Changed OP 2011 Chapter 3 1

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For Private Circulation Only, BBM 3 Semester Page 1

Organizational Psychology

MODULE 3

PERSONALITY

Syllabus coverage:

Definition, Meaning, Theories- Type, Trait, Dynamic, Psychoanalytical, Personality

assessment, Work related aspects of personality.

Learning Objectives

1. Definition & Meaning of Personality2. Theories of Personality- Type theory, Trait theory, Dynamic theory, Psycho-

analytical theory, Social learning theory.

3. Personality assessment4. Work related aspects of personality

PERSONALITY

Personality is derived from latin word Persona which means Speak Through.

Definition -1:- Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of thosepsychological systems that determines his unique adjustment to his environment

[Gordon Allport]

Definition-2:- Personality includes external appearance and behaviour, inner awareness

of self as a permanent organizing force & the pattern of inner & outer measurable traits, ..

[Floyd . L. Ruch]

Equation of Personality:-

Personality= Individuals reaction to other people + environmentaladjustments/interactions


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What does Personality mean?

Personality is a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those

commonalities and differences in the psychological behavior (thoughts, feeling &

actions) of people that have continuity in time and that may not be easily understood as

the sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment.

Nature of Personality.

Personality refers to the set of traits & behaviors that characterize an individual. It refers to the relatively stable pattern of behavior & consistent internal state &

explains an individuals behavioral tendencies.

Personality has both internal (thoughts, values & genetic characteristics that isinferred from observable behaviors) & external (observable behaviors) elements.

Personality of an individual is relatively stable in nature. Personality is both inherited as well as it can be shaped by the environment. Each individual is unique in behaviour. There are striking differences among

individuals

Major contributing factors to Personality


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1. HEREDITY-Factors determined at conception, transferred through chromosomes.Refers to physiological & psychological factors like facial attractiveness,

temperament, energy levels, intelligence, eye & hair colour, height etc. Researches

prove that >50% of personality differences are contributed by heredity. Difficult to

change. The role of heredity on personality development is still an unsettled area

of understanding.

ex: Physical stature, facial attractiveness, temperament, biological rhythms etc.

2. ENVIRONMENT-2a) CULTURE-

This is a broad term and includes factors such as culture which influences norms,

attitudes and values that are passed along from one generation to the next and creates

consistencies over time.

Although culture has significant influences on personality development, a linear

relationship cannot be established between personality and the given culture for two

reasons:

(i) The cultural impacts upon an individual are not uniform, because theyare transmitted by certain people-parents and others-who are not at all

alike in their values and practices, and

(ii) The individual has some experiences that are unique. Each individualreacts in his or her own way to social pressures, the differences inbehavior being caused by biological factors.

Ex:- Indian culture teaches you to be industrious, frugal, logical, with strong family

values; Western culture : Independent, Competitive, Ambitious and Aggressive

2b) FAMILY-

The family has considerable influence on personality development, particularly in the

early stages. The family factors are also important in determining personality of an

individual. Three major factors: viz., the socialisation process, identification process and

birth order influence the personality.


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i) Socialisation Process: Socialisation is a process of acquiring wide range of behaviour

by an infant from the enormously wide range of behavioural potentialities that are open to

him at birth. Those behaviour patterns are customary and acceptable according to the

standards of his family and social groups. Members of the family compel the infant to

conform to certain acceptable behaviour.

ii) Identification Process: Shaping of personality starts from the time the identification

process commences. Identification Process occurs when a person tries to identify himself

with some person whom he feels ideal in the family. Normally a child tries to behave as

his father or mother.

iii) Birth Order: Birth order is another significant variable influencing the personality of

an individual. For instance first born are likely to be more dependent, more rational,

ambitious, hardworking, cooperative, and more prone to guilt, anxiety and are less

aggressive.

2c) Social : The social group includes family, schoolmates, friends, friends or colleagues

at work place, group to which the individual belongs etc. Behaviour pattern will be

customary and acceptable according to standards of his family and social groups. The

organization and work groups have a major impact on personality.

