CHANG’E AND THE MOON

CHANG’E AND THE MOON

A CONTEMPORARY CHAMBER OPERA

Rowen Fox

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Music (Composition)

Sydney Conservatorium of Music

The University of Sydney 2017

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DECLARATION

I declare that the research presented here is my own original work and has not been submitted to any other institution for the award of a degree. Signed: ________________________ Date: __________________________

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ABSTRACT

Thefull-lengthchamberoperaChang’EandtheMoon,inspiredbyelementsof

Chineseliterary,philosophicalandmusicalculture,isaretellingofthemyth

surroundingtheChineseGoddessoftheMoonandtheMid-AutumnFestival.This

thesisconsistsoftheopera,arecordingofitsperformance;andawritten

exegesisexaminingitscontextualbackgroundandcompositionalprocess.

Thisexegesisexaminesthemusicalandstructuralelementsoftheworkina

wide-rangingdiscussionaboutoperaasamusicallyhybridartform.Ithighlights

theuseoftechniquesgleanedfromananalysisofthehistoricaldevelopmentof

Westernopera.Otheruniquenarrativeandstructuralfeatureswerealso

employedinthesearchforamusicallyanddramaticallyunifiedworkwhich

servesthesingulardemandsofmusicfortheatre.

Chang’EandtheMoon’sculturalelementsareexploredwithinthecontextofthe

problemsofOrientalismandappropriationinWesternmusic,withaparticular

focusupontheartist’sroleandresponsibilities.Theculturalrewardsand

challengesofsuchaprojectarere-examinedthroughthemorepositivistprisms

ofartistichomageandcross-culturalexchange.

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CONTENTS

DECLARATION..........................................................................................ii

ABSTRACT.................................................................................................iii

LISTOFFIGURES....................................................................................vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.....................................................................vii

1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................1

1.1 BACKGROUND..................................................................................................................11.2 ABOUTCHANG’EANDTHEMOON.........................................................................21.2.1 Synopsis........................................................................................................................31.2.2 Taoistinspiration......................................................................................................61.2.3 Aestheticinspiration...............................................................................................8

1.3 THEPERILSOFREPRESENTATION.....................................................................11

2. ORIENTALISM......................................................................................................12

2.1 CONTEMPORARYPERSPECTIVESONSAID’SORIENTALISM...................122.2 ARTISTICAGENCYANDTHECASEFORIMAGINATION.............................152.3 CULTURALEMPOWERMENT..................................................................................18

3. STRUCTURE..........................................................................................................23

3.1 THEPROBLEMWITHOPERA..................................................................................233.2 STRUCTURALSOLUTIONS........................................................................................253.2.1 ThePhasesoftheMoonasNarrative.............................................................263.2.2 Continuousvs.NumbersOpera........................................................................313.2.3 OneActvs.Two.......................................................................................................35

3.3 CANVASANDCONTENT............................................................................................36

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4. MUSICALANALYSIS...........................................................................................37

4.1 ANECLECTICAPPROACH.........................................................................................374.2 HARMONICLANGUAGE.............................................................................................384.2.1 HarmonicDevelopmentasNarrative............................................................384.2.2 Pentatonicism...........................................................................................................414.2.3 AnalysisofNo.16Maid’sSong...........................................................................424.2.4 Pentatonicmelodicism.........................................................................................464.2.5 Pentatoniccharacterisation...............................................................................48

4.3 OTHERCHINESEELEMENTS..................................................................................504.3.1 Overview.....................................................................................................................504.3.2 AChineseSyntax?...................................................................................................524.3.3 HeterophonicMovement.....................................................................................53

4.4 THEELEMENTSINSYNTHESIS–ANALYSISOFNO.19SCENE................55

5. OUTCOMESANDCONCLUSION.......................................................................59

5.1 ONWRITINGFORVOICE...........................................................................................595.2 RECEPTIONANDFUTURE........................................................................................61

BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................63

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE1a AntitheticalcoupletfromTheDreamoftheRedChamber(Chapter76).......................................................................................................................9

FIGURE1b AntitheticalcoupletfromChang’EandtheMoon(No.17)..................9FIGURE2 StorylinepacingrelativetotheGoldenMean............................................29FIGURE3 Vocalquartet,Chang’EandtheMoon,No.27,bars75–82

(Pianoscore)...................................................................................................................30FIGURE4 Chang’EandtheMoon,Introduction,bars1–7..........................................39FIGURE5a Chang’EandtheMoon,No.9,bars1–7......................................................39FIGURE5b Chang’EandtheMoon,No.32,bars5–8...................................................40FIGURE6 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.1,bars1–5...........................................................40FIGURE7 No.16,Maid’sSongOstinato..............................................................................42FIGURE8 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.16,bars1–11....................................................44FIGURE9 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.23,bars1–7.......................................................46FIGURE10 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.23,bars16–34.............................................47FIGURE11 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.23,bars70–75.............................................48FIGURE12 Yue’sArioso,Chang’EandtheMoon,No.32,bars1–9......................49FIGURE13 OpeningofYuLi(BeautifulFish)fromtheBookofOdes.................50FIGURE14 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.20,bar30.......................................................51FIGURE15 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.1,bar30.........................................................53FIGURE16 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.1,bars36–38...............................................53FIGURE17 ‘Heterophonic’doublingofvocalparts,Chang’Eandthe

Moon,No.28,bars14–17...........................................................................................54FIGURE18 ‘Heterophonic’orchestralunisonsChang’Eandthe

Moon,No.34,bars32–34...........................................................................................54FIGURE19 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.28,bars33–34.............................................55FIGURE20 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.19.......................................................................57FIGURE21 Chang’EandtheMooninitsfirststagedperformanceat

WentworthFalls,1and2April2016...................................................................62

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

IwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetothosewhomadeChang’EandtheMoonpossible,particularlytomyco-librettistandverydearfriend,DianaBaric.IwouldalsoliketothankmysupervisorDrAnneBoydforhersupport,encouragementandfeedbackduringmycandidature,andDrRowenaCowleyandstaffoftheSydneyConservatoriumSchoolofVocalandOperaStudiesforsupportingtheproductionandstudentswhogavesogenerouslyoftheirtime.IamdeeplyindebtedtothetalentedperformerswhodedicatedsuchcareandmusicalitytothepremiereofChang’EandtheMoon:AimeeO’Niell,JuliePaik,TristanEntwistle,MichaellaYeZhang,JoshuaOxley,JeremyDube,RobertAdam,BrionyDavidson,LeiDai,LucyTemby,AletaShang,LibbyCooper,CatherineBarrett,LindaJaneStacy,BronwynKirkpatrick,AlisonEgan,RebeccaDaniel,SamHarding,TrishMcMeekin,MargoAdelsonandKaylieDunstan.ThanksmustgoalsotoMichaelScott,IainScotland,VanessaRohanna,LynPhillipsandMichelleForeman,whogavevaluablefeedbackonmanyaspectsofthemusicandstaging,andtothePhoenixChoirwhofirstpremieredachoralsuitedrawnfromtheopera.Iwouldalsoliketothankmycrewandsupportteam:DavidandNormaHobbs,LaurenCass,JeannieElliot,SueWesson,KeithandWendyKeen,DanHeslop,DesireeDeKlerk,BruceMcKenzie,JohnnyHitti,TimKaye,ChrisRiggs,JacquelineShimeld,ChrisWheeler,MickO’NiellandDrAlisonBasden.Iwouldliketothankmyfriendsandfamilyfortheirbeliefinme,particularlymylovingpartnerPhillipThiele,whoseemotionalsupportallowedmetoachievemorethanIthoughtpossible.

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Theoriginal105-minuteoperaChang’EandtheMoonisaworkinspiredby

elementsofChineseliterary,philosophicalandmusicalculture.Itretellsthe

mythsurroundingtheChineseMid-AutumnFestivalandtheChineseGoddessof

theMoon,Chang’E.Thispaperdetailsthecompositionalprocessbehindthe

opera’screation.

AlthoughtheworkisinspiredbyelementsofChinesemusicaltheory

(pentatonicism)andportrayselementsofChineseTaoism,1itisneitheraliteral

retellingofthehistoricalChang’EstorynoraWesternattemptatappropriating

Chinesetraditionalforms.Rather,itisaworkofreflectionandinspirationbased

onartisticforms(bothEasternandWestern)thathavegonebeforeme.This

artisticapproach,Iargue,harmoniseswithhistoricalChineseliterarytheory,and

de-emphasisesargumentsaboutappropriationandintellectualpropertywhich

are,inanycase,Westernconcepts.

NeverthelessChang’EandtheMooniswrittenfromwithintheWesternclassical

traditionandisintendedasacontributiontotheWesternoperaticcanon.As

such,itscreationalsodemandsanexaminationofthehistoryofartistic

representationofnon-WesternculturesbytheWestthroughtheprismof

Orientalismandexoticism,particularlyinrelationtonineteenthandearly

twentiethcenturyopera.Thisissuehingespartlyonthequestionofcreatorand1FollowingthemethodologyoftheChinaTaoistAssociation,http://www.taoist.org.cn,IusetheolderWade-GilesromanisationsystemforTaoandTaoism.AllotherChinesetransliterationsaremodernpinyin.

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audience,namely,bywhomandforwhomtheworksarecreated.Inthislight,it

isimportanttoexamineChang’EandtheMooninitscontemporarycontext,as

intendedforconsumptionbyanethnicallydiverseAustralianaudience.Inthis

exegesis,Iexaminethevariousartisticandculturalthreadsthatcombinedto

createthisnewopera,anartformitselfwithalonghistoryofadaptingand

integratingdifferinginfluencesinthequestfordramaticorartisticunity.

Importantly,Iexplorethisoperaasaworkofbothhomageandimagination,asa

verypersonalcreationwhichhonoursthemodelsthatinspireditbutwhichaims

tofusetheelementsofinspirationintoadifferenttypeoftheatre,oneinformed

bythetraditionsoftheatreasritual.Formyself,itscreator,Chang’Eandthe

Moonwasbothavehicleforadifferenttypeofperformativeexperienceanda

structurefromwithinwhichtoworkthroughsomeoftheuniquechallenges

posedbythemediumofopera.

1.2 ABOUT CHANG’E AND THE MOON

Chang’EandtheMoonwasinspiredbytheChineseGoddessoftheMoon,

Chang’E,afavouritesubjectofpoetry,novelsandChineseopera.Chang’Eisan

ancient,2yetminor,goddesswithintheTaoistpantheon,whosemythologyis

widelyknownandcelebratedduringtheannualChineseMid-AutumnFestival

bothwithinChinaandthroughoutAsia.InthebestknownChineseversionofthe

myth,Chang’Eisamortalwomanwhosehusband,HouYi,savestheEarthfrom

destructionbyshootingdownnineofthetenoriginalsuns.Forhisservicesheis

2Chang’E,asHeng’O,appearsinTheClassicofMountainsandSeasandtheHuainanzi,bothdatingbetweenthethirdandsecondcenturiesB.C.AnneBirrell,ChineseMythology:AnIntroduction,vol.JohnHopkinspaperbacks(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1999),160.

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givenapilloranelixirofimmortality.Chang’E(withovertonesoftheGreek

Pandora)cannotresisttheelixirand,overwhelmedbycuriosity,swallowsthe

doubledosewhichhadbeenintendedforthemboth.Thepowerofthedose

causeshertofloatawayfromtheEarthandlandupontheMoon,wheresheis

forcedtoremain.

