Chandler Killing and letting die

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Killing and letting diePutting the debate in contextJohn Chandler aa The University of Adelaide,

To cite this Article Chandler, John(1990) 'Killing and letting diePutting the debate in context', Australasian Journal ofPhilosophy, 68: 4, 420 431

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Australasian Journal o f PhilosophyVol . 68 , No. 4 : De cem ber 1990

K I L L I N G A N D L E T T I N G D I E - - P U T T I N G T H E D E B A T E I NC O N T E X T

J o h n C h a n d l e rT h e d e b a t e o n t h e m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e c o m m o n s e n s e d i s ti n c ti o n b e t w e e nk i ll i n g a n d l e t t in g d i e c o n t i n u e s , w i t h fe w s i g n s o f c o n s e n s u s e m e r g i n g . T h e r er e m a i n m a n y , b o t h p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d l a y p e o p l e , w h o b e l i e v e t h a t , o t h e rt h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l , i t i s w o r s e t o k i l l s o m e o n e t h a n t o l e t t h e m d i e . T h e r eis p r o b a b l y a g r e a t e r n u m b e r w h o d e n y t h is . I t is o n l y w i t h i n t h e l a s t t w e n t yy e a r s t h a t a l i t e r a t u r e d e v o t e d t o t h e t o p i c i n i t s o w n r i g h t h a s e m e r g e d . ~B e f o r e th e n , d i sc u s s io n s t e n d e d t o b e a n c i l l a ry t o th e e l a b o r a t i o n o f l a r g e re t h i c a l t h e o r i e s . I w i l l a r g u e t h a t t h a t i s w h e r e t h e y b e l o n g .

U n t i l r e c e n t l y b o t h s id e s h a v e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e d i s ti n c t io n b e t w e e n k i ll in ga n d l e t t i n g d i e is a n i n s t a n c e o f t h a t b e t w e e n a c t s a n d o m i s si o n s . I d o n o tb e l i e v e t h a t t h i s i s t h e c a s e : t h e r e a r e t w o d i s t i n c t i o n s h e r e , n o t o n e . I w i l la ls o c o n s i d e r th e r e l a t io n o f M i c h a e l T o o l e y ' s 'm o r a l s y m m e t r y p r in c i p l e'a n d t h e d i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e n i n t e n d e d a n d f o r e s e e n e f f e c t s t o t h e s e d i st in c t io n s .I w il l a r g u e f u r t h e r t h a t a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s w i d e r m o r a l b e l i e f s r a t h e r t h a n ,o r a s w e l l a s , l i n g u i s t i c o r c a u s a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , p a r t l y d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e ra p a r t i c u l a r d e a t h i s c l a s s i fi e d a s a k i l li n g , a l e t t i n g d i e , o r n e i t h e r . ( I a r g u et h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n i s n o t a n e x c l u s i v e o n e . ) M y c o n c e r n i s n o t t o a r g u ed i r e c t l y f o r o r a g a i n s t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f su c h d i s t i n c ti o n s , b u t t o s h o w t h a tw h a t , i f a n y , s i g n i fi c a n c e t h e y p o s s e s s in t h e m s e l v e s c a n n o t b e d e c i d e d i ni s o l a ti o n f r o m d e c i d i n g o n o n e ' s w i d e r e t h i c a l t h e o r y , a n d t h a t i t is t h e r e f o r eq u e s t i o n - b e g g i n g t o u s e a v i e w o n t h e i r s ig n i f i c a n c e as a p r e m i s e i n a r g u m e n t sa g a i n s t r i v a l m o r a l t h e o r i e s o r i n d e f e n c e o f o n e ' s o w n . D i s c u s s io n f r e q u e n t l yp r o c e e d s f r o m c o m p a r i s o n o f c a se s o f k i ll in g a n d l e tt in g d i e w h i c h a r e c l a i m e dt o b e s i m i l a r i n o t h e r r e sp e c t s . A p p e a l i s t h e n m a d e t o t h e r e a d e r ' s i n t u i t io n sa s t o w h e t h e r t h e r e is , o r i s n o t, a m o r a l d i f f e re n c e . I f v i e w s o n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c eo f th e d i s t in c t i o n a r e a p r o d u c t o f p ri o r m o r a l v i e w s , su c h a n a p p e a l w i llm e r e l y c h a r t t h e se d e e p e r d i s a g r e e m e n t s .

II b e g i n w i t h a n e x a m p l e . M i c h a e l T o o l e y c l a i m s t h a t a so n w h o a d m i n i s t e rsp o i s o n t o h i s f a t h e r i n o r d e r t o i n h e r i t h i s p r o p e r t y k i l l s h i s f a t h e r , a n dt h a t t h i s a c t i o n i s m o r a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o a n o t h e r s o n l e t t i n g t h e f a t h e r d i e

Jonathan Bennett, Wh atever the C onsequences',Analysis, 26 (196 6) seems to ha ve firstestablished it a s a sepa rate issue.

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J o h n C h a n d & r 421b y i n t e n t i o n a l l y r e f r a i n i n g f r o m a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e a n t i d o t e h e h a p p e n s t oh a v e , b e c a u s e h e t o o w a n t s t h e f a t h e r d e a d . 2 K i l l in g i s d o i n g s o m e t h i n gw h i c h c a u s e s a d e a t h . I t in v o l v e s i n t e r v e n i n g i n t h e w o r l d i n s u c h a w a ya s t o p r o d u c e a d e a t h w h i c h w o u l d o t h e r w i s e n o t h a v e o c c u r r e d , o r n o ta t t h a t t i m e .

A l l o w i n g , o r l e tt in g s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n i n v o lv e s th e t h o u g h t o f a s e q u e n c eo f e v e n t s in d e p e n d e n t l y i n p r o g r e s s w h i c h w i ll r e s ul t in a n o u t c o m e , s u c ha s a d e a th , t h e r e b e i n g s o m e t h i n g a p e r s o n c o u l d d o t o p r e v e n t t h a t o u t c o m e ,a n d t h e i r v o l u n t a r i l y r e f r a i n i n g f r o m d o i n g t h a t t h i n g . T h i s p r e s u p p o s e s b e l i e f sa b o u t w h a t i s a s e q u e n c e , a n d w h a t i s t h e n o r m a l o r n a t u r a l r e s u l t o f c a u s a lp r o c es s e s . W h a t p e o p l e c a ll t h e c a u s e o f a n e v e n t is o n l y o n e f a c t o r s e l e c te df r o m t h e t o t a l s e t o f a n t e c e d e n t c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h t o g e t h e r p r o d u c e d t h ee v e n t t o b e e x p l a i n e d . W h i c h f a c t o r is s e l e c te d d e p e n d s l a r g e l y o n p r a c t ic a lc o n s i d e ra t io n s , w h i c h m a y i n c lu d e m o r a l a i m s .

W h e r e a s k i l li n g is t h e c a u s e o f d e a t h , l e t t in g d i e i s o f t e n d e n i e d t o b et h e c a u s e o f d e a t h , w h i c h i s r e g a r d e d a s l y i n g o u t s i d e t h e a g e n t . T h i s v i e wc a n n o t b e s u s t a in e d i f v o l u n t a r y o m i ss i o n s c a n b e c a u s e s . H o w e v e r i n s o m ec a s e s t h e y c l e a r ly c a n b e c a u se s . E q u a l l y c l e a r l y m a n y o m i s s i o n s o r i n a c t io n sa r e n ' t c a u s e s . T o a s s e r t i n d i v i d u a l c a u s a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y r e q u i r e s m o r e t h a nt h e tr u t h o f th e c o u n t e r f a c t u a l th a t , h a d t h a t p e r s o n a c t e d i n a w a y w h i c hw a s o p e n t o t h e m , s o m e t h i n g w o u l d n o t h a v e h a p p e n e d . W h e n p e o p l e s t a rv et o d e a t h i n T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s, f o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a r e i n d e fi n it e ly m a n yp e o p l e w h o a r e in s o m e d e g r e e a w a r e o f t h e s it u a ti o n , c o u l d h a v e h e l p e d ,a n d f a i l to . T h e s e p e o p l e c a n ' t a l l b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s a m e d e a t h s ; ina n y c a s e d e a t h s a r e o n l y o n e s o r t o f e vi l p e o p l e f a i l t o p r e v e n t . W h e n t h e na r e o m i s s i o n s c a u s e s ?