2d)Situational Factors: In recent years, the influence of situational factors on

personality is increasingly recognised. Generally an individuals personality is stable and

consistent, it changes in different situations. A study conducted by Milgram suggested

that actions of an individual are determined by the situation. He states that situation

exerts an important influence on the individual. It exercises constraints and may providepush to the individual.

Ex :Situations like temple, class room, working place, employment interview, Bosss

chamber etc regulate the behavior of the individual to a greater extent, based on the

situational requirements.


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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

1. Psycho dynamic theory: Sigmund Freud developed psycho dynamic theory.According to him human mind consists of three elements that are responsible for

shaping the personality. They are Id, Ego and Super ego. Freud identified 3 levelsof consciousness : preconscious,( Memories etc. that can be recalled) conscious

(What were aware of)and unconscious levels (Wishes, feelings, impulses that lies

beyond awareness) . Unconscious mental activity determines behaviour.

Conscious element is guided by reasoned reality principle.

The three major forces of the psyche are the:

1. Id = unconscious = pleasure principleId is the totality of instincts oriented towards increasing pleasure, avoiding pains and

striving for immediate satisfaction of desires. The personality characteristics of an

individual are built on the foundation of the Id. The id is present at birth and represents

our instinctual drives such as hunger, sex and aggression, which motivate most of our

behaviour.

The id is completely unconscious and operates on the pleasure principle. These

unconscious drives operate without conscious awareness. This is because our

unconscious desires are too difficult or too painful to face directly

2. Ego = conscious = reality principleThe ego begins to develop during the first year of life and balances the ids urges withreality. Hence, the ego is guided by the Reality Principle

This your everyday actions, what you do, the part of your mind that holds your current

awareness. This is the most apparent layer, and while only a small part of your overall

awareness, this where your focus generally lies.

10 % of ones personality. It is the conscious mediator between realities of world and the

ids demands.. Ego keeps the ID in check so that the pleasure unconsciously demanded

by ID are granted at an appropriate time and place .While doing most of its work in the

conscious, a portion is working beneath the surface. This means to say that ego primarily

works at conscious level and some times at unconscious level


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3. Superego = preconscious & conscious level = morality principleThe superego is the embodiment of societal rules, ethics and morals. Super ego is a

moralistic segment of human personality consisting of noblest thoughts, ideals, feelings

developed through absorption of cultural values and attitudes.

The super-ego strives to act in a socially appropriate manner, whereas the id just wants

instant self-gratification. The super-ego controls our sense of right and wrong and guilt. It

helps us fit into society by getting us to act in socially acceptable ways .The superego sets

high standards for behavior and monitors the decisions of the ego. The superego causes

feelings of guilt and shame when its standards arent met. The super-ego works in

contradiction to the id.


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Assessing the Unconscious:

As it is evident, it is difficult to assess the unconscious. Rorschach and TAT tests are two

projective tests used to assess the unconscious part of an individuals personality.

a) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ((Henry Murray, 1943) : people expresstheir inner motives through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

The test involves a systematical use of pictures representing a number of dramatic

events.TAT pictures depict various situations in which the individual normally

moves. It is called a test of imagination.

The person relates himself with one of the characters in it and thus projects his

own needs and press perception into his description of the behavior and feeling of

the picture character. It is believed that an analysis of the frequency and intensity

of an individuals needs and perceived press is helpful in understanding his

personality.

b) Rorschach Inkblot Test :the most widely used projective test .A set of 10inkblots designed by Hermann Rorschach. Used to identify peoples inner feelings

by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Objective of Ink Blot Test:

(1)The degree and mode of intellectual control of the subjects.(2)The responsiveness of this emotional energies(3)Individuals mental approach to problem and situation(4)Individuals creative & imaginative capacities and the use he makes of them.(5)A general estimate of the degree of security and anxiety(6)The degree of maturity in the total development of personality


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Defense mechanisms:

When Ego is threatened by impulses, defense mechanisms are developed to protect the

individual by reducing or reducing the anxiety caused by uncomfortable situations that

threatens self esteem of the individual. One individual may apply varied defense

mechanisms to protect the ego from anxiety. Defense mechanisms may arise at any of the3 levels of consciousness. Defense mechanisms are healthy when used sparingly. It is

good to use defense mechanisms to change ones behaviour to become more productive,

able to change external environment positively and modify his unreasonable needs.