Chang’EandtheMooncontinuesthestoryfromwherethemythsleftoff,andtells

thestoryofChang’E’sexistenceupontheMoon.Itwasinspiredbyamore

romantictraditionfromwithinTaoismwhichtellsthatHouYi,ratherthanbeing

separatedfromChang’Eforever,iseventuallytakentoHeavenasarewardfor

hispastservicestotheJadeEmperor.Therehebuildsapalaceonthesun.HouYi,

representingthemasculineyangprinciple,isabletovisitChang’E,representing

feminineyin,inherpalacewhentheMoonisfull.3.Inthiswisdom,thefullMoon

becomesametaphorforthemeetingofyangandyin,which,asaTaoistconcept,

isseenastheembodimentofbalanceandharmonythatallshouldstriveto

attain.4

1.2.1 Synopsis

TheoperaopensatthedarkofthenewmooninGuanghanPalace,Chang’E’s

homeupontheMoon.Chang’EawakensaloneexceptforthecompanyoftheJade

Rabbit,herpetinmyretelling.TheoperausesthephasesoftheMoonasa

structuraldevicewhichframesthenarrative;theeventsoftheentireoperatake

3K.B.Eng,ASimpleApproachtoTaoism(Singapore:PartridgeSingapore,2014),34.IamconscioushowmuchthisvariantresemblesthelegendofSpinner-maidandPlough-boy;theoriginalstar-crossedloversofChinesemythology.ItisinthisTaoistoverlay,asapointofdifference,thattheChang’Estorymostappealedtomeassubjectmatterforanopera.4ThomasCleary,"Introduction,"TheTaoistIChing(Boston,MA:Shambhala,2005),25-26.

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placewithinoneMooncycle,fromnewtofulltonewagain,stronglyidentified

withboththecharacterandexperiencesofChang’E,whosepresenceisconstant

throughoutthework.Chang’E’snatureandpsychologyarealsogovernedbythe

Moon’sphase.Atthebeginningoftheworksheischild-likeandwithouta

memoryofherselforhersurroundings,thestatetowhichshewillalsoreturnat

theopera’sclose.

ThevoicesofChang’E’smaidscanbeheard.Chang’EisjoinedbyMotherPearl,

thematronlyheadofherhousehold,andNightingale,herprincipalmaidservant.

Betweenthemthesetwocharactersfacilitatemuchoftheexpositionasthey

instructChang’Einherdailyduties.Welearnthroughthemthatitisthemonth

oftheMid-AutumnFestivalontheEarthbelow,andthehouseholdispreparing

foraheavenlybanquet,atwhichtimeChang’Ewillbevisitedbyherhusband,the

DivineArcher.Chang’Ehasdreamtoftheman(MovementNo.7)andshenow

recallshisname,HouYi,andrealisesthatheisindeedherhusband.

AstheMoonreachesitsfirstquarter,themaleservantsmaketheirfirst

appearanceinthework’sfirstmixedchorus(No.11),showingthehouseholdbusy

preparingforthecomingfestivities.ChiefamongstthemisChang’E’swizened

advisor,OldYue,modelledontheChinesegodknownasYueLao,theOldManof

theMoon.MotherPearlandNightingalerecounttheprogressionoftheseasonson

theEarthbelow,emphasisingtheeighthmonth’simportancetoChang’E’syear

(No.12).OldYuesingsaboutthevariousdivineguestswhoarecomingtothe

banquet(No.14).

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AstheMooncontinuestowax,anImperialEnvoyarrives(No.17)withgiftsfrom

theJadeEmperor,therulerofHeaven,butChang’Ecanthinkonlyofherhusband’s

imminentarrival.HouYiarrivesatlast,buttheirreunionisinterruptedbythe

approachingceremonies.WhentheMoonisfull,thebanquetingguestsarriveand

populatethegardensofGuanghanwhilst,ontheEarthbelow,thehumanscanbe

heardprayingtoChang’E(No.20).Chang’EemergesinbeautyatthefullMoon

beforeherassembledguestsandHouYiandtheguestscelebrateandsingher

praises.

Afterthefestivities,HouYiandChang’Earefinallyalonetogether.ItistheMoon’s

thirdquarter,andChang’EremembersthatHouYimustsoonleaveheragainina

cyclewhichtheyareforeverdestinedtorepeat.Inacentralduetthetwowonder

attheirstrangefate(No.27).HouYiremindsherthattheyarebothfulfillingtheir

dutytowardsHeaven,andthattakentogethertheirlivesareinbalance.He

reassuresherthathewillalwaysreturntoher(No.29).WhenHouYihasleft,Old

YueendeavourstocomfortChang’E,butsoonleavestofulfilhisown

responsibilities,whichinvolvelookingupthenamesofallthosedestinedto

becomeloversandconnectingthemwitharedthread,thusensuringtheyfindone

another(No.31).

IntheMoon’slastquarter,Chang’EisdistraughtbutsheremembersHouYi’s

promise(No.32).Nightingale,todistracthermistress,singsoftheencroaching

autumn,whichiscoveringtheEarthbelow(No.34).AstheMoonwanes,Chang’E

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onceagaingrowswearyandappearseventohaveforgottenHouYi.Onebyone

hermaidsdepart,followedbyMotherPearl.Alonewithherrabbit,Chang’Esleeps.

1.2.2 Taoist inspiration

Thecentralmessageoftheoperareflectsapersonalspiritualitythathasbeen

stronglyshapedbyChinesephilosophicalTaoism.Ibelieveinthoseprinciplesof

TaoismwhichtheworkexpressesandforwhichthecharactersofChang’Eand

HouYiserveasallegories:principlessuchaswuwei–non-action–andthe

divisionoftheuniverseintocomplimentary/opposingforces,yinandyang,as

personifiedbyChang’EandHouYithemselves.

Non-actioncouldbemoreaccuratelyconceivedaseffortlessaction;intheTaoTe

Chingitsmostpotentsymboliswater,whichachievesdoing(suchascarvinga

river-bed)onlythroughbeing(non-action).Non-actioncanbeseenasformof

liberationthroughwhichonebecomesavesselfortheTaotoachieveaction5.In

theoperaChang’EandHouYiareconstrainedbyeventsoutoftheircontrol:

Chang’E’sexistenceontheMoonisaresultofherbanishmentbyHeaven,andthe

Moon’scyclesgovernherwakinglife.Similarly,bythewillofHeaven,the

couplesenduretheenforcedseparationandthepermittedreunion.Ofthetwo,

HouYi,beingalwaysawake,showsgreaterawareness,anditishewhogently

guidesChang’Etowardsanunderstandingduringtheirtimetogether.Chang’E,

whoreliveseveryMoonphaseanew,ismoredoubtful,andmorepained;

however,evenshecomestoacceptthetruthofherfateandofHouYi’spromise.

Thesupportingcaststresscontinuity,responsibilityanddutytowardsHeaven.5JohnBaldock,"Introduction,"TaoTeChing(London:ArcturusPublishingLimited,2010),13.

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TheunspokeninferenceisthatChang’EandHouYisomehowcontribute

towards,orholdinbalance,theprinciplesofyinandyangthattheyembody.This

isthemysteryattheheartoftheopera.

ExpressingTaoistphilosophyonstagewasitselfanartisticanddramaturgical

challenge;afterall,acelebrationofnon-actionwouldseemparticularlyill-suited

toopera.Anacceptanceoffatesmacksofpassivity,particularlyfromwithina

Westernculturalframework.Theendingundoubtedlypresentstheviewerwith

adramaticanti-climax.Yet,preciselybecauseofthisIwasabletoelevatemore

stronglywithintheworkothertheatricalelementsofgreaterinteresttomeand

toinvoketheolderritualisedusesoftheatre.Teleologicaltimeisde-emphasised

infavourofcyclicaltime.Thisisentirelyappropriateforaworkwithsucha

strongphilosophicalfocus,andinnowaylimits,Ibelieve,itseffectivenessas

enjoyabletheatre.AsIexplorebelow,theMoon-narrativestructurecastsa

compellingauraoverthewholeworkandstronglyheightensitsmeditative

qualities.Asenseofsuspenseiscreated,paradoxically,byitsverypredictability.

Withinthis,weshouldfeelthattheopera’sendcouldgivebirthtotheopera’s

beginning,andthatthewholecyclecouldrepeatitself.

Chang’EandtheMoonismyownmusingononeformofeternity:therepetition

ofnature’scycles,whichfindssuchgloriousexpressioninthephasesofthe

Moon.TheMoonthereforeisarguablytheopera’smostimportantpresence;in

itselfitisametaphorforthelife,deathandrebirthcycleswithinnature,with

someresonance,Ithink,forhowweapproachthosethingsinourownlivesover

which,likeChang’EandHouYi,weultimatelyhavenocontrol.Sadnessatthe

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lovers’separationcomesnaturallytous;thisisoneofthework’simportant

tensions.However,wecouldjustaseasilyfocusonthepositive–HouYi’s

promiseofaneternalreunion.

Asgods,HouYiandChang’Erepresentdivinearchetypes,andassuchthey

neededtobeaspirational,tobeabletoshowusfinerversionsofourselves.Hou

Yi,althoughformuchoftheoperaanabsentfigure,isneverthelessincredibly

importanttomytreatment.Inhisaria(No.30),hearticulatesanunconditional

loveforChang’E,which,Ifeel,wecouldbettertrytoemulate,notjustinour

personalrelationships,butalsoinourrelationshiptoallofnatureandtothe

Earth.Ultimatelywecannotpossessthethingsweholdmostdear,butwecan

loveandappreciatethemwhiletheyremaininourlives.

1.2.3 Aesthetic inspiration

ThisoperaisdirectlyinspiredbytheChineseclassicalliteraturethatIhaveread

andlovedovermanyyears.Iformulatedtheoperalibrettobaseduponthese

influencesandworkedcloselywithaco-librettist,DianaBaric,tocraftalanguage

whichwouldmatch.Inspirationalworksincludethelarge-scalefictionalforms–

classicssuchasJourneytotheWest(Xiyouji),InvestitureoftheGods(Fengshen

Yanyi)andTheDreamoftheRedChamber(Hongloumeng)–andotherliterary

formssuchasshortstories,poemsandlibrettifromthevariousformsofChinese

opera.FromtheearliestConfucianists,whosawartasavehicleforthe

expressionofmoralprinciples,theChineseliterarycanonhasbeenimbuedwith

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thespiritofChinesephilosophy.6Increatingthelibretto,Isoughttoemulate

boththeimplicitphilosophicalflavourevidentinthisliteratureand

simultaneously,asaformofhomage,someoftheliterarydevicesofthetradition,

includingthenaturalworld,andfolkloricreferences,andtheimitationof

Chinesepoeticformssuchasantitheticalcouplets(figures1aand1b).

FIGURE1a AntitheticalcoupletfromTheDreamoftheRedChamber(Chapter76)7

Ingoldencensersfiguredincenseburns;

Unguentsintheirjadepotscoagulate.

FIGURE1b AntitheticalcoupletfromChang’EandtheMoon(No.17)

Theheavyfragranceofcinnamontreesinthegrove

Lightensthestepsofguestswhogatherincourtyards.

Thesedevicesshouldberecognisabletothosefamiliarwiththistradition,inso

farasIhavebeenabletotranslatethemthroughmyownculturalbaggage.Most

importantly,becauseIdon’treadChinese,myexperienceofthesetextshasbeen

Englishtranslations.MyownunderstandingthereforeofChineseculturewill

alwaysbeskewedanddistortedthroughtheprismoflanguage.Intheexample

above,otheraspectsofthiscoupletfromTheDreamoftheRedChamber,suchas

matchingcharacterlengthandmatchingtonepatterns,remainuntranslatable

intoEnglishandthereforeunavailableforimitation.Myattemptbecomesa

referencetothestyleofthetranslations,areferenceaccessibleessentiallyonly6Yu-lanFung,AShortHistoryofChinesePhilosophy(NewYork:TheFreePress,1948;repr.,1978),23.7XueqinCao,TheStoryoftheStone:AlsoKnownastheDreamoftheRedChamber,trans.DavidHawkes,5vols.,vol.3(London,England:PenguinBooks,1980),524.

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tothosewho,likeme,arefamiliarwiththeliteratureinthistranslatedform.

Ratherthanseeingthisasnecessarilyproblematic,Ifeelitmerelyaddsafurther

layerofcomplexityandinteresttowhatisalreadyclearlyahybridwork,awork

whichpurportstobenothingotherthanmyownartisticresponsetoChinese

culturalinfluences,viewedthroughmyWesterneyes.Importantlyforme,this

sortofimitationrepresentsanactofloveandhomagetoatraditionthat,

howeverrightlyorwrongly,hasbecomeapartofmylivedintellectualand

artisticexperience.