O n a w i d e l y a c c e p t e d a c c o u n t , o m i s s i o n s a r e c o u n t e d a s c a u s e s w h e nt h e o m i s s i o n i s a d e v i a t i o n f r o m n o r m a l o r r e q u i r e d b e h a v i o u r f o r t h o s ei n t h a t s i t ua ti o n. 3 O n e c a n o n l y s p e a k o f a n o m i s s i o n b y r e f e r e n c e t o s o m es t a n d a r d o f c o n d u c t ; o t h e rw i s e e v e r y o n e c o m m i t s i n d e f in i t e ly m a n y o m i s si o n se v e r y m o m e n t . T h i s s t a n d a r d i s o f t e n a m o r a l o n e ; b u t i n m a n y c a s e s t h ed u t i e s a t t a c h e d t o s o c i a l r o l e s a n d o c c u p a t i o n s s e r v e a s a n i m p l i e d n o r m .B u t t h e s t a n d a r d c a n n o t b e m e r e l y w h a t i s c u s t o m a r y o r a c c e p t e d . T h i sw o u l d h a v e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t in a s o c i e ty w h e r e p e o p l e w e r e n e v e re x p e c t e d t o p r o v i d e a s s is t a n ce t o n o n - m e m b e r s o f t h e ir f a m i li e s, y o u w o u l db e i n n o w a y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d r o w n i n g o f s o m e o n e y o u a l o n e c o u l dh a v e s a v e d a t m i n i m a l c o s t - - s a y b y t h r o w i n g t h e m a li fe b u o y . T h i s isu n a c c e p t a b l e . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o c r i t i c i s e c u s t o m a r y n o r m s , a n d t h u s a s s e r tt h a t p e o p l e d o h a v e s o m e s u c h r e s p o n s i b il i ty . T h i s d i f f i c u l t y i s r e m o v e db y a s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t t h e n o r m , d e v i a t i o n f r o m w h i c h c o u n t s a s a n o m i s s i o nw h i c h i s a ca u s e , is o n e t o w h i c h t h e p e r s o n m a k i n g t h e j u d g e m e n t s u b sc r ib e s ,

2 M ichael Tooley, An Irrelevant Consideration: Killing Versus Letting D ie' in B. Steinbock,(ed.) Killing an d Letting Die, Englew ood Cliffs, N. J.: Pren tice H all, 197 9.3 H. L. A. Ha rt, & A. M. Honor6, Causation in the Law, Lon don: Oxford University Press,1959, w as influential in establishing this view.

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422 Killing and Letting Die--Putting the Debate in Co ntextn o t u n r e a s o n a b l y .4 T h i s e n t a i l s t h a t d i f f e re n c e s o v e r p e o p l e ' s m o r a l o r s o c i a lr e sp o n s i b i l i t i e s w i l l r e su l t i n d i s a g r e e m e n t s o v e r c a u sa l r e sp o n s i b i l i t y f o ro m i s s io n s . A l l o w i n g s , I s u g g e s t , a re b e s t r e g a r d e d a s o m i s s io n s f o r w h i c ha p e r so n is h e l d c a u s a l l y ( a n d m o r a l l y ) r e sp o n s i b le . Th u s t o a s se r t t h a t Aa l l o w e d X t o h a p p e n s a y s m o r e t h a n t h a t X h a p p e n e d , a n d t h a t i t w a sw i t h i n A ' s p o w e r ( a n d k n o w l e d g e ) t o h a v e p r e v e n t e d t h i s . I t a s s e r t s t h a tA i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r X h a v i n g h a p p e n e d , a c c o r d i n g t o a s t a n d a r d t h e m a k e ro f t h e j u d g e m e n t a c c e p t s ( n o t u n r e a s o n a b ly ) . E v e n w h e n o n e i s h e l dr e s p o n s i b l e f o r a h a r m f u l o m i s s i o n , h o w e v e r , o n e m a y n o t b e b l a m e d . I ft h e o n l y w a y o n e c o u l d h a v e p r e v e n t e d t h e h a r m i n v o l v e d t h e v i o l a t i o no f m o r e s t r i n g e n t re sp o n s i b i l i ti e s o r d u t i e s , e .g . t o o n e ' s c h i l d r e n , o r d i n a r ym o r a l i t y w o u l d a b s o l v e o n e f r o m b l a m e ( t h o u g h n o t e v e r y m o r a l t h e o r yw o u l d ) .

O u r m o r a l b e l ie f s a b o u t w h a t d u t ie s a r e p o s s e s se d b y p e o p l e i n p a r t i c u l a rs i t u a t i o n s , a n d o t h e r p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t s , t h e r e f o r e d e t e r m i n e i n p a r t w h i c hv o l u n t a r y o m i s s i o n s w e c o u n t a s a l l o w i n g s a n d w h i c h a s ' m e r e ' o m i s s i o n s .M o s t p e o p l e d o b e l i e v e w e h a v e sp e c i a l r e sp o n s i b i l i t i e s t o o u r o w n c h i l d r e n .S o i f I f a il t o f e e d m i n e a n d t h e y d i e , I h a v e a l l o w e d t h e m t o d i e ( p e rh a p se v e n k i l l e d t h e m , a s w e ' l l s e e ) . S i n c e m o s t p e o p l e d o n o t b e l i e v e p e o p l ei n r i c h c o u n t r i e s h a v e a n o b l i g a t i o n t o m a k e l a r g e s a c r i f i c e s t o f e e d o rc l o th e h u n g r y p e o p l e i n th e T h i r d W o r l d , m o s t d o n o t r e g a r d f a i lu r e toa i d t h e m a s a l l o w i n g t h e m t o d i e , o r s e e f a m i n e d e a t h s a s t h e i r re sp o n s i b i li t y .

U t i l i t a r i a n i s m d i f f e r s f r o m o r d i n a r y m o r a l i t y i n h o l d i n g t h a t o u rf u n d a m e n t a l o b l i g a t i o n i s t o p r o d u c e t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e n e t g o o d i n t h ew o r l d a s a w h o l e . F r o m t h is p e r s p ec t iv e , i t c a n b e s a id t h a t w e l l - o f f p e o p l ed o a l l o w f a m i n e v i c t i m s t o s t a rv e , g iv e n t h a t t h e y k n o w o f t h e i r p l i g h t a n dc o u l d p r e v e n t i t - - p r o v i d e d t h i s w e r e t h e o p t i m i f i c u s e o f t h e i r r e s o u r c e s .I f t h e y c o u l d d o m o r e g o o d b y a c t in g d i f fe r e n t l y h o w e v e r , t h e i r in a c t i o nt o w a r d s f a m i n e v i c ti m s w o u l d n o t m a k e t h e m r e sp o n s ib l e f o r a ll o w i n g t h e mt o d ie . T h e u t il it a ri a n r e q u i r e m e n t o f m a x i m u m g o o d p r o d u c t i o n s e r v e s tod i s ti n g u i s h a l l o w i n g s f r o m ' m e r e ' o m i s s i o n s , j u s t a s d o o t h e r m o r a l o u t l o o k si n t h e i r o w n w a y s . ( U t i l i t a r i a n i s m d o e s s o i n a w a y t h a t i m p l i e s t h a t o n ei s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l s u b - o p t i m a l o m i s s i o n s , n o t o n l y ' d e v i a n t ' o n e s , a n dt h u s e n o r m o u s l y e n l a r g e s t h e s p h e r e o f d u t y . )

