Research Methods

Problem Definition &Theoretical Framework

Problem Discovery and DefinitionFirst stepProblem, opportunity, or monitor operationsDiscovery before definitionProblem means management problem

PROBLEM DEFINITION (applied research)Problem : Situation where gap exists b/w actual and the desired ideal state Any undesired situationWell-defined problem is half solved symptoms are not the real problems.From interview & literature review researcher is in the position to narrow down the problem & define it more precisely from broad base. Problem should be unambiguously stated to conduct further research. Not necessarily it is situation that requires immediate solution.

The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its solution.

Albert Einstein

Problem Definition

The indication of a specific business decision area that will be clarified by answering some research questions.

Defining Problem Results inClear Cut Research ObjectivesExploratoryResearch(Optional)Symptom Detection

*Determine the Relevant VariableAnything that may assume different numerical values.A variable is any thing that can take different values. Eg. Age, Income, Death rate etc there are 05 types of variables .

Types of VariablesDependentIndependentModeratingInterveningExtraneous

Types of Variables

Dependent Variable-DV-(Criterion Variable): It is the basic issue of interest. The real problem to be solved and the core area of research. Goal of researcher is to predict and explain variability in dependent variable The Outcomes of a Research StudyDepends on the experimental treatmentEg Sales, employees turnover, Age etc

Types of VariablesIndependent IV- (Predictor Variable): It is the variable that influences the dependent variable in either positive or negative way. When independent variable is present the dependent variable is also present. And with each unit change there is change in dependent variable. Treatments or conditions under control of the researcherLevelsat least two different values of the IV must be present

Example: Success of new product depends on advertising campaign.

dependent Variable Independent variable

Types of VariablesModerating Variable-MV: People also call it second independent variable. A variable that has a strong contingent (compounding) effect on the Dependent--Independent relationship. That is; presence of third variable (moderating) modifies the originally expected relationship b/w independent & dependent variableIf we assume that students performance is dependent on the amount of effort they exert, and teaching competence of instructor has also an effect then :Skilled Teacher (MV)

Types of VariablesIntervening Variable: The factor that theoretically affects the observed phenomenon, but cannot be seen, measured or manipulated. Its effects must be inferred from the effects of independent and moderating variables on the observed phenomenon. This Variable appears between the time independent variables operate to influence the dependent variable. Intervening variable appears as a function of independent variable (s) operating in a situation. If it is believed that diverse workforce contributes to the org effectiveness that in result increases creative synergy then:

Theoretical Framework & Hypothesis

t1---------------------t2-----------------------t3 WorkforceDiversityCreative synergyOrg. effectiveness

Types of VariablesRelationship

WorkforceDiversityIVCreative synergyIVVOrg. effectivenessDVManagerial expertiseMV

Types of VariablesExtraneous Variables: Infinite number of variables that have no or little impact on the situation can be safely ignored ( or controlled) as they have random impact. Some of these can be treated as independent or moderating variables but most of them can be ignored or excluded from the study. For example imposition of sales tax, local elections etc.However certain extraneous variable might look important and can be controlled for example nature of work in a study.

Types of VariablesIn routine office work (control extraneous), the introduction of four-day workweek (IV) will lead to improve productivity per worker per week (DV) especially among young workers (MV) by increasing job satisfaction (IVV).

Four-day workweek(IV)Job Satisfaction(IVV)Productivity(DV)Age(MV)

VARIABLESA SUMMARY

Type of VariableDefinitionOther Terms You Might SeeDependentA variable that is measured to see whether the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable had an effectOutcome variableResults variableCriterion variableIndependentA variable that is manipulated to examine its impact on a dependent variableTreatmentFactorPredictor variableExtraneousA variable that is related to the dependent variable or independent variable that is not part of the experimentThreatening variableModeratorA variable that is related to the dependent variable or independent variable and has an impact on the dependent variableInteracting variable

TheoriesTheories are nets cast to catch what we call the world: to rationalize, to explain, and to master it. We endeavor to make the mesh ever finer and finer. Karl R. Popper

Theory A set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomenon (facts).A coherent set of general propositions used as principles of explanation of the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomena.

Two Purposes Of TheoryPredictionUnderstanding

Concept (or Construct)A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a nameConstruct is a specially developed term for a particular research study. leadership, productivity, and moralegross national product, asset, and inflation Chiselers, Rate busters

PropositionStatement about concepts that may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena.

When a preposition is formulated for empirical testing it is called hypothesis.

Scientific Business Researchers Operate at Two LevelsAbstract level concepts propositionsEmpirical levelvariableshypotheses

DefinitionsAbstract level -In theory development, the level of knowledge expressing a concept that exists only as an idea or a quality apart from an object.Empirical level -Level of knowledge reflecting that which is verifiable by experience or observation.

Theory Building A Process Of Increasing AbstractionTheories Propositions Concepts Observation of objectsand events (reality ) Increasingly more abstract

Theoretical Framework.It is a logically developed, described and elaborated network of associations among variables that have been identified through interviews, observation and literature survey.