Rationalisation and sublimation are positive defense mechanisms where as Regression,

Repression, Denial and Projection are undesirable mechanisms. The following are some

of the most common defense mechanisms .

Denial: blocking external events from awareness. A person refuses to admit thatsomething is unpleasant. If a situation is too much to handle, the person refuses to

experience it.

Ex : The failure to recognize the death of a loved one, or students who failto find out their test grades!

Repression: not being able to recall a threatening situation, person, or event.Threatening idea is blocked from consciousness.

Example: someone almost drowns as a child, but can't remember the eventeven when people try to remind him -- but he does have a fear of open

water! [many fears and phobias]

Displacement: the redirection of an impulse onto a safer substitute target.Directing emotions toward objects or people that arent the real target

Example, someone who hates his or her mother may repress that hatred anddirect it instead towards women in general

Projection: the tendency to see your own unacceptable desires in other people.Unacceptable feelings are attributed to someone else

Examples: A faithful husband finds himself terribly attracted to the ladynext door. Rather than acknowledge his own feelings, he becomes

increasingly jealous of his wife, constantly worried about her faithfulness.


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Reaction formation: what Anna Freud called "believing the opposite. Changingan unacceptable impulse into its opposite. A feeling that produces anxiety is

transformed into its opposite.

Example: I hate Mom becomes I really love Mom a lot!!!. Theindividual will often go above and beyond in their expression of love inorder to alleviate feelings of guilt and anxiety.

Regression: a movement back in psychological time when one is faced withstress. A person reverts to a previous phase of psychological development When

we are troubled or frightened, our behaviors often become more childish or

primitive. A child may begin to suck their thumb again or wet the bed.

Rationalization: the cognitive distortion of "the facts" to make an impulse moreacceptable. We do it often enough on a fairly conscious level when we provide

ourselves with excuses. Many of us are quite prepared to believe our lies.

Sublimation: the transforming of an unacceptable impulse, whether it be sex,anger, or fear, into a socially acceptable and productive form. So someone with a

great deal of hostility may become a hunter, a butcher, a football player, or a

mercenary. For Freud, all positive creative activities were sublimations mostly of

the sex drive.

Strength of the theory

- This study contributed to four areas:- Creative Behavior; ii. Dissatisfaction; iii. Group Development; iv. Leadership

and influence

-Limitations of Freuds theory:

- Untestable: How can you objectively measure the unconscious? Does notfollow the scientific method.

- Almost all of his case studies were upper-class Austrian women: sample bias?

- Viewed women as inferior- Did not allow for prediction of future behaviors- Placed too much emphasis on early childhood experiences in shaping personality-


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2. Type Theory of personality: ( Hippocrates, Friedman, Sheldon) Aims to classify people into distinct categories which are mutually exclusive

1. Hippocrates 4 humors:Hippocrates 400 BC and Galen, 140/150 AD classified 4 types of "humors" in people.

Each type was believed to be due to an excess of one of four bodily fluids, corresponding

to their character. The personalities were termed "humors".

Character Humor Fluid Corresponding Big 5

trait

Irritable Choleric yellow bile Agreeableness

Depressed Melancholic black bile Neuroticism

Optimistic Sanguine bloodOpenness to

experience

Calm Phlegmatic phlegm Neuroticism


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2. Sheldons Somato type : Physiognomy Personality Types : William Sheldon haspropounded three types of personality based on the human anatomical or physical

structure of persons and psychological characteristics. Physical size of the body

influences the human behaviour and temperaments. The personality types are.

a) Endomorph: Certain characteristics of personality and behaviour associated with thebody type are friendly, concern to people, helping others in troubles, very slow reaction

to stimuli. They seek comfort, have strong inclination to delicious food, etc. The persons

who posses these personality characteristics, are liked by all.

b) Mesomorph: Persons having moderate physical characteristics are known as

Mesomorph. The body is strong and tough. Some of the personality characteristics of this

type are: seeks physical adventure, enjoys body building, feels restless, shows high

aggression and self assertiveness, likes to take risk and develops competitive spirit. The

person is liked by virtue of his physique.

c) Ectomorph: Ectomorph body type is characterised by a thin and flat chest. The

person is intelligent, feels shy and avoids social contacts. However, he is typically

anxious, ambitious, and dedicated to his work. He is quick to react and hypersensitive to

pain and pleasure.