W i t h o u t i m p l i c i t a p p e a l s t o v i e w s a b o u t w h a t o n e o u g h t t o d o , a l l o w i n g sc a n n o t b e d i s t in g u i s h e d f r o m m e r e i n a ct io n . It f o l lo w s th a t t h e d i s t in c t i o nb e t w e e n k i ll in g a n d l e t ti n g d i e is n o t e x h a u s ti v e . T h e r e a r e d e a t h s o n e c o u l dh a v e p r e v e n t e d , b u t w h i c h a r e n e i t h e r k i ll i n g s n o r l e t t in g s - d i e .B o t h t h e f a c t o r s m e n t i o n e d - - i d e a s a b o u t w h a t i s a c a u s a l s e q u e n c e a n da b o u t d u t i e s - - a r e i n v o lv e d i n j u d g e m e n t s a b o u t 'p a s si v e e u t h a n a s i a ' i n am e d i c a l c o n t e x t . M o s t b e l i e v e t h e r e i s a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n d o c t o ra n d p a t i e n t w h i c h is th e g r o u n d f o r d u ti e s o f c a r e d o c t o r s h a v e t o w a r d s4 M oral realists w ill prefer 'subscribes correc tly' to the w eak er and poten tially relativistic'subscribes not unreasonably',whichexcludesonlyerrors of fact and reasoning. n the absenceofgenerallyaccepted wa ysof establishing he correctnessof basic moralbeliefs, he differenceis minim al.

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John Chandler 423thei r pat ients , beyond whatever general obl igat ions people have. Thus wejudge some wi th-hold ings of t r ea tment as a l lowings for which doc tors a reresponsible . And which par t icular dut ies are thought to be imposed by thedoctor-pat ient re la t ion depends in par t on what doctors a t that t ime andplace customari ly are expected to do for thei r pat ients- - i .e . , on a not ionof norm al pract ice w hich, however , is open to moral assessment . There arejust i f ied a l lowings, and these are s t i l l , on my account , (par t ) causes . Onem ay ap prove of non- t reatm ent for cer ta in defect ive neonates , yet s ti ll regardthe non- t r eatm ent as responsible for thei r deaths . M ost o f those who approveof non- t rea tment be l i eve there i s a prima-facie obl igat ion on doctors topreserve the l ives of a l l thei r pat ients , which turns this omiss ion into ana l lowing . Whethe r an a l lowing is jus t if i ed how ever depends no t on a prima-facie but an overal l judg em ent o f ob l iga tion .

What counts as the normal or expected course of events i s of ten unclear ;and people have di f ferent bel iefs as to what i s moral ly required. They wi l lconsequent ly d i sagree about what they count as a l lowing . Rightwingl iber tar ians disagree w i th egal i tarians about the ex is tence of general w elfarer ights , for example. As a resul t they disagree about whether the weal thyare moral ly responsible for poor housing or high infant mortal i ty in dis-adv antag ed groups. 5 I t w ould b e c i rcular to a t tem pt to sett le suchdisagreem ents by referenc e to wh at individuals are causal ly responsible for ;views on this are par t o f the same pac kage.

IIOne can ki l l in tent ional ly or unintent ional ly . The moral ly important not ionis that of intent ional ki l l ing. This too means di f ferent things to holders ofdi f ferent moral theories .

Not only can on e ki l l in tent ional ly , one ca n al low so me one to dieintent ional ly . The son w ho refrains f rom giving his fa the r the ant idote becau se he w ants his proper ty intent ional ly le ts him die. This dis t inguishes him fromthe person wh o re f ra ins f rom dona t ing to fam ine re l i e f in tha t the formerdesi res the death he could prevent , whi le the la t ter presumably does not(he jus t do esn ' t care v ery much) . Are both intent iona l a l lowings? They arenot , accord ing to the n arrow sense of ' in tent ional ' associated w i th the doctrineof double effect . This sense contras ts intended and me rely foreseen outcom esof voluntary act ions or refra inings . In this sense, what i s intended must bedesi red as end or means. This i s t rue of the fa ther 's death. What i s doneis chosen under the descr ipt ion 'br inging about a death ' and this outcomeis what makes this opt ion at t ract ive. Merely foreseeing that a death wi l loccur as an unavoidable outcome of an act ion di rected at another , good,end, i s to be contras ted wi th this . The doctr ine of double effect holds thatunder cer ta in condi t ions i t i s permissable to act in a way which wi l l fore-seeably resul t in a (non-moral) evi l such as a death, even though i t i s never5 E. Mack, 'Bad Samaritanism and the Causation of Harm', Philosophy and Public Affairs,

9 (1980).

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42 4 Killing an d Letting D ie--P utting the Debate in Contextp e r m i s si b le t o m a k e t h e d e a t h o f an i n n o c e n t p e r s o n o n e ' s g o a l o r a m e a n st o o n e ' s g o a l s . ( T h e d i s t i n c ti o n b e t w e e n d i r e c t a n d i n d i r e c t k i ll in g i s d e f i n e di n s i m i l a r t e r m s . )

S i n c e t h e i n t e n d e d - f o r e s e e n d i s t i n c t i o n a p p l i e s w i t h i n b o t h k i l l i n g a n dl e t ti n g d i e i t w o u l d s e e m t o f o l l o w t h a t , if i n t e n t i o n a l k i l l in g i s a b s o l u t e l yf o r b i d d e n , s o t o o s h o u l d i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e t t i n g d i e . T h i s d o e s n o t a p p e a r t ob e t h e p o s i t i o n o f d e f e n d e r s o f th e d o c t r i n e . T h e a b s o l u t is t p r o h i b i t i o n o ni n t e n ti o n a l k i ll in g i s, h o w e v e r , l o g i c al l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f a c o m m i t m e n t t ot h e m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i n t e n d i n g - f o r e s e e i n g d is t in c t i o n . O n e c o u l dh o l d t h a t i t r e q u i r e s s t r o n g e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n t o i n t e n t i o n a l l y k i ll t h a n t o c a u s ea f o r e s e e n d e a t h , o t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l , w i t h o u t r e g a r d i n g t h e f o r m e ra s a b s o l u t e l y i m p e r m i s s i b l e . ( T h o u g h w i t h o u t t h e a b s o l u t i s m , t h e r e w o u l db e le s s u r g e n c y f o r a m o r a l t h e o r y to m a k e s u c h a d i st i n c ti o n . )

U t i l i t a r ia n s r e g a r d t h e i n t e n d e d - f o r e s e e n d i s t i n c t i o n a s o f n o i n t r in s i cs i g n i f i c a n c e in a s s e s si n g t h e r i g h t n e s s o f a c ti o n s , t h o u g h r e l e v a n t t o a g e n ta s s e s sm e n t . C o n s e q u e n t l y , u t i li t a ri a n s e m p l o y a w i d e s e n s e o f ' i n t e n d e d ' i nw h i c h o n e i n te n d s a ll t h e f o r e s e e a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f o n e ' s a c ti o n s a n di n t e n t i o n a l a l lo w i n g s , n o t o n l y t h o s e w h i c h a r e o n e ' s e n d s o r m e a n s .

H e l g a K u h s e p o i n t s o u t t h a t E n g l i s h l a w e m p l o y s t h i s w i d e s e n s e o f' in t e n t i o n a l '. I n l a w a n a g e n t i s t r e a t e d a s b o t h c a u s a l l y a n d l e g a l l y r e s p o n s i b l ef o r a l l th e r e a s o n a b l y f o r e s e e a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f h i s a c t io n s . 6 S h e a d v o c a t e st h e u s e o f th i s w i d e s e n s e f o r m o r a l p u r p o s e s a s w e l l, o n t h e g r o u n d s o ft h e ' c l o s e li n k b e t w e e n t h o s e t h i n g s w e d o i n t e n t i o n a l l y a n d o u r r e sp o n s i b i l it ya s a g e n t s f o r t h o s e t h in g s w e v o l u n t a r i l y a n d d e l i b e r a t e l y b r i n g a b o u t ' ( p . 2 7 )w h e t h e r w e d e s ir e t h e m o r n o t. T h i s h o w e v e r r u n s t o g e t h e r tw o t y p e s o fq u e s t i o n .