ThegreatChineseliteraturehasadepthwhichgoesbeyondthesurface

depictionsofghosts,fox-spiritsanddeities,battles,intriguesandloveaffairs;

theseworksalsoshowadeepregardfortheinterconnectednessofallthings,

andapreoccupationwiththebigquestions,suchasthesearchforthemeaningof

humanexistence.Asaresult,no-onehaspopulatedotherworldsquitelikethe

Chinese.Thereissomethingirresistibletomeabouttheideaofaculturaland

socialsystemsopowerfulthatitreplicatesitselfwithintheimaginedspacesof

theafterlife.Thiswasundoubtedlythecaseintheformationofthereligiousand

literarytraditioninthemillenniumafterChineseunification.8Theimpetuswas

certainlymorepoliticalthanreligious,asthehierarchicsystemoftheChinese

afterlifestronglyreflectsConfucianpoliticalvalues,valuesnotalwayspalatable

tothemodernWest.However,thesyncretic,pluralistnatureofthetradition

itselfmademeeagerto,inthespiritofthattradition,reshapethemessageby

8MyownconclusionbasedontheconspicuousabsenceofanythingcomparablebeforeChineseunification.LewisshowstheextenttowhichtheConfucian/TaoistpantheonwasnotpresentintheQin&Hanperiod.MarkEdwardLewis,TheEarlyChineseEmpires:QinandHan,ed.TimothyBrook,2010ed.,HistoryofImperialChina(Cambridge,Massachusetts&London,England:TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2007),204.

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seekingoutmorepositiveinterpretationsoftheoldsystems.ForthisreasonI

choosetoseetherigidstructureoftheChineseafterlifeassimplyametaphorfor

thelimitationsofourownexistence,anditsmoralhierarchyasratheran

exampleoftherespectweshouldaccordthosethingsfromwhichourfreewill

cannotexemptus,suchasthefiniteresourcesofourplanet,ortheinevitability

ofdeath.

1.3 THE PERILS OF REPRESENTATION

Chang’EandtheMoonissetinanahistoricalorundefinedChina.Astheopera

takesplaceentirelyontheMoon,thegeneralChinesepopulationarenot

mentionedbyname,otherthanas‘humans’oras‘mortalsbelow’.Thename

‘China’isnotusedatall,althoughitscentralitytotheoperaisimplicit.This

allowsthestorytoremainintheworldofmythology,inthehopethat,byso

doing,theworkwouldbelesslikelytocontradictotherexistingtraditionsor

sharedhistory,througherrororomissiononmypart.Assuch,mytreatmentis

ahistoricalandarguablycouldbeperceivedasexoticist–asbeingwithout

referencetotheactualChinathatitpurportstorepresent.

Thisapproachwillundoubtedlyleavemeopentoaccusationsofmusical

Orientalism,whichofcoursehasarichhistoryinWesternoperawiththe

plethoraofnineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyoperassetin‘exotic’or

foreignlocales.DealingwithartcreatedbytheWest,andfortheWest,

Orientalismdepicts(usually)theEastor,byextension,theforeignOther.The

followingsectiondiscussesChang’EandtheMooninthecontextofchargesof

Orientalismandexaminesotherpotentialframeworksforitsappreciation.

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2. ORIENTALISM

2.1 CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES ON SAID’S ORIENTALISM

…weneednotlookforcorrespondencebetweenthelanguageusedtodepicttheOrient,andtheOrientitself,notsomuchbecausethelanguageisinaccuratebutbecauseitisnoteventryingtobeaccurate.9

Said’sdefinitionofOrientalismseemsaptwhenwerememberthedepictionof

theEast,andindeedanyforeignculture,intheartandtheatreofearlymodern

Europe.Inmusic,well-knowntropessuchastheTurkishstylewereableto

conjureupimagesofOthernessthatwereonlyreinforcedbythevery

remotenessoftheactualcountriestheydepicted.InOrientalismandMusical

Style,Scottpointsoutthatsuchmusicalsignifierswerelargelyinterchangeable,10

supportingSaid’scontentionthattheideaoftheOrient,andbyextensionthe

foreignOther,wasallthatmatteredinsuchdepictions.11Inspiteofthis,Scott’s

articleisactuallydedicatedtolookingfor“changesinrepresentation”12ina

centuries-broadsweep,therebyincludingthoseworksthat,onthesurfaceat

least,seemedtooffermoregenuineattemptsat‘authentic’representation.This

isacommontrendinmuchmusicologicaldiscussionofthesubject,withthe

resultbeingagreatlyexpandeddefinitionofmusicalOrientalism,andonethat

mightevenbethoughttocontradictSaid’soriginaldefinition.Said’sown

methodologyisbroughtintoquestionbythepresenceofsuchcontradictions.13

9EdwardSaid,Orientalism,PenguinClassics(NewYork,NY:Penguin,1978;repr.,2003),71.10“PersiansaremusicallyindistinguishablefromPeruvians”,DerekB.Scott,"OrientalismandMusicalStyle,"TheMusicalQuarterly82(1998):309.11Said,Orientalism,5.12Scott,"OrientalismandMusicalStyle,"309.13“AsValerieKennedyphrasesit,‘Said’sfailuretoacknowledgetheheterogeneityofOrientalismmaybeonereasonwhyhisanalysisofitbecomesembroiledincontradictorydefinitionsandredefinitions.’”Kennedy,EdwardSaid:Acriticalintroduction,29.QuotedbyDanielMartin

13

Fallingintothisexpandedcategoryofamoredeliberaterepresentationarethe

two‘exotic’operasbyPuccini,TurandotandMadamaButterfly,setinChinaand

Japan,respectively.InMadamaButterflyPucciniincorporatescertainJapanese

sourcematerialsintoalargersynthesis;however,theveryfactthatsynthesis

occursistakenasproofthatthisisOrientalismbyadifferentname.Herethe

languagedoesmatch,therepresentedcultureisunambiguous,butperhapsa

widerdefinitionisinplay:onethatstressestheultimateirrelevanceofthe

sourcematerialtothecomposer’sotherartistic(byimplication,Orientalist)

goals.Unintendedconsequencesalsofollowfromsuchrepresentation.Inwider

disseminationsuchworksandtheimagestheypresentcanstillserveto

reinforce“limited,distorted,andindeedentirelyfictive,self-servingWestern

stereotypesofforeigncultures”14.Finally,theuseof‘authentic’sourcematerials

withoutcontextualisationintroducesanotherproblematicarea,givingriseto

issuesofappropriation.

Globalismoffersanalternativeprismthroughwhichtoviewtheseissues.In

contrasttoSaid,Bhabhabringsintoquestionthestarkoppositionbetween

culturesthatOrientalism’sanalysisimplies.“Bhabha’sbasicargument…isthat

culturecannotanylonger(ifitevercould)beconceivedinmonolithicterms,but

hastobethoughtratherintermsofhybridity”,15whichhetellinglycallsthe

Varisco,ReadingOrientalism:SaidandtheUnsaid(Seattle,WA:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2007),253.14RalphP.Locke,"ReflectionsonOrientalisminOpera(andMusicalTheatre),"RevistadeMusicología16(1993):62.15IanBuchanan,"Bhabha,Homi,"ADictionaryofCriticalTheory(Online:OxfordUniversityPress,2010).

14

“thirdspace”.16Taylorremindsusthathybridity,asaconceptappliedtoworld

music,hasbeensomewhatoverusedbythecommercialmusicindustry.Assuch

itisperhapsunavailabletoapplytotheprivilegedformsofWesternartmusic–

asChang’EandtheMoonundoubtedlyis.Nevertheless,Tayloracceptsthe

correctivenatureofthe‘thirdspace’,as“implicitlyreferringtothemomentary,

evanescentnatureofculture,socialformations,andmusic”.17

VariscoalsocriticisesOrientalismforsettingupa“debilitatingbinary”18between

EastversusWest,largelythroughitsrhetoricalreductionism.Said’sapproach

leaveslittlespaceforaresponsefromtheactualvoicesoftherealhistoricaland

contemporaryOrient.19Wangstressesinsteadtheimportanceofcultural

dialogue:20

Its(orientalism)existenceisstillpossiblealthoughtheconceptitselfisbecomingproblematicandindeterminatealongwiththerediscoveryoftherealOrientbymoreandmoreWesternpeopleinthisageofinformation.21

ToreturntoPuccini,itispossibletoseethebeginningsofthisphenomenonin

hisownlifetime,inwhichthelastyearsoftheageofimperialismoverlapped

with,arguably,theWest’sfirstopportunitytoexperienceamore‘authentic’East

throughitsnewtechnology.Asacaseinpoint,Pucciniconsultedmultiple

phonographicrecordingsofChineseandJapanesetraditionalmusicsin

16TimothyD.Taylor,BeyondExoticism(DurhamandLondon:DukeUniversityPress,2007),145.17Ibid.,160.18Varisco,ReadingOrientalism,290.19Ibid.,290-4.20NingWang,"OrientalismVersusOccidentalism,"NewLiteraryHistory28,no.1,CulturalStudies:ChinaandtheWest(1997):65-66.21Ibid.,60.

15

preparationforbothTurandotandMadamaButterfly.22Greenwaldpointsout

thatPuccini’smeticulouspreparationforButterfly–thecollectionofsource

musicalmanuscripts,hismeetingswiththewifeoftheJapaneseambassadorand

hisattendanceofJapanesetraditionaltheatre–transcendsOrientalism:

Certain‘Japanese’elementsofMadamaButterflyhaverealculturalanaloguesthatsupportareadingoftheoperaasmoreprofoundly‘authentic’thanhasusuallybeenargued.23

Greenwaldoffersconvincingevidencethattheseanaloguesextendtoinformed

andrespectfulrepresentationinareasasdiverseasstaging,andeventheopera’s

unusualstructure.Thishasimplicationsforadiscussionoftheroleoftheartist

asagenuinearbiterforculturaldialogue.Puccini’sintentionsforMadama

Butterflyandtheirrelevance,ifthereshouldbeany,tothetraditionalperception

ofhimasanOrientalistarethereforeofinterestinexaminingbroaderquestions

surroundingagencyandinspiration.

2.2 ARTISTIC AGENCY AND THE CASE FOR IMAGINATION

ThroughoutOrientalism,thereisafailuretoacknowledgeOrientalistdiscourseascapableofself-criticisminordertoprotestanaspectofWesternsocietyorcontestinaccurateunderstandingsoftheOrientalother.24

DeliberateartisticintentionisnotastrongthemeinthestudyofOrientalism:it

wouldprobablyseemtobearneitheruponthequestionofunrepresentedvoices

(forwhomtheartistcannotspeak),noruponthecultural/historicalforcesthat

22MoscoCarner,“TheExoticElementinPuccini,”TheMusicalQuarterly22,no.1(1936):46.23HelenM.Greenwald,"PicturingCio-Cio-San:House,Screen,andCeremonyinPuccini's'MadamaButterfly',"CambridgeOperaJournal12(2000):237.24Varisco,ReadingOrientalism,178-9

16

createdOrientalism,fromwhichanartist(aproductofhis/hertime)cannot

standimmune.Whileanartist’sculturalandhistoricalmilieuundoubtedlyexerts

astronginfluenceoverhisorherwork,weignoreavarietyofotherartistic

impulseswhenwefocusonlyupontheartistasapassiveproductofhisorher

times.Artisticgoalsfrequentlyshowreformisttendencies,self-criticismand

otherironicsubtext,whichmayfunctionassociologicalcritique.Althoughless

quantifiable,perhapspositiveorsympatheticdepictionsincludinghomagemay

alsohavepositiveculturaleffects.