Theoretical Framework & Hypothesis

Following five basic elements/features should be found in a theoretical framework:Variables should be clearly identifiedHow related are variables with each otherDiscuss whether the relationship would be positive or negative in nature.Clear explanation that why we would expect these relations to exist.A schematic diagram of the framework so that reader can visualize the relationships.

Theoretical Framework & Hypothesis

RelationshipStudents effort (IV)Performance(Grade) (DV)Skilled Teacher(MV)

HypothesisAn unproven propositionA possible solution to a problemGuess

Hypothesis Development

Hypothesis: when a proposition (statement about concepts) is formulated for empirical testing it is called hypothesis. As a declarative statement, a hypothesis is of a tentative and conjectural in nature. It is a statement in which we assign variables to cases ( a case is an entity or thing the hypothesis talks about). (William Emory& Cooper)Logically conjectured relationship b/w two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement. Results of these tests give clues as to what could be changed in the situation to solve the problem. Using statistical tools we check our hypothesis.

Hypothesis Development

Hypothesis

Descriptive Relational

Correlation Causal

Hypothesis Development

Descriptive Hypothesis: these are statements that typically state the existence, size, form or distribution of some variable. Example; Current unemployment rate is 12% in Pakistan.orLocal governments are facing budget deficit.

Hypothesis Development

Relational Hypothesis: These are the statements that describe relationship between two or more variables with respect to some case. For example;Foreign cars are perceived by the consumers to be of better quality then the domestic cars.

Hypothesis Development

Correlational Relationship: States merely that the variables occur together in some specified manner without implying that one causes the other. We use these when we dont have sufficient evidence to claim a strong causal relationship. Eg. Are smoking, chewing tobacco and drinking related with cancer.

Hypothesis Development

Causal or Explanatory Hypothesis: In these hypotheses there is an implication that the existence of, or change in one variable (IV) causes or leads to an effect on the other variable (DV).An increase in advertising leads to sales increase.An increase in family income results in increase of disposable income.

Hypothesis DevelopmentDirectional Hypothesis:If in stating a relationship b/w two variables or comparing two groups terms such as >, 50H1:P

Hypothesis Development

Non-directional Hypothesis: these hypotheses do tell a relationship or difference between variables bur dont indicate direction as > or

Hypothesis Development

Null Hypothesis: it is the hypothesis, which is checked for possible rejection or nullification under the assumption that it is true. it states that population correlation between two variables is equal to zero or that the difference between two means is zero or some definite number. States that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables under studyHo: 1 = 2

Ho: Null hypothesis1: Theoretical average of population 12: Theoretical average of population 2

Alternative Hypothesis (the research hypothesis)Opposite of the null hypothesis; states a relationship between two variables or difference between two groups. It is researchers hypothesis.

A statement of inequality

Alternative Hypothesis (the research hypothesis)A relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables

Hypothesis Development

Type I error: Rejecting true null hypothesis when it is actually true.Type II error: Accepting H0 when H1 is true.Level of significance: of a test is the maximum probability of committing type-I error.Level of confidence: Probability of accepting true null hypothesis.

If you do not know where you are going,any road will take you there.

DIRECTIONAL VS. NONDIRECTIONAL RESEARCH HYPOTHESESNondirectional Research HypothesisGroups are different, but direction is not specifiedH1: Directional Research HypothesisGroups are different, and direction is specifiedH1: > H1: <

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESISDirectly tested during research processTo compare against Null hypothesis

ResearchInequality between variablesRefers to sampleDirectly testedStated using Roman symbols ( )ExplicitDIFFERENCES BETWEEN NULL AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESESNullEquality between variablesRefers to populationIndirectly testedStated using Greek symbols ()Implied

WHAT MAKES A GOOD HYPOTHESIS?Stated in declarative formPosits a relationship between variablesReflects theory or literatureBrief and to the pointTestable

SAMPLES AND POPULATIONSThe SAMPLE is a representative portion of a POPULATIONThe POPULATION is the entire group of interestResults from the SAMPLE should generalize to the POPULATION

SIGNIFICANCEObserved differences (PROBABLY) result from the treatment and not from chanceWhy?Influences other than the treatmentSignificance level = risk associated with not being 100% certain that Null hypothesis is incorrect

Hypothesis Development

Tests of SignificanceParametric Tests Non-Parametric Tests(More powerful as data are (nominal and ordinal data) Derived from ratio and interval scales) Chi-Square testsZ distribution Mann-Whitney Testt distribution F Test

CRITERIA FOR JUDGING A RESEARCH STUDYIs the review of previous research complete and recent?Are the problem and purpose clearly stated?Are the research hypotheses clearly stated?Is it clear how the study was conducted? Was the sample representative of the population?Are the results and discussion relevant to the statement of problem and purpose?Are the references complete and current?Do you have any criticisms of either the content or style?

**********************************