A s S u z a n n e U n i a c k e p o i n t s o u t , t h e d o c t r in e o f d o u b l e e f f e c t is n o tc o n c e r n e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t e f f e c ts a g e n t s a r e r e s p o n s ib l e f o r, b u t w h e na c t i o n s w h i c h w i ll h a v e a b a d e f f e c t a r e p e r m i s si b l e . 7 I t w o u l d b e a b s u r dt o a l l o w a g e n t s t o d e n y r e s p o n s i b i li t y f o r u n w a n t e d s i d e - e f f e c t s o f t h e i ra c t iv i ti e s. B u t t o r e g a r d i t a s r e l e v a n t t o t h e r ig h t n e s s o f a c t i o n w h e t h e rc e r t a i n e f f e c t s a r e i n t e n d e d o r m e r e l y f o r e s e e n d o e s n o t e n t a i l t h i s . A t l e a s ts o m e C a t h o l i c d e f e n d e r s o f th e d o c t r i n e d o r e g a r d a n a g e n t a s r e s p o n si b lef o r b o t h k i n d s o f e f f e c t ( a n d h e n c e a s r e sp o n s i b le f o r t h e d e a t h o f th e f o e t u sin t h e n o t o r io u s c a s e o f th e r e m o v a l o f t h e c a n c e r o u s w o m b ) . T h e i r c o n c e r ni s w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n , w h e n i s i t p e r m i s s i b l e t o p e r f o r m a n a c t i o n w h i c h ,i n a c h i e v in g a g o o d e n d , w il l a l so c a u s e d e a t h ? T h e y b e l i e v e t h a t it m a k e sa d i f f e r e n c e to t h is q u e s t io n w h e t h e r t h e d e a t h i s in t e n d e d o r m e r e l y f o r e s e e n .I t is n o t c l e a r w h a t r a t i o n a l e d e f e n d e r s o f t h e d o c t r i n e c a n g i v e t o t h o s ew h o f a il to s e e t h e m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th i s d i f f e r e n c e . ( S o m e p o s s i b il it i esa r e c a n v a s s e d i n s e c t i o n V . ) B u t i t i s b e c a u s e t h e y d o b e l i e v e t h i s , I c l a i m ,

6 H. K uhse, 'A M odern M yth: That Letting Die is not the Intentional Causation of De ath',Journal of Ap plied Philosophy, 1 (1984 ), p. 26. Th is is true co ncerning harm ful effects ofillegal actions; it is less clea r that this is so in oth er cases.7 Suzanne Uniacke, The Doctrine of D ouble Effect' ,The Thomist,48 (1984), p. 213.

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John Chandler 425that they opt for the narrow sense of ' in tent ional ' which does not run thesenot ions together .

Kuhse bel ieves , by contras t , that there is no int r ins ic moral di f ferencebetween intending and foreseeing evi ls . I t seems clear that this bel ief i swhat account for her pre fe rence for the wide sense of ' i n ten t iona l ' . Whyma ke unne cessary dis t inct ions? An d this bel ief i s par t of ut i l i tar ianism. Sincefor the uti l i tarian al l that is relevant to the r ightness of an action is thene t va lue of i t s ou tcome, i t cannot mat te r whether par t s o f tha t ou tcomewere desi red or merely foreseen. Here then is another disagreement overhow dis t inct ions are to be drawn and concepts def ined, where each par tyis mo t ivated by pr ior m oral beliefs . I t wi ll be f ruit less to deb ate which u sageis preferable for moral purposes in isolat ion f rom these pr ior bel iefs , andquest ion-beg ging to assu me o ne usage in defence of those bel iefs.

IIIWhat individuals regard as a ki l l ing as opposed to a le t t ing die i s a lsoinf luenc ed by m oral bel iefs . Na ncy D avis argues tha t the dis t inct ion betw eendoing (act ively causing) and al lowing is not an exclusive one; that 'so met im esal lowing /s (or i s sa id to be). doing or causing, tha t som et imes a l lowingto die /s killing.8 She argues this wi th an example (der ived f rom Phi l ippaFoot) of a man who al lows his chi ldren to s tarve to death. Foot uses thisexam ple to show that so me t imes an al lowing is as bad as a doing: we w ouldjudg e h i s a l lowing them to s ta rve to be jus t as w rong as i f he h ad smotheredthem. But , as Davis points out , Foot cal ls this a case of murder , and onthe assumption that to murder i s to ki l l , th is i s both an al lowing and adoing, a le t t ing die and a ki l l ing. Thus 'one can be said to do somethingby a l lowing and to ac t by om i t ting ' and tha t contra Foot , the do ing/a l lowingand act ing/omit t ing dis t inct ions over lap. (p . 192) . Most important ly for mypurposes, she adds:

I suspect that the dis t inction betw een do ing and al lowing wi l l break dow nin those cases where roughly the same mora l jud gem en t a t t aches to thea l lowi ng as t o t he d o i n g . . . I f ou r d is ti nct ion be tween do i ng and a l lowi ngis s trongly in f luenced by our be l ie f s about what ough t to be done or aboutwh o ou ght to do i t , then we can hardly expect to appeal to the dis tinct ionbe tween doing and a l lowing (or do ing and mere a l lowing) to d e fe n d aview about the re la t ive s t r ingency of di f ferent obl igat ions to do a nd al low(p. 192).I f people have cons iderab le l a t i tude in what they may count as k i l l ing

as opposed to le t t ing die , they are l ikely to descr ibe those cases th ey (a l ready)jud ge mo ral ly worse as ki l l ings whe rever possible . There is evidence in supportof this hypothesis . M an y people have di f f iculty in deciding w hethe r a do ctorwho turns off the l i fe-support system of a pat ient she jud ges to have nohope of a worthwhi le l i fe ki l l s the pat ient or le ts him die . Those who see8 N ancy Davis, 'The Priority of Avoiding Harm ' in B. Steinbock, op. cit., p. 191.

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426 Kil l ing an d Let ting D ie--P utt ing the Debate in C ontextn o r e q u i r e m e n t t o s u s t a i n s u c h l i v e s a r e r e l u c t a n t to c a l l th i s k i l l in g e v e nt h o u g h a n a c ti o n o r b o d i l y m o v e m e n t i s r e q u i re d t o t u r n o f f t h e m a c h i n e .C o n v e r s e l y , a d o c t o r w h o r e f r a i n s f r o m c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e m a c h i n e a p a t i e n tw h o n e e d s s u p p o r t f o r a l i m i t e d p e r io d i n o r d e r to b e r e s t o r e d t o n e a r n o r m a ll if e w o u l d b e a c c u s e d o f k i l l in g t h e p a t ie n t , b e c a u s e t h is i s j u d g e dre p re h e n s i b l e .