InthecaseofMadamaButterfly,LiaoPing-huiseesthedepictionoftheJapanese,

andofButterfly’srejectionbyPinkerton,asdarklyrepresentativeoftheWestern

world-view.Butterflyispowerless,“afemalebodytobepossessedandthen

deserted…Butterflyisthatfearedother,thescapegoatthatconstitutesthewhite

male'srepresseddesireandguiltforwhichshemustsufferandthendie”.25

Liao’sdepictionofButterfly’sliteralpowerlessnessignoresthetheatricalpower

ofherstatusaseponymouscharacterwithwhomtheaudienceisclearly

intendedtosympathiseand,crucially,toidentify.ThefactthatPinkertonis

sketchedsounsympatheticallyshouldbeacluethattheauthorintendedhis

Westernaudiencetofurtherquestionthevaluesofimperialism,asmanywere

indeedalreadydoingattheturnofthetwentiethcentury.

Thisreadingbecomesapparentwhenweviewtheopera’sgenesisandexamine

theprogressiveoriginalplayuponwhichMadamaButterflyisbased.Intheplay,

25Ping-huiLiao,"'OfWritingWordsforMusicWhichIsAlreadyMade':'MadamaButterfly,Turandot',andOrientalism,"CulturalCritique16(1990):39.

17

whichPuccini’sfirstversionfollowed,Pinkerton’scallousindifferenceis

heightenedbythefactthatheneverreturnsfromAmericatoButterflyatall.26

PucciniaddedPinkerton’sreturnafterButterfly’ssuicideonlyasresponseto

criticismofthefirstperformance,particularlythatthetenorneededanariain

thefinalact.27Hedidsoonlyreluctantlybecauseheknewitwould(wrongly)

createtheimpressionthatPinkertoncaredonewayortheotherwhathappened

toButterflyafterhereturnedtoAmerica.Nevertheless,theoperaiscapableof

beingreadasapowerfulcritiqueofWesternchauvinismandofcolonialand

imperialvalues.Indeed,arguablyitisstillreadthatwaybymostcontemporary

operaaudiences,whoappreciatethework’sdeephumanism.

ThattheartistcanbecrucialinshapingperceptionoftheOther,bothpositively

andnegatively,isreadilyapparent:itmightthereforebearguedthatweshould

notinouranalysisplacepreferencetooheavilyononehypotheticaloutcome

overtheother.Rather,theindependenceoftheartistisparamounttoBhabha’s

hybriduniversalism.Importantlyweknowthatartistscontinuetobe,and

perhapsalwayswillbe,inspiredtoengagewithstories,symbolsorcultural

frameworkotherthantheirown.Anartistshouldbeabletodefendtheirrightto

beimaginativewithsuchsourcematerial,providedthatmaterial’soriginal

contextisproperlyaccountedforandacknowledged.Thequestionof

authenticitybecomesalargeroneinrelationtotheartist.Inmyowncase,

critiquingthecompositionofChang’EandtheMoonbasedonthealiennessofmy

Westernculturalheritagemissesacrucialfactor:theChineseliteraryculture’s

26AlexandraWilson,ThePucciniProblem:OperaNationalismandModernity,(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2007),102.27Ibid.

18

influenceuponmylivedintellectualexperienceandartisticimaginationisa

matteroffact,anauthenticexperienceallmyown.Asoneexample,Ialongwith

manyofmygeneration,wasfirstintroducedtotheMingDynastyclassicThe

JourneytotheWest,throughthepopularJapanesetelevisionseriesMonkey

Magic,whichIwatchedfromaveryyoungage.

2.3 CULTURAL EMPOWERMENT

Emphasisingimaginativeautonomyrestorestheartist’svoicebutcannotexcuse

culturalrepresentationsthatcauseoffence,evenwhenoffenceisunintentional.

However,unintentionaloffencecanberectifiedthroughdialogue,providedall

voiceshaveanequalseatatthetable.Oneofthehistoricalproblemsthenclearly

liesinunequalpowerrelationships,namely,whendominantculturesareableto

determinethewayinwhichothergroupsarerepresentedfortheentertainment

ofaprivilegedelite,withoutthoserepresentednecessarilyhavingasayinthe

use(ormisuse)oftheirculture,symbolsandmeanings.

Howthendoweevaluatethosenon-Westerncultureswithasufficiently

empoweredvoicetowithstandthedamageOrientalisminflicts,atleastwithin

ourownera?IamparticularlyawarethatChinesethoughtandexpression,for

mostofitshistoricalexistence,hasnotbeenadisempoweredculturalforce,but

rathertheopposite.WhiletheWestindisputablyanddisastrouslyexploited

Chinaintheearlymodernera,thisisahistoricalanomalywhenonetakesthe

longviewfromaChineseperspective.AnycriticismofChang’EandtheMoonas

Orientalismwouldbenefitfromananalysisofthecultureitrepresents(thatof

19

thedominantHanChinese)andthatculture’sabilitytorepresentitself,as

bearingrelationtoSaid’sdiscussionofauthorityinOrientalism.28

ItshouldbenotedthanHanChinesecultureisnotamonolithicentity,butan

extremelyrobusthistoricalsynthesiswhichevolvedfromthecontributionsof

manyethnicgroupsfromwithinanoft-changinggeographicalregion.Contrary

totheviewsofChinesetraditionalistsinmanyperiods,thesefusionsclearly

enhancedratherthanweakenedHanculturalresilience.29Anearlygalvanising

forcewastheintroductionofBuddhismfromIndia,whichbothinfluencedand

competedwithTaoismandConfucianism,thenativistschoolsofthought.Han

culturewasasyncreticpluralismofEastAsianideasthatcreatedaphilosophical

andartisticculturecapableofpenetratingfarbeyondthepoliticalbordersof

China.Whilemilitaryaggressionandcoercionshouldnotbedismissed,itis

neverthelessimportanttounderstandthe‘opt-in’universalismwhichmadeHan

culturetheappealingcentreofanEastAsianclientstatesystem,inthesameway

thatUSculturalhegemonyseemsappealingtomanyAustralians.LikeUSculture

inAustralia,HanChineseculturewasincorporatedintotheculturesofmany

otherEastAsiancountriesthroughacombinationofbothsoftandhardpower

displays.ManyofthosecountrieshavetheirownversionsoftheChang’Estory

andcelebratetheMid-AutumnFestival.

TheveryhistoricalubiquityofChinesecultureinourgreaterregionalsooffers

analternativeframeworkfromwhichtoexamineissuessurroundingcultural

28Said,Orientalism.20.29ThecentralthesisofXuZhouyun’sadmirableChina:ANewCulturalHistory(NewYork,ColumbiaUniversityPress,2012).

20

appropriation.MuchofwhatIloveabouttheChineseliteraryandartistic

traditionliesinitsendlesscapacityforreinvention,atraditiondriveninnosmall

partbytheconspicuousabsenceofconceptssurroundingintellectualproperty.30

Artisticendeavourswere,intheterminologyofMun,“oftenconceivedasa

transformativesynthesisof…pastaccomplishments”.31InChineseliteraturein

particular,allusion,repetitionandadaptationweretakenasmarkersofan

author’sowneruditionandknowledgeofhis/herownculture.Therecouldbeno

fearofinfringingapreviousauthor’srightsordistortingthetradition,because

thesourcesofsuchtraditionwerelargelyknowntoall.

ItwasinthisspiritofculturalhomageandreinventionthatIfeltemboldenedto

adaptChang’E’sstoryasanextensionofmyownphilosophy,aphilosophywhich

isitselfdeeplyinfluencedbyDaoistthought.WhileIcannotclaimmyselftobea

directheirtotheChineseintellectualtradition,Icancertainlyassertmyartistic

rightstoexpressmyselfunderitsinfluence.Inaddition,IdofeelthatAustralia’s

locationwithinthegreaterAsiansphere,aswellasourincreasingcross-cultural

interdependencewithallhumanity,meansthatthedeeperhistoryandstoriesof

AsiawillsoonreachamoremainstreamawarenesswithinAustralia,assurelyall

culturalexpressionhastherighttodo.

Thisintroductionofanon-Westernframeworkforanalysingissuessurrounding

artisticcreationandtransmissionoffersanotherperspectivefortheWestern

discussionofOrientalism,andperhapspointsthewayforwardtoWang’s

30Seung-HwanMun,Culture-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights:ACross-CulturalAnalysisofCopyright(TheUniversityofTexas,2008).157-8.31Ibid.,159.

21

culturaldialogue.Suchanapproachseemsparadoxicallyunderutilisedwhenthe

WestengagesinconversationsaboutitsrepresentationofOthers.Itispossible

toconcludethatthisisaconversationthattheWesthasbeenhavingwithitself.

WangcallsOrientalism“merelyaprovisionalstrategyfordeconstructingthe

centre”;32indeedtheculturalfirestorminstigatedbySaid’sworklargely

achievedhisgoalofcallingouttheimplicitimperialismandracismofour

culturalpast.Iftheimpetuswasamoralone–acknowledgingtheneedto

honourthedignityofgroupsweonceoppressed–whythenarewestillfailingto

includetheminthediscussion?

Anuancedappreciationoftheseissuesbringsusbeyondthepolemicsofblame

butmaynevergivetheclear-cutdefinitionsorframeworktoadequatelydefine

thegreyareas.AsLockeconcludes,thisapproachmayofferitsownrewards:

AnadequateinterpretationofaWesternworksetintheEast,Iconclude,mustmaintaintwoperspectivesinastateofcreativetension.Ontheonehandisthework’sessentialWesternness—itsirrelevancetotheEast,andtheEast’stoit—and,ontheother,isitspowertoreflectandevenshape,perhapsdamagingly,theattitudeandbehaviourofWesternerstowardthenon-Westernworld.Iproposethatweaccepttheseasbeingtwoirreconcilableyetequallyvalidpointsofview,and,attheriskofintellectualmessiness—perhaps,richness—takecarenottoprivilegeoneovertheother.33

Chang’EandMoonfunctionssimilarlyinastateofcreativetension,anoutcome

perhapsofthedesiretoseemyownreflectioninthemirrorheldupbythe

thoughtandartofaculturenotmyown.ButIwouldsuggestthisisavery32Wang,"OrientalismVersusOccidentalism,"60.33Locke,"ReflectionsonOrientalisminOpera(andMusicalTheatre)."

22

universaltrait;manyofusapproachart,irrespectiveofitsoriginsorcontext,in

justthisfashion.Issuessurroundingappropriationwillstillariseintheanalysis

ofmymusicalinspirationsandreferences.Therefore,itwillberelevanttoreturn

tothisdiscussionasIexamineindividualmusicalcircumstancesinSection4.

Beforethis,however,Iexaminesomeofthestructuralelementsuniquetothe

opera.

23

3. STRUCTURE

3.1 THE PROBLEM WITH OPERA

Operaisbyitsverynatureahybridartform.Amarriageofmusicandtheatre,it

mustassimilatepoetry,story,drama,musicalexpression,visualrepresentation

inspace,andunparalleledmusicalvirtuosityunderitsoneumbrella.Opera

raises“crucialproblemsconcerningtheaimsandeffectsofmusic,drama,and

indeedtheartsingeneral”,34innosmallpartbecausetheneedsofanyoneof

theseelementsarefrequentlyinoppositiontotheneedsofanother.

Operawasconceivedinthelatesixteenthcenturyasanattempttorestorethe

imaginativelyidealisedexpressivepowersthatmusicwasthoughttohaveheld

intheclassicalpast.35Thegoalwastoputmusicmorefirmlyattheserviceof

drama,andviceversa.Yet,asacknowledgedbyJosephKermaninOperaas

Drama,opera’sdramaticefficacyisroutinelyquestioned.36That“musicaldrama

isviable”,37andthatopera’sprimaryvehicleforarticulatingthedramaismusic,

istheunderlyingthesisofKerman’slandmarkwork.Itmeansthattheultimate

arbiterofanopera’sdramaticandnarrativeshapeisnotthelibrettistbutthe

composer,whomustshapeitsdevelopmentthroughthemusicaboveallelse.

Throughaseriesofcasestudies,Kerman’smethodistoanalysetheoperatic

idealanditsvariedanddisparaterealisationthroughoutthehistoryoftheform.

