concerning the effectiveness of their pro-grams; 3) science educators involved in teacher education in the UnitedStates appear to be isolated from their counterparts at other institutions;and 4) there are neither agreed-upon goals nor structures for science-teacher education in the United States.The Newton and Watson study is signifiant as an independent observa-

tion of teacher education across the nation. It is a unique contributionand may offer a baseline with which observations since 1965 can be com-pared. A search of the literature fails to reveal a similar report of com-parable study in the literature prior to the 1968 report. The study isunique in its magnitude (i.e., national in scope), its objectivity (i.e.,undertaken by independent investigators), and the synthesis and analysisaccomplished (not merely a compendium of individual observations).

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Changes in Science Teacher Education 309

In 1972 the ERIC Information Analysis Center for Science, Mathema-tics, and Environmental Education conducted a study(2) designed toidentify promising practices in science-teacher education. A question-naire was sent to 65 teacher training institutions to elicit their reviews onwhat they deemed to be promising practices. The responses to this studywere tallied and published in a report in 1973. A year later Atwood(l)studied the ERIC report and made a comprehensive analysis of the datain an effort to identify specific trends. His report included generalitiesdrawn from descriptions of the sixty-five programs at major institutionsacross the United States that were self-reports provided by teacher educa-tors describing their own programs and goals. Although valuable, theoriginal reports lacked objectivity and Atwood was unable to parallel thedirect observations that characterized the earlier study of Newton andWatson. Nevertheless, the following summary emerged from Atwood’sanalysis:

1) The emphasis of existing programs is clearly on preservice aspects. There is too

often no attempt to coordinate preservice and inservice efforts.2) Teacher education tends to be considered the methods course. Few teacher-educa-

tion programs have been structured within a theoretical and/or programmaticframework.

3) In most programs students are involved in activities which place responsibilityupon them for their own learning.

4) The teacher as a person and the specific science content are more central inteacher-education programs at the secondary level than at the elementary level.

5) Most outcomes of teacher-education programs are stated in non-behavioral

terms, while the majority of teacher educators profess to be experimenting withcompetency-based programs.

6) Integration of science and education in most programs is inadequate. Integrationof science with other curricular areas is rarely reported in teacher-education pro-grams though it often is a trend in the public schools.

7) There is great acceptance of process goals in teacher education.8) Frequently teacher educators report that they approach science from a humanistic

viewpoint, but there is little evidence of such humanism in the program descrip-tions.

9) Many teacher-education programs are using "individualized" approaches with noconsistent operational definition of the term.

10) There is emphasis upon integration of field experiences in the total program.Often, however, there is more support for the concept than evidence for its prac-tice.

11) Few teacher-education programs are concerned with future curriculum and schoolneeds; most are concerned with past and present programs and organizationalschemes.

It is interesting to compare the generalizations posited by Newton andWatson with those developed by Atwood. Clearly some trends seem toemerge even though the studies had different data bases. Of course, thequestion remains as to how many of the "promising practices" were in-deed "practices" as opposed to desired goals.

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A year after the Atwood analysis, Meyer published an analysis ofteacher-education trends in science with an international perspective(3).Tamir as a participant in the Congress in which Meyer presented his find-ings expanded upon the trends while emphasizing major national pro-grams in the United Kingdom, Australia, Israel, and the UnitedStates(5). Specific trends in model teacher-education programs were ela-borated. Model teacher-education programs were defined as those de-veloped nationally with government support and the involvement ofteacher education teams. Twenty-two points were presented as featuresof such national models in 1975 and 1976. The features included thefollowing:

1) Training in understanding objectives changes to training in writing objectives,generally expressed in behavioral terms.

2) The time spent in observing and participating schools is extended and is oftenspread over the years of an undergraduate program.

3) Master teachers and supervisors are appointed and trained to take responsibilityfor supervising student-teaching.

4) Microteaching is used extensively both as a means of developing specific compe-tencies and as a vicarious substitute for certain elements of school experience.

5) An appreciation of student differences leads to attempts to match instructionaltechniques to individuals and groups. Distribution techniques include modules,programmed instruction, multimedia and audiotutorial materials, "contracts,"and variations of the "Keller Plan."

6) The field trip evolves into programs for environmental and communty analysis,stressing interdisciplinary approaches and involving, at times, extended periods ofoutdoor camping.

7) Small group work evolves into a study of interpersonal relations which may leadto human relations training.

8) Classroom observation develops into interaction studies. The evidence obtainedthrough this analysis is used to help teachers develop student-oriented skills. Inter-action analysis may also be used as a means for feedback and assessment of theprograms of student teachers.

9) The "Teacher’s Guide" evolves into special preservice and inservice training mod-ules for new curricula.

10) Simpler aspects of role playing develop into more sophisticated forms of educa-tional games and other simulations, including computer-assisted simulations.Role play situations have been successfully used in training for inquiry teaching,self-pacing, interpersonal relations, the social implications of science, and incid-ents in the classroom.