O n e w o u l d a l s o e x p e c t d i s a g r e e m e n t s a b o u t t h e s a n c t i t y o f li f e o r t h ed u t ie s o f d o c t o r s t o b e r e f l e c t e d i n d i s a g r e e m e n t s o v e r w h i c h c a s e s a r e k i ll in g s ,w h i c h a r e l e t t i n g s - d i e , a n d w h i c h a r e n e i t h e r . I b e l i e v e t h e K a r e n Q u i n l a nc a s e i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s . S h e w a s o n a r e s p i r a t o r , a n d p e rm i s s i o n w a s s o u g h tf o r h e r d i s c o n n e c t io n . A l l c o n c e r n e d a g r e e d t h a t s h e w a s i r r e v e rs i b ly c o m a t o s ed u e t o b r a i n d a m a g e , a n d i t w a s t h o u g h t t h a t d i s c o n n e c t i o n w o u l d r e s u l ti n d e a t h - - i t d i d n ' t. T h e l o w e r c o u r t j u d g e r e f u s e d t o a u t h o r is e d i s c o n n e c t i o nb e c a u s e t h e j u d g e h e l d a c t i o n i n t e n d e d t o r e s u lt in d e a t h t o b e h o m i c i d e ,i . e . k i l l i n g . O n a p p e a l , a h i g h e r c o u r t r e v e r s e d t h i s r u l i n g , h o l d i n g t h a td i s c o n n e c t i o n ' w o u l d n o t b e h o m i c i d e , b u t r a t h e r e x p i r a t i o n f r o m e x i s t i n gn a t u r a l c a u s e s ' - - t h a t i t a m o u n t e d t o a l lo w i n g h e r to d i e.9 T h e s e c o n d j u d g ec l e a r l y b e l i e v e d q u a l i t y o f l i f e c o n s i d e ra t i o n s t o b e r e l e v a n t t o t h e d e c i s i o n ,w h i l e th e s e s e e m t o h a v e b e e n e x c l u d e d b y t h e fit-st o n e . T h e i r d i s a g r e e m e n to v e r h o w t o c l a s s if y d i s c o n n e c t i o n is n o t a n e m p i r i c a l o n e . It a r is e s f r o mm o r a l d i s a g r e e m e n t s w h i c h w o u l d r e m a i n e v e n w e r e a l l t o a g r e e t h a t i ni t s e lf k i ll in g i s w o r s e t h a n l e t ti n g d i e. W h a t w a s a t i s su e i n d e e d w a s p a r t i a ll yo b s c u r e d b y b o t h p a r ti e s ' b e l i e f t h a t a n a n s w e r to t h e m o r a l a n d l e g a l q u e s ti o n sd e p e n d e d o n f i rs t c l a s s i f y in g d i s c o n n e c t i o n a s k i l li n g o r a l l o w i n g t o d i e - -r a t h e r t h a n v i c e v er s a.

L i k e P h i li p p a F o o t , D o n L o c k e a r g u e s t h a t t h e d is t in c t i o n b e t w e e n k i ll in ga n d l e t t in g d ie is n o t t h a t b e t w e e n a c t a n d o m i s s i o n , i n t h e s e n s e o f m o v i n gv e r s u s n o t m o v i n g , b u t o n e b e t w e e n p r o d u c i n g ( o r c a u s i n g ) a n d a l lo w i n g . ~L o c k e c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e s t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o k i l l s o m e o n e b y n o t d o i n gs o m e t h i n g , e . g . b y f a i l i n g t o f e e d t h e m , a n d t o l e t s o m e o n e d i e t h r o u g hy o u r a c ti o n s (p . 4 6 4 ) . H o w e v e r , h e h a s n o t s h o w n t h a t th e d i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e na c t i n g a n d o m i t t i n g d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h a t b e t w e e n p r o d u c i n g a n da l lo w i n g . O n e c a n c a u s e s o m e o n e ' s d e a t h ( k il l t h e m ) b y f a i l i n g t o f e e d t h e m ,a n d o n e c a n a l l o w s o m e o n e t o d i e b y d o i n g s o m e t h i n g : e . g . d i s c o n n e c t i n gK a r e n Q u i n l an .

IVI w i s h n e x t to e x a m i n e M i c h a e l T o o l e y ' s ' m o r a l s y m m e t r y pr in c ip l e'. H ea t t e m p t s t o a r g u e f o r t h e t r u t h o f t h is p r in c i p le i n o r d e r t o d e f e n d c o n t r o v e r s i a lp o s i ti o n s c o n c e r n i n g a b o r t io n . I f m y t h e s is i s c o r r e c t h e c a n d o t h is o n l yw i t h t h e t a c i t a i d o f a n t e c e d e n t m o r a l p r e m i s s e s . T h e f u l l e s t a c c o u n t o ft h e p r i n c i p l e h e h a s g i v e n i s a s fo l lo w s :9 Q u o t e d i n S t e i n b o c k , o p . c i t . , p . 7 . T h i s is a m i s t a k e i n m y v i e w . A l l o w i n g s a r e o m i s s i o n s

w h i c h w e d o t r e a t a s c a u s e s .l0 D o n L o c k e , ' T h e C h o i c e B e t w e e n L i v e s ', P h i l o s o p h y , 5 7 ( 1 9 8 2 ) .

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John Chandler 427L e t C b e a n y t y p e o f c a u s a l p r o c e ss w h e r e t h e r e is s o m e t y p e o f o c c u r r e n c e ,E , s u c h t h a t p r o c e s se s o f ty p e C w o u l d p o s s e s s n o i n tr in s i c m o r a ls i g n i f i c a n c e w e r e i t n o t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y r e s u l t i n o c c u r r e n c e s o ft y p e E .T h e n :T h e c h a r a c t e r is t i c o f b e i n g a n a c t o f i n t e rv e n i n g i n a p r o c e s s o f t y p eC t h a t p r e v en t s th e o c c u r r e n c e o f a n o u t c o m e o f t y p e E m a k e s a n a c t io ni n t r in s i c a l l y w r o n g t o p r e c i s e l y t h e s a m e d e g r e e a s d o e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i co f b e i n g a n a c t o f e n s u ri n g t h a t a c a u s a l p r o c e s s o f ty p e C , w h i c h i tw a s i n o n e ' s p o w e r t o i n i t ia t e , d o e s n o t g e t i n i t i a te d . 11T o o l e y b e l ie v e s t h i s e q u i v a l e n c e h o l d s e v e n w h e n t h e p r o c e s s is in i t ia t e d

b y o t h e r s, a s is i n d i c a t e d b y h i s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c a s e o f th e s o n s w h o w a n tt o p o i so n t h e i r f a t h e r . H e u se s t h i s p r i n c i p l e t o a r g u e t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o no f p o t e n t i a l p e r so n s ( a b o r t i o n ) i s pr ima fac ie n o m o r e s e r i o u s l y w r o n g t h a ni n t e n t i o n a l l y r e f r a i n i n g f r o m b r i n g i n g a p o t e n t i a l p e r so n i n t o e x is t e n c e . H ed e n i e s t h a t t h i s is a c o n se q u e n t i a l i s t p r in c i p l e . O n t h e c o n t r a r y i t i s c o m p a t i b l ew i t h t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e r i g h t n e s s o f a c ti o n s is n o t r e d u c i b l e t o t h e g o o d n e s so f t h e i r r e su lt s (p . 2 1 2 ) . I t is c r u c ia l f o r t h e p o s i t i o n I d e f e n d t h a t t h i s p r in c i p l ec a n b e s h o w n n o t t o b e n e u t r a l b e t w e e n c o n s e q u e n t i a l i s m a n d d e o n t o l o g y ,i f i t i s t o g e n e r a t e t h e r e su l t s To o l e y w a n t s .T o o l e y d e n i e s t h a t t o s e c u r e t h e e q u i v a l e n c e o f a b o r t i o n a n d r e f r a i n i n gf r o m c o n c e i v i n g , h e h a s a s s u m e d t h a t i t i s n o t i n t r in s i c a ll y w r o n g t o k i llp o t e n t i a l p e r so n s . T h e p r in c i p le d o e s n o t i m p l y t h a t n o p a r t o f th e p r o c e s so t h e r t h a n o u t c o m e E i s i n t r in s i c a l l y s i g n i f ic a n t ; o n l y t h a t , i f t h e p r o c e s sw e r e n o t c a u s a l l y re l a t e d t o s u c h a n o u t c o m e ( i f f o e t u s e s n e v e r d e v e l o p e di n t o p e r so n s ) , i t w o u l d h a v e n o i n t r i n s i c s i g n i f i c a n c e . ( O n e m i g h t a sk h o wt h e i n t r i n s i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s o m e t h i n g c a n d e p e n d o n i t s c a u s a l r e l a t i o nt o a n o t h e r t h i n g . )

T o o l e y h o w e v e r m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e s t ru c t u re o f t h e a r g u m e n t is th is :A s s u m e t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t io n o f p o t e n t ia l p e r s o n s i s i n t r in s i c a ll y w r o n g ,a n d s e r i o u s l y so . I n v i e w o f t h e m o r a l sy m m e t r y p r in c i p l e , i t f o l l o w s t h a tr e f r a i n i n g f r o m c o n c e p t i o n i s a l so i n t r i n s i c a l l y w r o n g , a n d s e r i o u s l y so .B u t t h i s c l a i m i s u n a c c e p t a b l e . S o w e m u s t r e j e c t t h e c l a i m t h a t t h ed e s t r u c t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l p e r so n s i s i n t r in s i c a l l y w r o n g (p . 2 0 0 ) .