34TimCarter,inTheOxfordIllustratedHistoryofOpera,ed.RogerParker(Oxford,England:OxfordUniversityPress,1994;reprint,2001),1.35Ibid.,8.Seealso,JosephKerman,OperaasDrama,2ndpaperbackedition2005ed.(BerkeleyandLosAngeles,California:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1988;repr.,1988),18.36OperaasDrama,1037Ibid.,2

24

Takenas“anart-formwithitsownintegrityanditsownparticularlimitingand

liberatingconventions”,38Kermanseesoperasofthepastas“notaseriesof

immatureexperiments,butanumberofsolutions,eachdistinct,andeachwith

thepotentialityofartisticsuccesswithinitsownlimitations”.39Theimplications

ofthisthoughtonthecompositionofoperaareprofound.Beingpresentedwith

boththesuccessesandshortcomingsofthevariousmodels,oneisleftwitha

roadmaptotryone’sown‘solutions’tothevariousproblemsorcontradictions

inherentintheartform.

Attheoutset,thesecontradictionsbeginwiththepurelyaestheticconcernsof

musicincontrasttotheconventionsrequiredtomovethenarrative.Inopera,

thisisimmediatelyapparentinthemarriageoftextandmusic,whichgaverise

tothenarrativetensionbetweenthosemusicalformsthatcoulddevelopthe

action(recitative),andthosethatcouldexpanduponsentimentormeaning

(aria).Thisisjustonedichotomyamongmanythathavepulleduponopera’s

historicaldevelopment,attimesthreateningtoentirelydistorttheedifice.Atone

extremestandsthedevelopmentoftheariaasavehicleforvirtuosityintheearly

eighteenthandagainintheearlynineteenthcenturies,attheotherthequestfor

dramaticrealismthroughcontinuityofmusicandactionasexpressedinthe

verismoschoolandtheoperasofVerdiorWagner(see3.2.2).

InherentinKerman’s‘seriesofsolutions’istheconceptofahybridityofform

createdbyacomposer’schoicebetweenthoseelementsofoperamostimportant

38Ibid.,439Ibid.,3

25

tothem,intheserviceoftasteandthematicorstructuralunity.Thisprompted

metolookuponthecreationofmyownoperaasanexerciseincompromise:a

processofweighingcompetinginterestsandsteeringamiddlepaththatwould

allowmetotakewhatIneededfromthemedium.Incorporatingtheseideasinto

thecompositionalprocess,Imadechoicesbasedontheserviceoftheseveral

conflictingaestheticneedsthatoperaserves:namely,theneedsofdramaand

music,bothincludingnarrative,pacing,shape,macro-structureand

microstructures.Issuesofapurelymusicalorperformativenature,suchas

comprehension,performancedifficulty,singerorplayerfatigue,introduce

anotherlayerofcomplexitythatinteractswithandshapesaestheticneeds.

3.2 STRUCTURAL SOLUTIONS

WithChang’EandtheMoonItheorisedthatIcouldmitigateorreconcilesomeof

thenaturalcontradictionsofoperabycreatinganevencloserrelationship

betweenthenarrativestructureoftheworktotheothernecessaryelements:

bothmusical,suchasharmonyandorchestration,anddramatic,suchasplot,

actionandcharacterisation.Theappealofwritingthisoperawastheopportunity

tosolvesomeoftheseproblemsatthehighestlevelofnarrativeexpressed

throughstructuralorganisation.Atthisstructurallevel,thechallengesand

solutionsbroadlyinvolvedthreeareas:

• Theoverridingartisticmacro-structureofthework–thechoicetoframe

thenarrativewithinthephasesoftheMoon.Thetensionsarisingfroma

palindromicformandmychoicetoexpressitwithinatraditionalgolden-

meanratiodramaticform(3.2.1)

26

• Thehistoricaltensionbetweencontinuousoperaandbaroquenumbers

opera,andmydesiretocaptureelementsfromeach(3.2.2)

• Myartisticidealforaunifiedone-actstructureanditsperformativetwo-

actcompromise(3.2.3).

3.2.1 The Phases of the Moon as Narrative

TheadoptionofthewaningandwaxingcycleoftheMoonastheopera’s

principalnarrativeframeworkallowedmetobindallotherelementsand

expressthemwithinonestructure,fulfilling,intheoryatleast,oneofKerman’s

conditions.Inthehierarchyofthedrama,theMoonphasemacro-structureis

paramount,whilstallotherplotdevelopment,charactersandcharacterisation,

andmusicalconsiderationsflowfromandareareflectionofit.

TheprojectionoftheMoon’sphasesthroughouttheoperaalsoservesasavisual

presentationoftheunfoldingdrama.Ithastheuniqueeffectofservingthe

audiencewithbotharoadmapandapotentialspoiler:assoonastheaudienceis

awareoftheMoon’srelevancetoChang’E’sdevelopmenttheyshouldbeableto

predicttheending.Thisfunctionwasalwaysadeliberateformofdistancing

device,astheanticipationofaneventisoftenaneffectiveingredientincreating

suspense.Atthesametime,theirresistiblepredictabilityofthemovement

would,itwashoped,createahypnotic,meditativequalitytothework.Thatboth

statesshouldexistsimultaneouslyinastateofcreativetensionwithinthe

audiencememberwasanexplicitgoalofmydramaturgy.

27

Withinthestructure,thescorefortheworkisdividedintotheMoon’sfourphase

quarters.Thesequartersactassmallerorganisationalunits,andworkdiscreetly

likeActs.Fromadramaturgicalpointofview,thefirstandlastquarterscontain

onlytheshow’sfemalecharacters,Chang’Eandhermaids.Thesecondquarter

openswiththeappearanceofthemaleservants,closelyfollowedbyOldYue,the

ImperialEnvoy,andfinallyHouYi.Themaleandfemalecharactersdisappearin

reverseordertothatinwhichtheyappeared.AgainthisisreflectiveofChinese

Taoistphilosophy,whichholdsthatintheMoon’senergeticcycles,themasculine

YangprincipleisatitspeakatthefullMoon,andthefeminineYinatthenew

Moon.

Motivic,musicalandorchestraldevelopmentfortheworkarealsodrivenand

shapedbytheMoon’sphases.Smallerstructuralforms(see3.2.2)andbroader

stylisticmoods(see4.2.1)evolveintrainwiththewaxingMoonandrecedewith

itswaning.Neworchestralcoloursareintroduced,primarilywiththearrivalof

newcharacters,eachwithstrongthemesandstatementsdominatedbya

particularinstrument.Chang’E,ontheotherhand,moveswithandadaptstothe

changingmusicalcircumstances.InconcertwiththeMoon,hertessitura,

compassandmusicalmaterialexpandandcontractthroughoutthework.

ThePalindromeexpressedasGoldenMean

ThewaxingandwaningMoonwouldcreateapalindromicstructureifapplied

literally.However,experiencewouldsuggestthathumancreativeendeavour

stronglyfavourstheGoldenMeanasitspreferredstructuralframework.Within

28

thecontextofdramaticnarrativesuchasafilmorplay,thismeansthatthe

narrativehighpointoftheworkusuallyfallsapproximatelytwo-thirdsofthe

wayalongitsstructure.Inpractice,mypersonalexperienceofthisfroma

psychologicalviewpointisthatthepaceofastructure(film,book,show)builds

slowlyandreachesapeakofintensityorcomplexityatthetwo-thirdsmark,at

whichpointthedenouementisperceivedtooccurrapidlyinrelationtothat

whichhascomebefore.Anythingthatstraystoofarfromthemodelorspends

toolong(inrelationtowhathasgonebefore)ondenouementis,inmy

experience,arecipeforboredom,dueourdeeplyingrainedexpectationsinthis

area.

Forthisreasonarigidpresentationofthefourquartersasapalindrome(in

whichequaltimewasallottedtoeachquarter)wouldrunafoulofaudience

expectations.Ichoseinsteadtomanipulatethedurationofthequartersas

imperceptiblyaspossible,particularlyshavingincrementsoffthethirdand

fourthquartersafterthehigh-pointoftheworkhadbeenpassed.Thecontracted

fourthquarterparticularlycompelstheworktoitslogicalconclusioninasrapid

amanneraspossible,giventheaudience’s,bynow,totalappreciationofthe

dramaanditsanti-climacticresolution.Similarlymanipulatedwasthemoment

ofthefullMoon,ordinarilyonlyonemomentalongtheentirecontinuum.Ichose

toextendthismomentintheopera,whereChang’Eisatthepeakofherpowers

andisjoinedonstagebythefullensemblesupportedbythetuttiorchestral

sound.

29

Compositionoftheoperawasundertakenwithinthisstricttemplatefromthe

outset.Althoughthetotaldurationoftheworkhadblownoutoncompletion(the

projectedlengthwas90minutes,theendproduct104minutes),cruciallythe

relativeweightingofthesectionsremainedunchanged.

FIGURE2 StorylinepacingrelativetotheGoldenMean

Figure2showsthatthefullMoonmoment,althoughthemostcomplex,doesnot

functionastheGoldenMeanhighpointofthework.Instead,thedivisionfalls

withinthethirdquarterduetbetweenHouYiandChang’E.Thisduetexamines

boththecircumstancesoftheirstrangefateandreaffirmstheircommitmentto

oneanother.Italsocontainstheonly(albeitbrief)useofavocalquartetinthe

entireopera,adevicethatunderscoresitscrucialsummationoftheopera’s

purposeandplot(Figure3).

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 104

1st 4th2nd 3rdFull

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30

FIGURE3 Vocalquartet,Chang’EandtheMoon,No.27,bars75–82(Pianoscore)

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© 2015 R Fox All Rights Reserved

THIRD QUARTER

31

3.2.2 Continuous vs. Numbers Opera

ArecurringthemeinOperaasDramaisthetensioninherentinthehistorical

questforan‘ideal’dramaticform,whichcoalescedaroundtheideaof

‘continuousopera’anddroveitsevolutiontoalogicalconclusioninthelate

nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturieswiththeworksofWagner,Verdiand

theirideologicaldescendants.Thisisimportantbecausecontinuousoperafound

(orthoughtithadfound)aneffectiveformulaforexpressingdramaticaction

throughmusicotherwisepurgedofthoseelementsdesignedtoarrestit(stop-

startarias,differentiatedforms,cabalettasandothervirtuosicvehicles,silence,

andthatotherenemyofdramaandgoodtaste,applause).

Chang’EandtheMoon,ontheotherhand,consistsof‘numbers’:36individual

movements,somemusicallycontinuous,somequiteclearlydefined,which

togethercreatethestructuralframeworkforaunifiednarrative.Withthe

exceptionofafewimportantmodernworks,discussedbelow,thisformathas

beenlargelyoutoffashionin‘serious’operasincetheendofthebelcanto

period.Numbersremain,ofcourse,inoperettaanditstwentiethcentury

offshootsofmusicalcomediesandmusictheatre.Choosingthisnumbersformat

involvedcomingtotermswithitsusesandlimitations,aswellasthemusically

continuousform.Myborrowingfromboththeseformsindifferentwayscreates

anotherhybrid,whichaimstocapturethebestofbothforms.

32

Kermancallsoperaticcontinuitythe“universalidealofnineteenthcentury

music”40butseestheprocessasbeingpresentthroughoutopera’sentire

development,asthe“tendencytowardstheestablishmentofasingleconvention

foralltheaction”41onthemusicalplane.Gluck’sreformsofthelateeighteenth

centuryarekey.Gluckbothsynthesizedexistingtraditionsandinventednew

ones,ostensiblytomaketheformatmoredramatic;manyofhisscenesare

remarkablythrough-composedasaresult.However,Gluck’sandthenMozart’s

dramaticcontributionstothegenrewereabletoonceagainossifyinthehands

oftheirbelcantosuccessors.42Verdi’sgradualabandonmentofthebelcanto

divisionsoveraverylongcareer,andsomegenuineinnovationsthrough

composingdevicessuchasparlante,laidthegroundworkforthecontinuous

idealexpressedintheverismoschool,andtheWagnerianreformsaccomplished

thesameforGermanoperaduringthesameperiod.