Sheldon's Somatotype Character Shape Picture

Endomorph

[viscerotonic]

relaxed, sociable,

tolerant, comfort-loving,

peaceful

plump, buxom,

developed visceral

structure

Mesomorph

[somatotonic]active, assertive,

vigorous, combativemuscular

Ectomorph

[cerebrotonic]

quiet, fragile, restrained,

non-assertive, sensitive

lean, delicate, poor

muscles


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Sheldon, using a correlational study, found that many convicts were mesomorphic, and

they were least likely to be ectomorphic (Sheldon et al 1949). Organisational implication

of this theory is that the typical personality type can help in career choices based on the

somato types.

3. Friedmans Type A& B:Type A personality is defined by Friedman and Rosenman as aggressively involved in a

chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and, if

required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons. They have

defined Type B personality as rarely harried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing

number of things or participate in a endless growing series of events in an ever

decreasing amount of time.

Strengths of Type theory

classify people into distinct categories simple applicability person-centeredWeakness of the theory

over-simplistic Quantitative nature

3.Trait theory of personality :

Trait theory uses two different methods of research:

Idiographic approach: defines traits by studying individuals in depth and focuseson the distinctive qualities of their personalities (Gordon Allport)

Nomothetic approach: studies groups of people in the attempt to identifypersonality traits that tend to appear in clusters. This approach uses the statistical

technique called factor analysis (Raymond Cattell)


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All port described three different types of traits:

1. Cardinal traits: Traits that are so much a part of who the person is, you candefine the person by the trait

(e.g.Honest Abraham Lincoln).

This is a singlecharacteristic that directs most of a persons activities. Such as Power hunger, such as altruistic

2. Central traits: Major characteristics of our personality 5 to 10 in any one person ( such as: sensitivity and generosity. honesty,

sociability).

quite generalized and enduring, and it is these traits that form the buildingblocks of our personality. Allport found that most people could be

characterized by a fairly small number of central traits (usually five to ten).

3. Secondarytraits: less generalized and far less enduring traits that affect ourbehaviors in specific circumstances.

Such as dress style preferences, dislike for modern art etcCardinal traits are most pervasive; secondary traits least pervasive.

The 16 personality traits

Chapter 3 - Personality


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c) The five-factor theory of personality by McCrae and Costa (1997) is the most recent

addition to trait theory. They believe in five core dimensions:

Openness to Experiencecreative & willing to try new things Individuals, who haveactive imaginations, are attentive to their inner feelings and have a tendency to enjoyart, new intellectual experiences, and ideas.

Conscientiousness reliable, responsible, thorough, dependable, hard-working.individuals who are purposeful, organized, thorough & plan-full and have tendency to

show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement.

Extraversion outgoing, social, active, talkative. individuals who are sociable,talkative, energetic, assertive, gregarious & have a tendency to seek stimulation and

the company of others

Agreeableness easy to get along with, pleasant, sympathetic, warm, cooperative.individuals who are fundamentally altruistic, sympathetic, kind, affectionate, good

natured, cooperative, trusting & have tendency to be compassionate rather than

antagonistic towards others

Neuroticism emotional stability : a personality dimension that characterizessomeone as calm, self-confident, secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed and

insecure (negative).

Acronym: OCEAN

4. Social learning theory ( Albert Bandura)Bandura (1977) suggests that there are three aspects to motivation:

1. External reinforcement (as in operant theory)

2. Vicarious reinforcement the observation of other people being rewarded or

punished for their behaviour

3. Self-reinforcement gaining internal satisfaction from an activity, which

therefore motivates the individual to behave in a similar way in the future.