A l l t h a t f o l l o w s in l o g i c i s t h a t e i t h e r it is f a l s e th a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f p o t e n t i a lp e r so n s i s i n t r i n s i c a l ly w r o n g , o r t h a t t h e m o r a l sy m m e t r y p r i n c i p l e i s f a ls e .T o o l e y s a y s o f th e P r i nc ip l e: ' T h e m o r a l s y m m e t r y p r i n c ip l e s a y s o n l y th a ti f c a u s i n g s o m e t h i n g t o h a p p e n i s i n t r in s i c a l l y w r o n g , so is a l l o w i n g it toh a p p e n , a n d t o t h e s a m e d e g r e e ' ( p . 2 1 2 ) .

T h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e p r i n c ip l e i s d if f ic u l t t o s q u a r e w i t h T o o l e y ' s a p p l i c a ti o no f it t o h i s c e n t ra l c a s e o f a b o r ti o n . W h a t d o e s v o l u n t a r i l y re f r a i n i n g fr o mc o n c e p t i o n a l l o w t o h a p p e n ? T h e p a r a l l e l t o c a u s i n g t h e d e s t r u c t io n o f a

t t M i c h a e l T o o l e y , A b o r t i o n a n d I n fa n tic id e , O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 8 3 , p . 1 8 6 .

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428 Kil ling an d Let ting D ie--P utt ing the Debate in Co ntextp o t e n t i a l p e r so n i s su r e l y a l l o w i n g a p o t e n t i a l p e r so n t o d i e , w h i c h p r i m af a c i e i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m r e f r a i n i n g f r o m c o n c e i v i n g a p o t e n t i a l p e r so n .

W h a t i s c e n t r a l t o a l l o w i n g i s t he i d e a o f a c a u s a l s e q u e n c e a l r e a d y i nt r a i n , w h i c h i n n o r m a l c a s e s w i l l h a v e a c e r t a i n o u t c o m e , w h i c h o n e c o u l dp r e v e n t , b u t r e f r a in s f r o m d o i n g so . Th e r e i s i n d e e d a s e n se i n w h i c h r e f r a i n i n gf r o m c o n c e i v i n g i s a n a c t i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n a n e x i s t i n g s e q u e n c e t o e n su r et h a t a c a u sa l p r o c e s s d o e s n o t g e t i n i t i a t e d . Th i s i s w h e r e a f e r t i l e c o u p l ee n g a g e i n s e x a n d t a k e c o n t r a c e p t i v e p r e c a u t i o n s ( b u t n o t w h e n t h e y r e fr a inf r o m se x) . H e r e t h e c a u sa l p r o c e s s i s s e x u a l i n t e rc o u r se , o f w h i c h c o n c e p t i o ni s a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s s i b l e o u t c o m e . A b o r t i o n , h o w e v e r is a n i n t e r v e n t i o n ina d i f f e r e n t c a u s a l p r o c e s s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a f e r t il is e d e g g . T h e m o r a lsy m m e t r y p r in c i p l e a s se r t s t h e e q u i v a l e n c e o f f a i l i n g t o i n it i a te , a n di n t e r v e n i n g i n , t h e s a m e c a u s a l p r o c e s s C , w i t h a n o u t c o m e E . A r e t h e r et w o c a u s a l p r o c e s s e s h e r e, o r o n l y o n e ? I f w e d e c i d e t h e r e a r e t w o , T o o l e y ' sp r i n c ip l e is i n a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e c a se . W h a t o n e s a y s h e re , h o w e v e r d e p e n d si n p a r t o n o n e ' s p r i o r m o r a l b e l i e f s a n d o t h e r p r a c t i c a l c o n c e r n s . Th o sew h o s e e n o t h i n g i m m o r a l i n t a k i n g s t e p s t o p r e v e n t i n t e r c o u r s e r e s u l t i n gi n c o n c e p t i o n w i l l d e n y t h a t c o n c e p t i o n i s t h e n o r m a l o r n a t u r a l o u t c o m eo f e a c h s e x u a l a c t. F e w s e e t h e o n l y m o r a l s i g n i f ic a n c e o f s e x u a l in t e r c o u r s ea s it s c a u s a l r e l a t i o n t o c o n c e p t i o n : so m e sp e a k o f i ts ' u n i t i v e s i g n i f ic a n c e ' ,o t h e r s o f t h e p l e a su r e i n v o l v e d . S o m e se e f e r ti l i z a t io n a s a m o r a l l y s i g n i f i c a n te v e n t . Th e se p e o p l e a r e u n l i k e l y to b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s a s in g l e c a u sa lp r o c e s s s t a r t i n g w i t h i n t e r c o u r s e w h i c h w o u l d h a v e n o m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c ew e r e i t n o t fo r th e f a c t t h a t a p e r so n i s ( so m e t i m e s ) t h e o u t c o m e .

A t l e a s t i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s t h e r e f o r e , t h e ' s e l e c t i o n o f p a i rs o f c a se s t ow h i c h t h e m o r a l s y m m e t r y p r in c i p le i s t o b e a p p l i e d r eq u i re s j u d g e m e n t sa s t o w h a t c o u n t s a s a c a u sa l s e q u e n c e w h i c h r e s t o n m o r a l b e l i e f s .

I f r e f r a i n i n g f r o m c o n c e i v i n g i s g i v e n a w i d e r s e n se , i n w h i c h c e l i b a t e sa r e a l s o s a i d to v o l u n t a r i ly r e f r a in f r o m c o n c e i v i n g , t h is b e c o m e s a ' m e r e 'o m i s s i o n , a n d n o t a n a l l o w i n g i n t h e s e n se o f re f r a i n in g f r o m i n t e rf e r in gi n a n y o n g o i n g s e q u e n c e . E v e n t h e c e l i b a t e m a y v i o l a t e t h e ' t o t a l v i e w 'f o r m o f u t i l i t a r i a n i s m , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e r e i s a p r i m a f a c ie o b l i g a t i o nt o p r o d u c e a d d i t i o n a l p e o p l e a s l o n g a s t h i s i n c r e a s e s t h e t o t a l a m o u n t o fh a p p i n e s s i n t h e w o r d . ~2 F o r su c h a p o s i t i o n f a i l u r e t o c o n c e i v e m a y w e l lb e m o r a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f a p o t e n t i a l p e r so n . B u t t h e t o t a lv i e w i s n o t a n e u t r a l p r i n c i p le .

I h a v e n o t s o u g h t t o s h o w t h e f a ls i ty o f th e m o r a l s y m m e t r y p ri n ci p le .R a t h e r , I h a v e t r i e d t o s h o w t h a t , a t l e a s t s o m e t i m e s , c a s e s t o w h i c h t h ep r in c i p le c a n p r o p e r l y b e a p p l i e d c a n o n l y b e i d e n t i f ie d b y r e f e r e n c e t oi n d e p e n d e n t m o r a l b e l i ef s a n d e x p e c t a t io n s .