Kermanalsopointsoutthat,althoughlateromanticoperamarkstheculmination

ofcontinuousopera,itemergedinconsortwiththeidealsofmonumental

organicunityinherentintheothermusicsoftheera.43Theseworksexistonsuch

ascaleandareofsuchlengthandcomplexitythattheirtrulydramaticpotential

arebroughtintoquestion.Whilethedeepstructuresandthematicunityinthese

worksareapparentwithanalysis,thesestructuresarenotimmediatelypresent

inthecontextofasingleperformance,acriticismlevelledatWagner’soperas

withinhislifetime,andnotsimplyatwenty-firstcenturyjudgment.Wagnermay

40Ibid.,113.41Ibid.42SeeforexampleKerman’sdiscussionofthecabalettaasafar-lesssatisfyingsimplificationofthecompositeariaaspracticedbyMozartandBeethoven.Ibid.,124.43Ibid.,169-172.

33

haveexceededtheboundariesofourownbiologicallimitations,suchas

attentionspan,andthisisacrucialpointtoconsiderintheformulationofany

theoriesabouteffectdrama.Itisnotenoughtodefinenarrativedevelopmentas

thatofideasexpressedovertime,unlesswealsoconsidertheaudience’sability

tofollowandappreciatethoseideas.

Stravinsky,forthenarrativepurposeofhistoricalauthenticity,returnedtothe

divisionsofoperaseriainhisneo-classicaloperaTheRake’sProgress,andinso

doingunleashedwhatKermancalls“apowerfuldramaticpossibilitylatentinan

oldconvention”:44

Whatissostrikingaboutallthesenumbersistheirclarityoffeeling.Clarity,discreetness,isthegreatvirtueofthetraditionaldramaturgicalsystemofariaandrecitative,anditisavirtuethatStravinskywasabletorecapture.Toarrangeaclearpsychologicalprogressioninariasandensemblesseemsanobviousenoughresource,butitisonethatwasnotfullyappreciatedinthetimeoftheclassicoperatictradition.45

Inasimilarway,thenumberswithinChang’EandtheMoonaimforthesame

psychologicalprogression.Importantly,incontrasttothecontinuousopera

model,Ifeelintuitivelythatthebaroquemodelmoreaccuratelyoffersthe

structurehumansrequireinordertobuildcomplexpictures,andthetime

neededtodigesttheindividualideasthatconstitutethosepictures.Inthissense,

thedivisionsofariaandrecitative,andthedoublebarlinesbetweenthem,

becomepsychologicalbreaksintheunfoldingnarrativeforthelistener.The

steadydigestionofastructure,buildinguponwhathasgonebeforeit,isthemost

44Ibid.,197.45Ibid.

34

valuablemeanstotransmitcompellingnarrativeandtokeeptheaudience

engagedthroughout.

ThenumberswithinChang’EandtheMoonsomehowalsounderscoremy

conceptionoftheworkasbeingaspiritualormeditativeexperienceforthe

audience.Thusinthefirstquarter,particularlyfromMotherPearl’sentrance,the

gentleandrelentlessalternationofrecitativeandshortformalsongsevokesan

atmospherethatisbothmeditativeandreassuringwhilstatthesametime

anticipatingforwardmovement,asPearlandNightingalealternatelycomfort

andprepareChang’Efortherigoursoftheday.

Inadditiontothis,thenumbers’formatandtypechangethroughoutthework,

andthistreatmentalsoplaysanarrativefunction.Incontrasttothefirstquarter,

thesecondquarterincreasesthedramaticpacethroughaseriesofmore

complexandseparatesongs,culminatinginamomentofhighceremonywiththe

arrivaloftheImperialEnvoy.FromHouYi’sarrivaltohisdeparture,theedgesof

thenumbersareblurredandtheworkbeginstoapproximatethecontinuous

operamodelinserviceofthedramatictensions.

ThereforeChang’EandtheMoonstrivestostrikeadifferentbalancebetweenthe

twopoles.Itisaworkwhichremainsmoresharplydelineatedthanmost

modernoperabutnotyetsosharplydelineatedasoperaseriaorbelcanto.

Becausethedivisionsofoperaseriaandbelcantoservedoftennon-dramatic

considerations,theresultinghybridformatisoneabletobendtothedemandsof

thenarrative.Thestop-startnatureoftheariascontributestothesenseof

35

stillness;theimpetusofcontinuousoperadrivestheactionforwardwhenit

matters.

3.2.3 One Act vs. Two

Theartisticidealfortheworkwastopresenttheoperaasone-act.ThisIfeltwas

necessarytomaximisetheimpactoftheMoonstructureontheaudience’s

awarenessoftheunfoldingnarrative.AkeyaimwasthattheMoon’scontinuous

progressionwould,towardsthecloseofthework,contributeacertainuneasy

tensiontomyaudience,thatsenseofinevitabilitythatwouldbecomeakey

ingredientintheworkspoignancy.

Inpreparationforthework’spremiere,itbecameapparentthatthisone-act

idealwouldbeproblematicinperformance.Although104minutescanbea

comfortableperiodoftimeforanaudiencemember(itistheaveragelengthofa

Disneyanimatedfilm),livemusicperformancemustalsotakeintoaccountthe

needsofitsmusicians.Inparticular,playerfatigueamongsttheninemusicians

who,ofnecessity,playalmostcontinuouslythroughoutthework,wouldneedto

beaddressed.Forthisreason,Ichosetocreateatwo-actperformanceversionof

theworkbyinsertingthepossibilityofanintervalwhereIfeltitwoulddoleast

damagetothebuild-upofthenarrative.Inthecurrenttwo-actversionthe

curtainfallsasChang’EandHouYiappearbeforetheirguestsattheopeningof

thefull-Moonsequence.Atthestartofthesecondhalf,throughtherepetitionof

thismoment’smusicalmotif,theactionisresumedfromthispointonwards.In

thiswaytheintervalcanbeseentopausetheactionatoneofthework’shigh

points.

36

Thescorewasconstructedtoincludetheoptionforacontinuousone-act

performance(throughtheexcisionoftherepeatedbars)ifsuchapossibility

weretobecomeavailable.Theremayhavebeenother,equallyeffective,waysto

divideuptheMoon’sprecessiontocreateaneffectivetwo-actstructure,but

therewas,Ibelieve,nootherwaywhichcouldbetterpreservethetension

inherentintheoriginalone-actform.

3.3 CANVAS AND CONTENT

Operaisatypeofdramawhoseintegralexistenceisdeterminedfrompointtopointandinthewholebymusicalarticulation.46

Asdemonstratedabove,manyofthestructuralfeaturesofChang’EandtheMoon

wereintendedtoservethelargerdemandsofeffectivenarrative,thereby

creatingaframeworktounifysomeofopera’snaturalcontradictions.However,

effectivestructureisnotagoalinitself,butexiststoprovideacanvasforthe

content;clearlywithinopera,thiscontentisthemusicaltreatment.Kerman’s

adagethereforeremainedaguidingprincipleandthesameunderlyinggoalsof

thematicunitywerealsopresentinallofmymusicalandharmonic

considerations,asexploredinthenextsection.

46Ibid.,10.

37

4. MUSICAL ANALYSIS

4.1 AN ECLECTIC APPROACH

TheapproachItooktothemusicalcompositionofChang’EandtheMoonwas

eclecticandyetultimatelyfunctionallyunifying.Ontheonehand,Isoughtto

createanewmusicallanguagewhichwoulddefinethelimitsoftheChang’E

sound-world;ontheother,thedelineatedandevolvingnatureoftheMoon-

precessionnarrativedemandedapalettewhichcouldevolveandabsorbnew

elementsthroughoutthework,elementswhichwouldneedtobereconciledwith

theunifiedwhole.Thischangingandevolvingusageisreflectedinallmusical

elements,includingtheharmonicpalette,theinterplayofsmallandlarger

musicalstructures,andimportantlyintheorchestration.Theseelementsare

examinedindividuallybelow.

Inaddition,mybeliefintheuniquestatusofoperaasahybridart-formandits

consequentdemandsupontheatrical/narrative/musicalexpressionledmeto

takeamuchbroadermagpie-likeapproachtoassemblingmymusicalmaterials.

Thus,thestronglydiatonic-pentatonicapproachtomodulationthatdrivesmuch

oftheharmoniclanguageisneverthelessfrequentlyabandonedinfavourof

anythingelseinmymusicallexiconthatIfeltthedramademanded,suchas

semitoneshiftsormoreabruptpost-romanticmodulations.Similarly,thevocal

writingrangesfromBaroque-stylerecitativestogenerously‘modern’vocal

phrasingdrawnfromtheidiomsoftwentiethcenturypopularmusic,including

musicaltheatre.Inshort,Ihaveverymuchenjoyedplayingwithallthedifferent

solutionswhichWesterncomposershaveforcenturiesbeenapplyingtothe

38

uniqueproblemsinvolvedwithcreating“dramathroughmusic”,asoperawas

oncecalled.47Itwasmyintentionthatanydisunityarisingfromsuchaneclectic

approachwouldbemitigatedbythepowerfullyunifyingforceofthenarrative,in

serviceofwhichsuchdevicesarealwaysdeployed.

4.2 HARMONIC LANGUAGE

TheChang’EandtheMooncompositionalpaletteconsistsofmyownharmonic

stylecruciallymodifiedthroughtheincorporationofsomeelementsfrom

Chineseclassicalmusic.Thereisanodtowardsheterophonyand,Ithink,a

nuancedappreciationofthedifferingsyntaxofChinesemusicreflectedinmyuse

ofphrasingandrhythm(see4.3.2).Ihaveusedharmonicpentatonicismnotto

theexclusionofWesterntonalitybutratherasalooseorganisingprinciple.My

ownharmonicstylehasbeenmodifiedthroughtheincorporationofthese

elements,ratherthanbeingsubsumedbythem.

4.2.1 Harmonic Development as Narrative

Theoperaitselfopensinastateofambiguoustonalityencompassingaseriesof

motivicelementsinisolation.Withinthisframeworkother,morestrongly

Chinesemotivicelements,areintroduced,discussedbelow.Theoperaopenson

amajor2ndbetweenthefluteandtheclarinetplayingEandF#(Figure4).From

thissmallcentrethepaletteisexpandedwiththeadditionofothernotes,A,G

andF.Thesecondmotif,anarpeggiatedmajorthirdonBandD#,breaksacross

thegloomymoodwithsuddenlight(Figure4,bar6).

47‘Drammapermusica’:ThomasBauman,inTheOxfordIllustratedHistoryofOpera,ed.RogerParker(Oxford,England:OxfordUniversityPress,1994;reprint,2001),54-55.

39

FIGURE4 Chang’EandtheMoon,Introduction,bars1–7

Theindividualelementsoftheopeningcoalescetoformoneofthetwodistinct

key-regionswhichpullupontheopeningscenes.Thefirstcanbethoughtofasa

shiftingoctatonicandpentatonicmodalregionbasedonEwhichevolves

naturallyfromtheopeningE,F#tonality.AstrongpulltobothBandF#major

tonalitiesareafeatureofthistonalarea,whichrepresentstheMoonlandscape.

Thisthematicareaalsoincludesthearpeggiated3rds,whichaccompany

Chang’E’sawakeningandinmanywaysrepresentherpersonalityuponthe

Moon.ThismotifrecursandformsthebasisofherlaterariosoNo.9(Figure5a),

andlastquarterariaNo.32(Figure5b).

FIGURE5a Chang’EandtheMoon,No.9,bars1–7

40

FIGURE5b Chang’EandtheMoon,No.32,bars5–8

Thesecondtonalarea,centredaroundFmajor,representsChang’E’s-atthis

stageonlypartiallyglimpsed-innerworld,herhumanity,theEarthandher

memoriesofherpreviousexistenceuponit,representedbytheDreamfrom

whichshehasjustawoken.Theopeningscenesoftheworkplayuponthe

tensioncreatedbythesetwotonalareaswhichareresolvedinfavouroftheE

tonality,inimitationofChang’E’sownstrugglebetweenhersleeping(F)and

waking(E)selves(Figure6).