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Evaluating Trait Theory

Trait theory, especially the Big 5 model, is able to describe personality Cross-cultural human studies find good agreement for the Big 5 model in many

cultures Appear to be highly correlated not only in adulthood, but also in childhood and

even late preschoolers

Three dimensions (extraversion, neuroticism and agreeableness) have cross-species generality

Problems with trait theory include: Lack of explanation as to WHY traits develop Issue of explaining transient versus long-lasting traits

PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

Assessment is a process of making judgments that are to be used for improving the

product, the process and even the goals themselves.

Assessment is more wider term than the measurement. Measurement denotes quantity but

assessment denotes quality too.

Personality assessment is a process of making judgment on the various personality traits

of an individual that are to be used for improving the personality of the individual being

assessed. A Personality assessment measures those relatively enduring aspects of an

individual which distinguish them from other people, making them unique.

Why assessment of personality? To understand the personality of individual To modify personality if necessary Career Planning Team Building and Management Development Activities Help managers forecast who the best bet for a job is to effectively manage the people. Helpful in hiring decisions Most common method: self-reporting surveys Observer-ratings surveys provide an independent assessment of personality often

better predictors


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Personality Traits:

Enduring characteristics that describe an individuals behavior

Methods of personality assessmentSubjective method:

Autobiography Case history Questionnaire Interview

Objective methods Situational test Q test ( Forced Choice)

Projective test- Person responds to ambiguous stimuli to reveal hidden emotions

and internal stimuli

Rorschach IB Test TAT Role play MBTI Graphology

Frame work used for describing personality

Two dominant frameworks used to describe personality:

a) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), b) Big Five Modela) MBTI features: Most widely used instrument in the world.

A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16

personality types.

Self-Report Instrument

Nonjudgmental Instrument

Preference Indicator

Well Researched Instrument

Based on Carl Jungs Theory & Raymond Cattells 16 traits

Built for the normal population


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Dimensions of MBTI


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For example:

Visionaries (INTJ)are original, stubborn and driven. Organizers (ESTJ)realistic, logical, analytical and businesslike. Conceptualizer (ENTP) entrepreneurial, innovative, individualistic and

resourceful.

Application of MBTI

o MBTI is a good tool for self-awareness and counseling.o MBTI can help with training and developmento Should notbe used as a selection test for job candidates 'o To Understand the force behind normal differenceso To Learn to capitalize on strength of self & otherso To Supplement & augment areas that one may overlooko To Apply knowledge about personality type


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Benefits

Emphasizes the value of diversity

Helps clarify team constraints

Identifies organizational strength and weaknesses

Applicable to variety of management training

b) Big 5 of personality

The view that all personality traits can be distilled into five big ones:

Openness Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism


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How Do the Big Five Traits Predict Behavior?

Research has shown this to be a better framework.

Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to higher job performance:

Highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge, exert greatereffort, and have better performance.

Other Big Five Traits also have implications for work.Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction.Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good social

skills.

Open people are more creative and can be good leaders.

Agreeable people are good in social settings.

Screen for the Big Five trait of conscientiousness


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Difficulties in assessment of personality:

1) Complex nature of the personality of the individual: An individual who isbeing assessed is capable of employing hundreds of ways to evade being assessed.Even if he co-operates willingly with the best of his intentions, he may be unable to

tell about the elements hidden in his unconscious mind.

2) Nature of assessment instrument: In personality assessment there is no startingpoint (Zero) for reference. No child is born with zero personality. This creates

difficulties in the exact assessment of personality. Above all, tools of assessment of

personality are not very exact, reliable, valid in terms of their result.

3) Complex nature of assessor of personality: Subjectivity of the person whoassesses can also influence assessment. Even when the same person assess the sameindividual at different intervals under the same conditions, results may differ. It is

also observed that when two or more persons assess the same person, results may not

be identical

WORK RELATED ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY:

Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB

Locus of control Machiavellianism Narcissism Self-esteem Self-monitoring Risk taking Type A personality

Authoritarianism Self efficacy


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Locus of Control

The degree to which people perceive control over a situation being internal or external is

called locus of control These behaviors are significant to managers

InternalsIndividuals who believe that they control what happens to them. People believe that

internal factors (their skills and abilities) are the determinants of their destiny. Own

actions and behaviors are major and decisive determinants of job outcomes

Externals

Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as

luck or chance, other people or organisational factors.