VI h a v e a r g u e d t h a t n o t o n l y c a n t h e m o r a l s i g n i f ic a n c e o f th e s e d i s t in c t i o n sn o t b e d e t e r m i n e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f b r o a d e r m o r a l c o n s i d e r a t io n s , b u t t h a tt h e w a y p e o p l e d r a w t h e m r e fl e c ts , i n p ar t, b r o a d e r m o r a l o u t l o o k s . I n e e d12 Pete r Singer,Practical Ethics,Cam bridge: Cam bridge UniversityPress 197 9, p. 87.

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J o h n C h a n d l e r 4 29t h e n t o c o n s i d e r h o w t h e se d i s ti n ct io n s m i g h t b e e m b e d d e d in d i f f e re n t m o r a lt h e o r i e s .

U t i l i ta r i a n s m u s t d e n y t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t r in s ic m o r a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e nk i ll in g a n d l e t t in g d i e , a c t s a n d o m i s si o n s , et c .; d e o n t o l o g i s t s a n d d e f e n d e r so f n a tu r a l l a w e t h i c s m u s t m a i n t a i n t h a t s o m e o f th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s d o m a k ea n i n t r in s i c m o r a l d i f f e r e n c e .

A n ( a c t ) c o n s e q u e n t i a l i s t h o l d s t h a t a g e n t s s h o u l d p r o d u c e t h e b e s t p o ss i b les ta t e o f a f f ai rs , i m p e r s o n a l l y r e c k o n e d . I f t h e o u t c o m e o f a n a c t io n h a st h e s a m e t o t a l v a l u e a s a n o m i s si o n , h e o r s h e w o u l d r e c o g n i s e n o d i f f e r e n c ei n r e s p e c t o f ri g h t n e ss . F o r a u t i l it a ri a n , m o d e s o f a c t i o n i n t h e m s e l v e s a p a r tf r o m t h e i r r e s u lt s o r e x p e c t e d r e s u lt s c a n n o t b e j u d g e d m o r a l l y a t a l l, i nr e s p e c t o f ri g ht n es s. T h e w a y a g i v e n n e t g o o d w a s p r o d u c e d c a n p o s s es sn o i n tr in s i c s i g n i fi c a n c e : w h e t h e r t h e g o o d r e s u lt s f r o m a n a c t o r a n o m i s si o n ,w a s i n t e n d e d o r f o r e s e e n . T h i s r u n s c o u n t e r t o s t r o n g i n t u i t i o n s i n m a n yc a s es . U t i l i ta r i a n s c a n e x p l a i n t h e o r i g i n o f t h e s e i n t u i t io n s b y p o i n t i n g o u tt h a t o t h e r d i st i n c ti o n s w h i c h c a n b e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n o u t c o m e st e n d t o b e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a c t s a n d o m i s s i o n s , e t c . :f o r e x a m p l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n ty p i c a l m o t i v a t i o n , b u r d e n o n t h e a g e n t , p r o b a b i l i t yo f th e o u t c o m e . ( I t i s n 't e a s y i n fa c t t o f i n d re a l i st i c e x a m p l e s w h i c h d i f f e ro n l y a s to a c t a n d o m i s s i o n . )

A . K . S e n h o l d s t h a t c o n s e q u e n t i a l is t s c a n a l l o w t h a t m o d e s o f a c t in g ,a c t i n g w i t h c e r t a i n i n te n t i o n s, t h e re s p e c t i n g o f r i g h ts , o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c eo f c e r t a i n s o rt s o f r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a g e n t a n d r e c i p i e n t h a v e i n t ri n s ic v alu e.1 3T h e y c a n t h e n i n c l u d e t h e s e v a l u e s, a s w e l l a s h a r m s a n d b e n e f i ts , i n t h e i rc a l c u l a t i o n s . T h e r i g h t a c t i o n w i l l s t i l l b e t h a t w h i c h m a x i m i s e s v a l u e . O n e' r e s u lt ' o f m y b r e a k i n g a p r o m i s e , e .g ., is th a t a p r o m i s e i s b r o k e n , a n dt h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s c a n b e h e l d t o h a v e d i s v a l u e i n i t s e l f . S o m e t i m e s t h ei n tr in s i c d i sv a l u e o r e v il o f t h e a c t i o n w h i c h i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o d u c e a b e n e f i tw i ll o u t w e i g h t h e g o o d o f t h e b en e f it , a n d m a k e t h e a c t i o n w r o n g o n b a l a n c e ,e v e n t h o u g h i n t h e n a r r o w u t i li t ar i a n s e n s e i t i s r i g h t. B u t s u f f i c ie n t l y g r e a tb e n e f i t s w i ll o u t w e i g h t h e i n tr in s ic e v i l o f t h e a c t i o n n e e d e d t o p r o d u c et h e m ( e v i l m e a n s ) a n d m a k e t h a t a c t i o n r i g h t . S e n c a l l s t h i s p o s i t i o n b r o a dc o n s e q u e n t i a l i s m i n c o n t r a s t t o n a r r o w c o n s e q u e n t i a l i s m , o r u t i l i t a r i a n i s m .T h i s p o s i t i o n c o n c e d e s t o t h e d e o n t o l o g i s t t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t r i n s i c m o r a ld i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m o d e s o f a c t in g i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e ir c o n s e q u e n c e si n t e r m s o f h a r m s a n d b e n e f i ts , a l b e i t i n a w a y w h i c h a v o i d s a b s o l u t i s mc o n c e r n i n g i n t r in s i c a l ly b a d a c ts , w h i c h t o m e i s a p lu s .

D e o n t o l o g i s t s a n d d e f e n d e r s o f n a t u ra l l a w e t h i c s, a s I sa i d, m a i n t a i nt h a t s o m e o f t h e s e d i s ti n c t io n s d o h a v e i n tr in s ic s i g n i f i c a n c e . I f I a m c o r r e c t ,e a c h m o r a l t h e o r y g r o u n d s a u n i q u e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s e d i s ti n c ti o n s. 14

13 A. K. Sen , 'Ev aluation R elativity and Co nseque ntial Ev aluation ', Philosophy and PublicAffairs, 12 (198 3), p. 130.14 Any action adm its o f m ore than one true d escription,depending on how m uch of its circum-stances and conseq uence s are subsumed under its de scription. It wo uld be relev.ant to thethesis of this pap er to inqu ire wh ether consequen tialists and deon tologists systematicallydiffer in the way t he y dra w the act/consequenc e distinction, and if so how this reflectstheir respective moral theories.

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4 3 0 Ki lling an d Le t t ing Die - -P ut t ing the Deb ate in C ontex tU n l es s t h e c h o i ce o f t h eo r y , an d w i t h i t a p a r t i cu l a r v i ew o n t h e d i s t in c t i o n s ,i s t o b e a r b i t r a r y o r r e s t u l t i m a t e l y o n i n t u i t io n s , e ac h f ace s t h e t a sk o fg i v i n g a p l au s i b l e r a t i o n a l e f o r i t s u n d e r s t an d i n g o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s . T h i sis a m o r e d i f fi c u lt t a s k f o r d e o n t o l o g is t s . W h y s h o u l d i t m a t t e r w h e t h e ro n e p r o d u c e s r a t h e r t h a n a l l o w s a n e v il , i f t h e r e ' s n o d i f f e r e n c e in t h e r e s u lt ?W h y s h o u ld i t m a t t e r w h e t h e r t h e d e a t h o f a f o e tu s w a s i n t e n d e d o r m e r e l yf o r e s e e n ? I t ' s d e a d e i t h e r w a y , a n d e i t h e r w a y t h e d o c t o r i s c a u s a l l yr e sp o n s ib l e . A s S a m u e l S c h e f f l e r p o i n t s o u t , th e r e i s a v e r y ap p ea l i n g r a t i o n a l ef o r c o n s e q u e n t i a l is m , a n d w i t h i t, it s w a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s e d i s ti n c ti o n s ,i n te r m s o f a ' c o n c e p t i o n o f ra t i o n a l it y t h a t w a s n o t i n v e n t e d b yco n seq u en t i a l i s ts , b u t r a t h e r o ccu p i e s a s ecu r e p l ace i n p r ac t i c a l d e l i b e r a t i o nm o r e g en e r a l l y ' , 15 i.e ., t h a t o n e sh o u l d m i n i m i se ev i l an d m ax i m i se g o o di n t h e w o r l d a s a w h o l e . B u t it h a s p r o v ed d i f f icu l t t o d i s co v e r an eq u a l l yc o m p e l l in g r a t i o n a l e f o r d e o n t o l o g i c a l r e s tr ic t io n s .