11) Strategies which fit a self-contained classroom organization evolve into trainingfor team teaching and school designs which are more open.

12) Project work evolves into genuine research study as a part of the preservice pro-gram.

13) Assessment by formal examination becomes assessment of the formativedevelopment of teaching skills and competencies.

14) Stress on the cognitive aspects of teaching changes to teaching for personal adjust-ment and positive self-concept. Attention is given to issues such as inquiryteaching and science-related social problems.

15) Teaching for inquiry and problem solving enlarges its perspective to includeteaching for creativity and divergent thinking.

Changes in Science Teacher Education 311

16) Analysis of specific courses of study changes to the development of skills ofcurriculum construction with special emphasis on using appropriate materialsfrom different curricula in designing a new unit.

17) Learning to use resources widens its scope to include training in the production ofboth printed and non-printed learning resources, such as media and apparatus.

18) Conventional training in communication skills changes to making full use of thetechniques of educational technology including media resource centers.

19) Preservice programs allow for increasing involvement of the students in planningtheir courses and in evaluating the effectiveness of their programs.

20) The study of intellectual development following models proposed by learningtheorists is becoming an important component in most teacher education pro-grams.

21) Awareness that preservice training is but a first cycle in a continous process of ed-ucation and professional growth is more prevalent.

22) A growing dissatisfaction exists with the "end-on" approach to teacher educationin which all the training in pedagogy is compressed into one or two years after thecompletion of a full major in a field of science.

In one sense the lack of consistency, the lack of objective information,the lack of common goals, and the lack of communication about teachereducation programs has changed drastically since 1965. The support ofteacher-education innovations by the National Science Foundation andthe Office of Education have helped. The greater interest in research re-ports concerning teacher education and the controversial interest indeveloping new and expanded national guidelines for evaluating teacher-education programs have also helped. However, the question remains asto what is happening at the 992 institutions in the United States that weresurveyed and studied by Newton and Watson in 1965-67. How many gen-eralizations would be similar ten years later? It is clear that national andinternational models have been developed and studied. Perhaps theywould provide the framework for studying and evaluating programsacross the nation. Perhaps a new Newton and Watson study should havea framework and a format drawn from the model program described byMeyer and Tamir.As one views the Meyer and Tamir list, certain groupings emerge. Per-

haps such an analysis and organization of teacher trends could providethe structure needed for self-study and communication. Perhaps it couldprovide a means for a new "search for promising practices" in all 992 in-stitutions.An idealized teacher education program responsive to the problems

identified by Newton and Watson, the directions reported by Atwood,and the analysis of international models provided by Meyer and Tamirwould have some common features. Such features would include:

I. The program is based upon stated objectives, generally expressed in perfor-mance terms that delineate a variety of instructional skills and competencies.

II. Experiences in teacher education are planned for a span of several years andare integrated with the total academic program.

312 School Science and Mathematics

III. The program consists of a broad curriculum that goes beyond the separatescience disciplines.

IV. The nature of science in a historical, philosophical and social perspective is acentral component.

V. Experiences for improving communication and interpersonal relationships areincluded.

VI. Preservice teachers are actively involved in a variety of teaching experiences; asignificant number of these occur with students in the public schools.

VII. Experiences are provided in evaluation and in the application of research to

learning and teaching.VIII. The preservice program is but a first step in a continuous cycle of professional

growth and inservice education.IX. The program is based upon a continuing evaluation of needs and program

effectiveness; it includes the continous assessment of the skills of individualpreservice teachers.

These features of an idealized science-teacher-education program maybe used as a basis for developing new models and for evaluating existingprograms. While the features represent contemporary thought, carefulscrutiny indicates that they are more than "trends." They represent somerather basic principles that science educators have endorsed for sometime. Perhaps they represent some "common ground" for promoting thecommunication that was completely lacking a decade ago. Perhaps theyrepresent common goals; perhaps they can be used as teacher educatorsexamine their own programs and communicate with others across theworld.

REFERENCES

1) ATWOOD, RONALD K., "Elements of Science Teacher Education as Abstracted fromthe ERIC�AETS: In Search of Promising Practices in Science Teacher Education",paper presented at 1974 AETS annual meeting.

2) "In Search of Promising Practices in Science Teacher Education", ERIC InformationAnalysis Center for Science, Mathematics and Environmental Education. Columbus:Ohio State University, March 30,1973.

3) MEYER, R., "Development of the Training and Retraining of School BiologyTeachers", paper presented at the International Congress on the Improvement of Bio-logy Education, Upsala, Sweden, September, 1975.

4) NEWTON, DAVID E., and FLETCHER G. WATSON, "The Research on Science EducationSurvey: The Status of Teacher Education Programs in the Sciences, 1965�67",Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1968.

5) TAMIR, PINCHAS, "The Iowa�UPSTEP Program in International Perspective", Tech-nical Report 9, Science Education Center, The University of Iowa, March, 1976.

1979 SSMA CONVENTIONNovember 1-3,1979Kansas City, Missouri