FIGURE6 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.1,bars1–5

41

TheMoonphaseprogressionthatdrivestheopera’smoodandnarrative

developmentalsoworksuponthedevelopmentoftheharmoniclanguage.The

pointillistandfragmentarymusicoftheopeningmirrorsthelandscape–and

Chang’E’s–unformedstateatthenewMoon.Thearrivalofmajorcharacters

introducesnewthematicmaterialsandbroadenstheharmonicpalette.In

particular,theworkgrowsmorediatonicandpentatonicasametaphorforthe

waxingMoonphase.WhenChang’EandHouYiarereunited,andparticularlyin

theirlovers’musicduringthethirdquarter,themusictakesonbroader,post-

romanticqualities,withmorepronouncedchromaticismandparallelharmonic

shifts.Aswiththeotheraspectsoftheopera’sstructuralforms,these

characteristicsregress,andearliermotivicmaterialsreappearastheMoon

wanesduringthelastquarter.

4.2.2 Pentatonicism

IhavecalledpentatonicismwithinChang’EandtheMoonalooseorganising

principle.Ineitherrestrictmyselftoscalesofonlyfivetones,noravoidsemi-

tones.Neverthelessinmyapproachtomodulation,andmyuseofpentatonic

melodyandmotivicmaterials,astrongly‘Chinese’pentatonicflavourisevident.

Thepentatonicaestheticdetermineswhichchordtonesareallowedto

predominateintheprimarilydiatonictertianharmony.Thisincludesnotonly

theubiquitous4thsand5thsbutalsotonesformedthroughtheadditionofsuch

intervals(thusthemajor2ndisparticularlyprominent,arisingasitdoesasa5th

ontopofanother5th).Importantly,frequentmodulationtoandbetweenthese

chordtonesiscommonandcontributestoasenseof‘home-key’ambiguity.This

42

ambiguityisfurtheroftenexploitedthroughchangingtertianharmonictones,

particularlyminor/majorambiguities.

4.2.3 Analysis of No.16 Maid’s Song

TheMaid’sSong(No.16)isagoodstrictexampleofthisstyleofmodalharmonic

modulation,withprogressionsderivedfromthemovementof5thsalongthe

pentatonicscale.Italsocontainsmanyfeaturesthatarebroadlycharacteristicof

awider‘Chang’Estyle’.Itsmelodicmaterialischieflypentatonic;however,it

utilisesanexpandedchromaticpalettecreatingbythesuperimpositionoftwo

closelyrelatedtonalcentresandtheirpentatonicscales.Itexploitstheresulting

rapidlyshiftingtonalcentreandactivelycultivates‘home-key’ambiguity.Finally,

itsuseoftriadicharmonyandsemitones,andastronginstanceofparallel

harmonicmodulationfornarrativeemphasis(Figure8,bars25–28),seatsthis

workwithintheWesternharmonictradition,andrevealsitsstronglyhybrid

nature.

FIGURE7 No.16,Maid’sSongOstinato

Thepieceisbuiltaroundafour-notepianoostinato:Ab,Eb,Db,andanAbatthe

octave(Figure7).Thepatterncontainstwosuperimposedperfect5thscreating

anindeterminatetriad(Ab,Db,Eb)astheharmonicbackground,whichmakesthe

ostinatoequallyathomewithinseveralrelatedChinesemodes.Atitssimplest

43

levelthepiecemakeuseoftwo,thefirstbeingaDbmajorpentatonic,knownas

Db-GonginChinesemodaltheory,48whereGongreferstoWesterndoin

solmisation,andthesecondbeinganAbminorpentatonicknownasAb-Yu,

whereYureferstotheWesternla.Ab-YusharesthesamenoteswiththeGong

variantrootedonCb,whileDb-GongsharesthesamenoteswithBb-Yu:

Ab-Yu: Ab–Cb–Db–Eb–Gb OR Db-Gong: Db–Eb–F–Ab–Bb

Cb-Gong:Cb–Db–Eb–Gb–Ab Bb-Yu: Bb–Db–Eb–F–Ab

ThemusicprecedingthispiecehasaBmajorflavour,whichpredisposestheear

tohearingthisindeterminateopeninginthecontextofanAb-Yu.Howeverthe

expectationissubvertedbythestrongDbandAbperfect5thinthebassatbar3

(Figure8).Theentranceofthevoicesinbar5outliningastrongDbmajor

tonalityreinforcestheshiftandwouldseemtoestablishDb-Gongasthehome

key.

FromherethebaselinemovesthroughstepstoFb,which,togetherwiththe

ostinatonotes,outlineanFbmajor7thtonality.Fromadiatonicperspectivethis

isheardasmodallyborrowedmediant(M.B.IIIbV)ofDbmajor.However,the

sustainedpresenceoftheEbas7thallowsforthephrasetoreturntotheAb-Yu

pentatonicinthenextphrase(bar21),andestablishesthistonalityasastrong

secondaryanchorpoint.Thefirstversecomestoacloseambiguouslythrougha

48LokNg,ModernChinesePianoCompositionandItsRoleinWesternClassicalMusic(UniversityofNorthTexas,2006).TherearemanybranchesofmodaltheorythatcoverChinesemusic’smanyhistoricalandregionalvariantsbutthissystemissufficientfortheanalysisofmycomposition.

44

parallelharmonicmodulationandprogressionintheostinatooutlining,roughly,

thechordsofFminor,Cminor,Ebmajor,Cbmajor7th(bars25–28).


45

46

Inthemiddleoftheworkanewtonalarea(bars37–46)ofGbiscreatedthrough

shiftingtheAbintheostinatopatterntoGb,andtheFbinthebassprogressionis

reheardinthecontextofDbminor(asivofGb).Thephraseatbars58–63picks

uptheFbtoGbmovement,whichherefeelsstronglylikeadiatonicIV-V

progressioninthekeyofCb-Gong,beforerepeatingthepreviouslyheardparallel

harmonictag-linethatresolvescompletelyendingthepieceinEbmajor.

4.2.4 Pentatonic melodicism

Melodywithintheoperadoesnot,ingeneral,restrictitselfexclusivelytoa

pentatonicframeworkexceptinafewinstances.AsdiscussedinSection3,the

work’spentatonicflavourbecomesmorepronouncedinthebuild-uptothefull

Moonscene,which,Ibelieve,servesboththeceremonialandcelebratorymood

oftheworkatthispoint.Thisusageopposesthatbinaryanalysiswhichseesthe

pentatonicinOrientalistmusicasconnotinganegativedepiction,whichisonly

employedtoarticulateweak,simplistic,orsubmissivegestures,an

interpretationwhichIbelieveonlyrevealsthemusicologist’sownprojected

prejudices.


ThelargeensemblechorusNo.23,BelowYouMortals,isbuiltaroundan

orchestraltuttiplayingtheabovesimplephrasebuiltaroundCpentatonicrooted

47

onG,orG–A–C–D–E(56123,oneofthetwoBeijingOperamodes49)and

includingtheloweredorbianpassingnoteBb(Figure9).The7thscaletonedoes

appearinChinesemodaltheoryasapassingtoneandhasbothaloweredanda

raisedvariant(similartousageinWesternmodaltheory).

Theopeningphraseisrepeatedwithheterophonicvarietybeforeitisbuiltupon

bysuccessiveorchestralentriesinimitativecanonoftheoriginalmotivic

material(Figure10).Theentriescreatethreedistinctlines,whichtogetherfixor

morestronglydelineateanewharmoniccontextfortheoriginalmelody.


49TerryE.Miller&MichaelChurch,OtherClassicalMusics:FifteenGreatTraditions,(Woodbridge,Suffolk,GB:BoydellPress,2015),133.

48

Astheorchestralaccompanimentreturnstoacompleterestatementofthe

openingthemeanddevelopmentsection,thechorusenterswithahomophonic

choralebasedonthenewharmoniccontext.Thechorallinesfitoverthetopof

theorchestralaccompanimentmuchinthesamemannerasinaBachchorale

cantata(Figure11).ThisworkshowcasesastrongfusionofbothWesternand

Chineseclassicaltechniquesrepresentativeofadistinct‘Chang’Estyle’.


4.2.5 Pentatonic characterisation

ThecharacterofOldYuerepresents,arguably,themostrecognisably‘Chinese’

characterisationintheentireopera.ModelledonthegodYueLao,adeifiedTang

dynastyofficial,YuepresentsasthearchetypicalConfucianscholar,afigurelong

portrayed(andoftderided)inChineseliteraryandoperaticdepictions.Yue’s

music,incontrasttotheothercharacters,stickstostrongpentatonicgestures.

49

RatherthanseeingthisasanotherproblematicOrientalistportrait,thisusage

insteadcontextualisesYue’scharacterisationasanupholderoftraditional

values,andreliesuponourassociationofChinesetraditionalmusicwitha

historicalChinesepasttodoso.Thatthischaracterisationreliesoncertain

tropes–musicalandtextual–tobeeffectiveisbesidethepoint,asthetropes

wouldbeequallyappreciablebycontemporaryChinesewatchingtheoperaasby

anyelse,withIsuspectnosenseofunease.InthissenseYuehasnotbeen

racialisedinanydemeaningorderogatoryway.

FIGURE12 Yue’sArioso,Chang’EandtheMoon,No.32,bars1–9

50

4.3 OTHER CHINESE ELEMENTS

4.3.1 Overview

OnlyonespecificChinesemusicsourcecanbecitedashavingadirectinfluence

uponChang’EandtheMoon:aneighthcenturyarrangementofabanquetsong-

textcollectedintheHandynastyBookofOdes(ShiJing).Iusedthistwo-part

harmonisationofatraditionalChinesesongasthemodelforNo.20,theChoral

Prayers,thewordlessharmonieswhichcanbehearddriftingupfromthe

(Chinese)humansontheworldbelow,astheypraytoChang’EatthefullMoon.

Iftheoperaasawholetakesplaceinauniquesoundworldgovernedbythe

landscapeandinhabitantsoftheMoon,thenNo.20wasanopportunityformeto

distinguishthisworldfromthatofthe‘real’China,oranyoneofthemany

historicalChinaswhichmightbebelowthem.

FIGURE13 OpeningofYuLi(BeautifulFish)fromtheBookofOdes50

50TakenfromLuluHuangChang,FromConfuciustoKublaiKahn:MusicandPoeticsthroughtheCenturies(Ottawa,Canada:TheInstituteofMediaevalMusic,1993),22.

51

FIGURE14 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.20,bar30

Figures13and14showtheBookofOdessourceanditsinfluenceonthis

movement.Ratherthanadirectquotationofthissong,whichwouldhavefelt

incongruousgivenitsoriginalsubjectmatter,theharmonicflavourandcertain

progressionswereincorporatedintoanoriginalcompositionsharingthesame

mode.ThismodeisChineseheptatonic,ratherthanpentatonic,andisofatype

simplyknownastheAncientTypeinChinesemodalanalysis.51

Thesingingofthese‘prayers’occursonindeterminatevowelsoundscarriedbya

placement used in harmonic singing. This is designed to mimic the sound of

voicestoodistantforwordstobeheard,andtocreateadistinctionbetweenthe

worldofgodsandmortals. It isadistinctdramaticOtheringdevice,whichwill

51Hsun-PinHuang,"TheoryandPracticeintheTraditionalChineseMusic:ObservationsandAnalysis"(Modalthesis,UniversityofNorthTexas,1994),25.

52

undoubtedly strengthen criticisms of exoticism inmymusic, particularly as in

this case thegroup thusOtheredare theChinese. Imakenoapologies for this.