D eo n t o l o g i ca l r e s t r i c t i o n s p o s se s s t h e pr ima fac ie i r r a t i o n a l f ea t u r e t h a tt h e y fo r b i d a n a g e n t v i o la t i n g a r e s tr ic t io n e v e n w h e n t h is w o u l d p r e v e n tm o r e , o r w o r se , su ch v i o l a t i o n s b y o t h e r s . I f c e r ta i n ac t s a r e so o b j ec t i o n a b l e ,s h o u l d n ' t w e t r y t o m i n i m i s e t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e ? ~6 F a i l u r e t o d i s c o v e r a r a t i o n a l ef o r t h is f e a t u r e w o u l d b e d a m a g i n g f o r t h e d e o n t o lo g i s t .

A t t e m p t s t o p r o v i d e s u c h a r a ti o n a l e h a v e b e e n m a d e . T . M . S c a n l o n a r g u e st h a t a r a t i o n a l e w i l l n o t b e f o u n d w i t h i n a n a p p r o a c h w h i c h b e g i n s f r o mw h a t h a p p e n s , f r o m t h e v a l u e o f s t at e s o f a ff a ir s , b u t o n l y w i t h i n a n ' a g e n t -c e n t re d m o r a l it y fo c u s s e d o n w h a t y o u do . '17 T h o m a s N a g e l d e v e l o p s t h i sn o t io n . H e a r g u e s t h a t t h e p r i n c ip l e o f d o u b l e e f f e c t is a n e x p r e s s io n o ft h e c l a i m s o f t h e p e r s o n a l p e r s p e c ti v e o f th e a g e n t , w h i l e c o n s e q u e n t i a li s me x p r es s e s t h e c l a i m s o f a n i m p e r s o n a l p o i n t o f v i ew . ~8 F r o m t h e p e r s o n a lp e r s p e c t i v e w h a t m a t t e r s i s t h a t o n e ' s o w n a c t i o n s h o u l d n o t b e g u i d e db y ev i l ; t h i s i s t h e ca se w h en t h e ev i l i s i n t en d ed b u t n o t w h en i t i s m e r e l yf o re s e e n . W h a t e v e r i ts m e r i ts a s a d e f e n c e o f th e i n t e n d e d - f o r e s e e n d i s t in c t io n ,a n d o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f w h a t I d o a s o p p o s e d t o t h e e v il a c t io n s o f o th e r s ,t h i s d o e s n o t s e e m t o p r o v i d e a r a t i o n a l e f o r m o r a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g w h a to n e d o e s a n d w h a t o n e i n t e n t i o n a l l y a l l o w s : a l l o w i n g a n e v i l w o u l d a p p e a rt o b e b e i n g g u i d e d b y e v i l , i f o n e r e f r a i n s f r o m i n t e r v e n t i o n i n o r d e r t h a tt h e e v il m a y o c c u r.

J o h n M a c k i e g i v e s a v e r y d i ff e r e n t g a m e - t h e o r e t i c a l r a t i o n a l e f o r th ed o c t r i n e o f d o u b l e e f fe c t . 19 I f m o r a l i t y i s r e g a r d e d a s a c o m p e t i t iv e g a m ei n w h i c h a l l t h e p l a y e r s h a v e l i m i t e d s y m p a t h i e s , i t m i g h t b e r a t i o n a l f o rt h e m t o a g r e e o n a d i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e n i n t e n d e d a n d m e r e l y f o r e s e e n e vi ls ,a n d i m p o s e a n a b s o l u t e b a n o n t h e f o r m e r , s i n c e t h i s w o u l d r e m o v e t h et e m p t a t i o n f o r s o m e p l a y e rs to a t t e m p t m o r a l b l a c k m a i l , a s th e y t h e n k n o w~s S. Scheffier , (ed.) Con sequentialism an d its Critics, O x fo rd : O x fo rd U n iv e r s i t y P re s s , 1 9 8 8 ,

p. 13.16 S. Scheffier, The Rejection of Consequentialism, O x fo rd : O x fo rd U n iv e r s i t y P re s s , 1 9 8 2 , p . 8 2 .17 Ibid., p. 109.1~ T. Nagel, The View ro m N owhere, N e w Y o rk : O x fo rd U n iv e r s i t y P re s s , 1 9 8 6 , c h . 9 .~9 j . L. Mackie, Ethics, H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1 9 7 7 , p p . 1 5 9 - 1 6 8 .

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John Chandler 431t h e r e a r e s o m e t h i n g s n o p l a y e r w i l l a g r e e t o . I c a n n o t p u r s u e t h e s e a r c hf o r a r a t io n a l e f u r t h e r ; b u t i t a p p e a r s a m o r e p r o m i s i n g a v e n u e t h a n c o n t i n u e dd i r e ct c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n t h e d i s ti n c ti o n s t h e m s e l v e s.

I h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o r e t u rn t h e d i s c u s si o n o f a n u m b e r o f m o r a l d i s ti n c ti o n st o w h a t I r e g a r d a s t h e i r p r o p e r c o n t e x t , a s a s p e c t s o f w i d e r e t h i c a l th e o r ie s .I f s u c h d i s t in c t io n s c a n n o t b e a p p e a l e d t o w i t h o u t c i r c u la r i ty i n d e f e n c eo f e t h ic a l t h e o ri e s , t h e i m p a s s e b e t w e e n e t h i c a l t h e o r i e s w h i c h c u r r e n t l yo b t a i n w o u l d a p p e a r a l l t h e m o r e i n t r a c t a b l e . T h i s n e e d n o t b e t h e c a s e .T h e j u s t i f ic a t i o n o f th e o r i e s i n e t h ic s , a s e l s e w h e r e , i s n o t a m a t t e r o f f i n d i n ga f o u n d a t i o n u p o n w h i c h a l l e l s e d e p e n d s , b u t r a t h e r i n v o l v e s a p r o c e s so f m o v i n g f r o m t e n t a t i v e p r in c i p le s t o j u d g e m e n t s o n p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s a n dv i c e - v e r s a , t e s t i n g e a c h a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r i n a n a t t e m p t t o p r o d u c e m a x i m a lc o h e r e n c e . 20 H o w m o r a l t h e o ri e s d e a l w i t h c a s e s i n c l u d e s th e w a y t h e y d e p l o ysu c h d i s t i n c t i o n s , a n d d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e i r t r e a t m e n t o f c a se s w i l l r e a c tu p o n t h e t h e o r y it se lf . T h u s m a n y p e o p l e a r e r e p e l le d b y n a t u r a l l a w e t h ic sb e c a u s e t h e y f i n d c e r t a in u s e s o f th e d o c t r in e o f d o u b l e e f f e c t s o p h is ti c al .S i n c e n o t h e o r y is p r o b l e m - f r e e , o n e ' s f i n a l c h o i c e w i l l i n v o l v e a c o m p a r i s o no f r iv a l t h e o r ie s a s w h o l e s ; a n d o n e o f t h e t h i n g s w h i c h i n c l i n e s u s to w a r d so r a w a y f r o m t h e o r ie s i s th e w a y t h e y u s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e s e d i s ti n ct io n s .The Universi ty o f Adelaide R e c e i v e d F e b r u a r y 1 9 89

20 Cf . Norm an Danie ls , 'W ide Ref lec t ive Equi l ib r ium and T heory A cce ptan ce in Eth ics , TheJournal of Philosophy,76 (1979).

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