Believe that outside forces are responsible for what happens to and around them Do not think their own actions make much of a difference

Machiavellianism( Mach)

Based on the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli who advocated a psychologically

detached and unemotional behavioral approach by individuals to organizational

participation in meeting their personal objectives.

Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and

believes that ends can justify means. The primary focus is on obtaining and using

power as a means to further ones own ends, regardless of its impact on others.

Machiavellians would be prone to participate in organizational politics. They are also

adept at interpersonal game-playing, power tactics, and identifying influence systems in

organizations.


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Machiavellian :

A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes that ends justify the means.

High Machs are manipulative, win more often, and persuade more than they are

persuaded.Flourish when:

Have direct interaction

Work with minimal rules and regulations

Emotions distract others

Narcissism :

Grandiose sense of self importance Expects to be considered superior without commensurate achievements. Pre occupied with fantasies of unlimited power and success. An arrogant, entitled, self-important person who needs excessive

admiration.

Less effective in their jobs.Advantage for organisation:

Narcissist leaders are driven and are willing to make personal sacrifices to achieve Are able to take tough decisions without any remorse.

Self-Monitoring

A personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to

external, situational factors.


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High monitors conform more and are more likely to become leaders. High self monitors

pay attention to what is appropriate in particular situations and to the behavior of other

people and they behave accordingly. more successful in managerial positions where

individuals are required to play multiple and even contradictory roles.

Individuals ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external factors. Behave differently in different situations Striking balance between public, personal and private selves. Low self monitors cannot deviate behaviour. They display true dispositions and

attitudes in every situation.

High self monitors have multiple roles and contradicting roles to play. They maskin front of different audiences.

High self monitors pay attention to what is appropriate in particular situations andto the behavior of other people and they behave accordingly. Low self monitors in

contrast are not as vigilant to situational cues and act from internal states rather

than paying attention to the situation. We can also hypothesize that high self

monitors will be more successful in managerial positions where individuals are

required to play multiple and even contradictory roles.


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Self-Esteem (SE)

Individuals degree of liking or disliking themselves.

Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job performance. believe that their strengths are

more important than their weaknessesHigh self-esteem people are high performers and are more satisfied with their jobs

High Self Esteem

High desire for Success, believe in Internal influence .

Take up high challenging Jobs.

Choose unconventional jobs, dont really please others.

High Job satisfaction.

Low Self Esteem

Low Job satisfaction

Low desire for Success, depend on External Influence

Scared of High Challenging Jobs

Concerned with Pleasing others.

Risk-Taking:

High Risk-taking Managers

Make quicker decisions Use less information to make decisions Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations

Low Risk-taking Managers

Are slower to make decisions Require more information before making decisions Exist in larger organizations with stable environments


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Risk Propensity

Aligning managers risk-taking propensity to job requirements should bebeneficial to organizations.

Authoritarianism :Authoritarian personality: a generic term used to describe an individual who has strong

belief in the legitimacy of established mechanisms of formal authority, views

obedience to authority as necessary.

This concept refers to a belief that there should be status and power differences among

people in organization. They prefer stable and structured work environments which

are governed by clear rules and procedures.


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Self efficacy :

Belief about ones own ability to deal with events and challenges.

High self efficacy results in better performance of the employee

High Sense of Self- Efficacy Low Sense of Self-Efficacy

View challenging problems as

tasks to be mastered.

Avoid challenging tasks.

Develop deeper interest in the

activities in which they

participate.

Believe that difficult tasks and

situations are beyond their

capabilities.

Form a stronger sense of

commitment to their interests

and activities

Focus on personal failings and

negative outcomes.

Recover quickly from setbacks

and disappointments.

Quickly lose confidence in personal

abilities

Achievement orientation :

High achievement orientation :

Employees with high motivation->want to overcome obstacles.

Believe Success or failure is because of their actions. Take tasks of moderate difficulty, feel easy tasks don evoke challenges. Prefer jobs with rapid performance feedback, have direct relation between

effort and reward


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Documents

Changed OP 2011 Chapter 3 1