TheanalysisofOrientalismusingracealoneandignoringotherdramaticdevices

andcontextmerelystrengthenstheprejudicesitsetsouttoilluminate.52

4.3.2 A Chinese Syntax?

Westernharmonicanalysiscanshowtherelationshipsbetweenmy

pentatonicallyinspiredharmonicprogressionthroughtheuseofmodal

borrowing;however,thisdoesnotthenilluminatewhytheuseofthemshould

beinanywaythoughtofasparticularlyChinese.Inmostcases,Iwouldargue

thattheperceivedChinesemusicalqualitiesoftheworkstemlessfromthe

pentatonicorharmonicelements,andmorefromtheuseofgesturesorsyntax

gleanedfromChineseclassicalmusicalforms.Thisbecamemostapparentduring

theearlyrehearsal/performancephaseofthework’screation.Particularwind

phrasingmarkswereconfusingatfirsttotheplayers,whoweremostfamiliar

withWesternorchestralperformancetraditions.Thetendencyatfirstforthese

playerswastowanttorephrasetheirpassages;however,afterIdirectedthemto

Chineserecordingsofdiziorthesuona,Ifoundinmostinstancesthatthey

developedanunderstandingofmyintentions.Approachingthephrasewiththis

awarenessusuallyeliminatedtheplayers’confusionastohowitshouldsound,

52ConsiderforexampleLiao’sdescriptionofButterfly’sJapanesefamily:“likeall"Japanese"talk,itbecomesunintelligible,sheernoise.”Heisdescribingparlante:anoperatictechniquewherebymusicalandnarrativeflowaremaintainedbysubsumingtheregularconversationallanguageofthecrowdintothemusicalmomentumoftheorchestralaccompaniment.ItwasfirstpioneeredbyVerdiin(theveryItalian)Rigoletto.Liao,"'OfWritingWordsforMusicWhichIsAlreadyMade':'MadamaButterfly,Turandot',andOrientalism."

53

andmyphrasemarkingswerefoundtobelargelyaccurate.Icallthisdifferencea

differenceofmusicalsyntaxbetweenWesternandChineseclassicalforms.

Inadditiontophrasing,oneoftheimportantgestureswithintheworkwhich,

althoughoriginal,clearlyevokesChineseclassicalformsistheuseofdottedand

double-dottedrhythms,particularlyoverfallingintervals(figures15and16).

FIGURE15 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.1,bar30


4.3.3 Heterophonic Movement

Iexperimentedinimitatingheterophonyinmanyplaceswhereunisonoroctave

doublingswouldoccurinWesternclassicalmusic,suchasduringdoublingofthe

vocalpartsoraspartofnormalorchestrationpractice.Usuallythesewere

54

isolatedmomentsratherthanextendedpassages;however,thelargepresenceof

thesemomentsthroughouttheworkcreatesastrongoverridingimpressionof

heterophonicmovement(figures17and18).

FIGURE17 ‘Heterophonic’doublingofvocalparts,Chang’EandtheMoon,No.28,bars14–17

FIGURE18 ‘Heterophonic’orchestralunisonsChang’EandtheMoon,No.34,bars32–34

55

Inotherplacesvoiceandinstrumentsweretreatedasequallines,holding

smallerelementsorheterophonicvariantsofoneexistingmelodicphrase

(Figure19).Atsuchmomentsthemusiccomesclosesttoapproximatingthe

characteristicsofChineseheterophony.


4.4 THE ELEMENTS IN SYNTHESIS – ANALYSIS OF NO.19 SCENE

TheshortsceneNo.19,showninfullinFigure20,isagoodexampleofhowthe

variouselementsthatinspiredmemusicallyhavebeenboundtogethertocreate

56

aunifiedwhole.Thenumberopenswithapolytonalchordcomprisingtwo

distinctsetsof4ths,CandF,superimposedontopofC#andF#.MotherPearl’s

openingphrase(Bars1–2)belongsharmonicallytotheupperdyadandusingF,

GandA#(En:Bb)fillsoutapentatonicmodewhichcanbestbethoughtofasBb

pentatonicrootedonF(F–G–Bb–C–D).ThepassingG#,asitsenharmonic

equivalent,canbethoughtofasabiantone.

ThethemehereatBars3–4andavariantderivedfromit(Bars7–8)area

recurringmotifintheoperawhichisderivedfromtheChoralPrayers

movement,No.20.Asitishere,thethemehasbeenforeshadowedinNos.8and

12,wheneverMotherPearldiscussestheapproachingEighthMonth

celebrations.InitsfullstatementatNo.20,theChoralPrayersarethewordless

harmonieswhichcanbehearddriftingupfromthehumansontheworldbelow,

astheypraytoChang’E.

Inbars5–15MotherPearl’srecitativewarmsintosomethingresemblingthe

baroque:Frombar9sequentialphrasescontainingmelodicappogiaturassettle

intoaharmonysketchedwithabareV-Igroundmovement.Thephrasemoves

throughbothGminorandGmajortoanambiguousBminor,leadingtoa

statementof‘ChoralPrayers’bytheoffstagehumansbeginningonG#minor.

Chang’E’sreplyleadstheactionforwardintothenextmovementwithan

unresolvedleadingphrase(C#min/A)overafinallowC#inthebass.

57

FIGURE20 Chang’EandtheMoon,No.19

58

&

&?

43

4343

44

4444

MP

Pno.

13 Œ œ œ œ œN œ3 3

Can you hear them my

13 !˙ ˙

œ œ œ œ œla dy? They are

!.˙

.œ œ œ œ# U̇so close.

!wU

-

&

?

&?

SA

TB

Pno.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

16 Œ œ# œ# œ .œ œAh!

œ# ˙

Œ œ# œ# œ .œ œAh!

œ# ˙

16 Ó Œ œœ##

!

Tempo I q = 70

Tempo I q = 70

F

OFFSTAGE CHORUS OF HUMANS

$.˙ .˙ Œ

.˙ .˙ Œ

ww#

!

&

&?

CE

Pno.

#

18 ‰ Jœ# œ œ ‰ . rœ# œ .œI hear them. Be lov ed,

18 !!

FCHANG'E

Slower

Slower

(to HOU YI)

CHANG'E and HOU YI exit followed by all the servants. The stage darkens.

‰ œ# œ œ œ œ# œ œ ŒU3

we must go to the tem ple.

!Œ .˙#

Up

- - -

89

© 2015 R Fox All Rights Reserved

SECOND QUARTER

59

5. OUTCOMES AND CONCLUSION

Thewritingofmyfirstoperawastheculminationofalongprocessofdevelopment.

Itemergedfromaninterestinvocalmusicwhichbeganearlyandhasspannedmy

entirecompositionaloutputtodate.Inspiteofthis,Chang’EandtheMoon

representsamajorleapforwardformeintechnique,styleandstamina,andit

exposedimportantgapsinmyknowledge.Iwasextremelyfortunatetobeableto

workwithmanytalentedstudentsfromtheDepartmentofOperaStudiesatthe

SydneyConservatoriumofMusic,withwhomIpresentedthework’spremiere

performance.Thisone-on-oneworkallowedmetocometoagreater

understandingaboutthechallengesofwritingforvoice,withundoubtedinfluence

uponmyfuturecompositionsforthemedium.

5.1 ON WRITING FOR VOICE

Chang’EandtheMoonallowedmetodevelopamoresophisticatedvocalwriting

technique.Iamparticularlystruckbytheuniquenessofvocalperformanceasa

resultofthepsychologicalimplicationsofsingershavingtheirinstrumentinternal

tothemselvesThisallowedmetosettleonnotationconventionswhichwere

perhapsmorereflectiveofthewayinwhichsingersactuallyapproachtheirmusic,

andindirectcontrasttosomecontemporaryusagewhichpreferstotreatthevoice

asjustanotherinstrument.Oneexampleofthiswasmydecisiontolimitexcessive

phrasingandarticulationmarkings,andalsotoofferfewerdynamicmarkings.In

partthisisareflectionofoldertrendsinhistoricalvocalcomposition,inwhichthe

60

nuancesofthetextwerereliedupontocreatethecorrectguideforphrasing.53In

addition,therelativelylimiteddynamicrangeofthehumanvoicecomparedwith

otherinstruments(particularlythevoicewhichmustprojectoveranorchestra),

meansthatacomposerneedstoapproachvocaldynamicsmuchlessfromthe

standpointofdecibelsproduced,andmorefromanawarenessoftheexpressive

qualitiessuchdynamicswillsuggesttotheperformer.

Similarly,aftersomefalsestartsandvariedattempts,Ireturnedtotheolder

modelsfortheexpressionoftempi,andreliedlessontheuseofmetronome

markings.Schubert,MendelssohnandBrahmsallhadanambivalentattitudeto

metronomemarkingsintheirvocalmusic,preferringmooddescriptors.54Thewell-

knownItaliantempomarkings(Adagio,Andanteandsoon)seemtomestillbest

suitedbytheirubiquityforadequatelyandquicklytransmittingthenuancesof

bothmoodandspeedthatatempomarkingrequires,andacomparable‘universal’

traditiondoesnotyetexistinEnglish.

DuringtheperformanceperiodofChang’EandtheMoon,Iformedtheopinionthat

thetitleroleofChang’Ewasexcessivelychallengingduetoatooconsistentlyhigh

tessitura.Thesopranowhoplayedthisrolereportedduringproductionthather

lowerrangehadgrownalittlerustyfromoveruseofherhighregister.Anyvocal

partrequiresagreatervarietyofplacementandregularmovementthroughoutthe

rangeifoneistonottaxtheperformertoogreatlyoveratwo-hourperformance.

Unfortunately,Idisregardedthisknowledgepartlythroughamistaken

53MarthaElliott,SinginginStyle:AGuidetoVocalPerformancePractices(NewHavenandLondon:YaleUniversityPress,2006),169.54Ibid.,188.

61

preconceptionabouthowIthoughtthecharacterneededtosound,andpartly

throughmisjudgingthemosteffectivesopranorangefortransmittingthedrama.

Oneoftheresultsofthismaybethattheroleitselfwillsittrulywellwithonlya

muchsmallernumberofprofessionalsopranosthanmightotherwisebethecase.

Therolewillsuitatruelyricwiththerightcombinationofahighpassagioand

enoughdramaticstaminaforsustainedhighsinging.Ifeltduringproduction,and

stillfeel,thatthislimitationmuststand,asitcouldnotbeeasilyrectifiedwitha

verylargerewrite,beingtooconsistentlyapartofChang’E’scharacterisation.

Nevertheless,theexperiencehascreatedadeeperunderstandingofthesubtleties

inwritinganoperaticrolereallywell,andIhopethiswillbereflectedinmyfuture

attemptsatthegenre.

5.2 RECEPTION AND FUTURE

Chang’EandtheMoonwaswellreceivedatitspremiereconcertperformanceon28

February2016attheSydneyConservatorium.Theoperawassubsequently

presentedwiththesamecastandorchestraovertwonightsinafullystagedand

costumedproductioninmylocalBlueMountainscommunity(Figure21).Both

performancesweresoldout,withtheworkbeingfavourablyreviewed.The

reviewer,JohnShand,concludedthatChang’EandtheMoon“notonlydeservesbut

demandstobeairedagain”.55Iconsidertheseverysuccessfuloutcomesandthey

bodewellforfuturepresentationsofthework,asfromtheoutsetithasbeenmy

intentiontocreateaworkwiththepotentialtocontributetotheprofessional

Australianoperaticrepertoire.

55JohnShand,"MusicandOtherSpheres-Chang'eandtheMoon,"http://www.johnshand.com.au/change-and-the-moon/.

62

Iwillcontinuewiththismedium,andothersrelated;inparticular,Iwanttoturn

myfocustowardsotherlarge-scalenarrativeformsforsoloandchoralforces,such

asthecantata.ThesuccessesandlessonsofChang’EandtheMoonwillstaywithme

andbebuiltupon,withtheresultthatmyfuturecompositionwillcontinueto

evolve.

FIGURE21 Chang’EandtheMooninits

firststagedperformanceatWentworthFalls,1and2April2016.Performers:(fromlefttoright)MichaellaYeZhangasMotherPearl,JuliePaikasNightingale,andAimeeO’NeillasChang’E.

63

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CHANG’E AND THE MOON